601:, with the alternation of contraction and relaxation of the circular and longitudinal muscles. To move forward, the anterior portion of the worm is extended forward by the contraction of the circular muscles, while the portion just behind this is made shorter and fatter by the contraction of longitudinal muscles. Next the anterior circular muscles relax, and a wave of circular contraction moves backwards along the worm. At the same time, the cheatae expand to grip the ground as the body shortens and are retracted as it lengthens. The steps are typically 2 to 3 cm (0.8 to 1.2 in) long and the worm moves at the rate of seven to ten steps per minute. The worm is able to reverse its direction of travel with the tail leading. Aquatic species use a similar means of locomotion to work their way through sediment and massed vegetation, but the tiny
150:
1450:
123:
474:, of oligochaetes is usually a smooth lobe or cone without sensory organs, although it is sometimes extended to form a tentacle. The remaining segments have no appendages, but they do have a small number of bristles, or chaetae. These tend to be longer in aquatic forms than in the burrowing earthworms, and can have a variety of shapes.
442:. They have a requirement for moist surroundings and the larger species create burrows that may go down several metres (yards) while young individuals and smaller species are restricted to the top few centimetres of soil. The largest numbers are found in humus-rich soils and acid soils. A few species are found in trees, among damp
453:
The majority of aquatic oligochaetes are small, slender worms, whose organs can be seen through the transparent body wall. They burrow into the sediment or live among the vegetation mostly in shallow, freshwater environments. Some are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic habitats, inhabiting
1124:
Blakemore, Robert J., Csaba Csuzdi, Masamichi T. Ito, Nobuhiro Kaneko, Maurizio G. Paoletti, Sergei E. Spiridonov, Tomoko Uchida & Beverley D. Van Praagh (2007). Megascolex (Promegascolex) mekongianus
Cognetti, 1922: its extent, ecology and allocation to Amynthas (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae).
555:
The vascular system consists of two main vessels connected by lateral vessels in each segment. Blood is carried forward in the dorsal vessel (in the upper part of the body) and back through the ventral vessel (underneath), before passing into a sinus surrounding the intestine. Some of the smaller
629:
or cocoon. However there are exceptions to this, with some polychaetes inhabiting non-marine environments and a few species of oligochaetes being marine. Development of the offspring also differs between the two subclasses. The eggs of polychaetes are deposited in the sea where they develop into
1426:
Siddall, M. E., Apakupakul, K, Burreson, E. M., Coates, K. A., Erséus, C, Gelder, S. R., Källersjö, M, & Trapido-Rosenthal, H. (2001). Validating
Livanow's Hypothesis: Molecular Data Agree that Leeches, Branchiobdellidans and Acanthobdella peledina form a Monophyletic Group of Oligochaetes.
477:
Each segment has four bundles of chaetae, with two on the underside, and the others on the sides. The bundles can contain one to 25 chaetae, and include muscles to pull them in and out of the body. This enables the worm to gain a grip on the soil or mud as it burrows into the substrate. When
687:
of
Kentucky, United States. Another species placed in the same genus was found in Herefordshire, England, but it is unclear whether these worms are in fact oligochaetes. Stephenson postulated in 1930 that the common ancestor of oligochaetes came from the primitive aquatic family
612:
as it passes through the gut, being used to plaster the tunnel walls, forming a lining. Excess material is extruded on the ground surface, forming a faecal casting. The burrow may have two entrances and several vertical and horizontal tunnels.
584:
Oligochaetes occur in every continent in the world occupying terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats. Of the 1700 known aquatic species, about 600 are marine and 100 inhabit groundwater. Aquatic oligochaetes occur in most groups, with the
567:
The nervous system consists of two ventral nerve cords, which are usually fused into a single structure, and three or four pairs of smaller nerves per body segment. Only a few aquatic oligochaetes have eyes, and even then they are only simply
513:
immediately behind the mouth cavity. In many species, the pharynx simply helps the worm suck in food, but in many aquatic species, it can be turned inside out and placed over food like a suction cup before being pulled back in.
708:
may have evolved later than the other families. Because of its ability to colonise new areas and become dominant, the
Lumbricidae has followed humans round the world and displaced many native species of earthworm.
608:
Burrowing is performed by forcing the front end of the worm into a crevice and widening the gap by body expansion. Large quantities of soil are swallowed in the process. This is mixed with
572:. Nonetheless, their skin has several individual photoreceptors, allowing the worm to sense the presence of light, and burrow away from it. Oligochaetes can taste their surroundings using
712:
An early but now outdated classification system was to divide the oligochaetes into "Megadrili", the larger terrestrial species, and "Microdili", the smaller, mostly aquatic ones.
540:
or similar structures, and simply breathe through their moist skin. The few exceptions generally have simple, filamentous gills. Excretion is through small ducts known as
621:
Whereas in general, polychaetes are marine and have separate sexes, external sperm transfer and external fertilisation, oligochaetes live on land or in fresh water, are
1170:
1617:
517:
The remainder of the digestive tract may include a crop for storage of food, and a gizzard for grinding it up, although these are not present in all species. The
1643:
576:
located in tubercles across their body, and their skin is also supplied with numerous free nerve endings that presumably contribute to their sense of touch.
1365:– 2nd Edition (2006). Eds.: N. Kaneko & M. T. Ito. COE Soil Ecology Research Group, Yokohama National University, Japan. CD-ROM Publication. Website:
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657:, in which the body breaks into two pieces after the "pregeneration" of certain anterior structures by the posterior portion. Other species undergo
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422:
Terrestrial oligochaetes are commonly known as earthworms and burrow into the soil. The four main families with large numbers of species are
403:. They range in length from less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) up to 2 to 3 metres (6.6 to 9.8 ft) in the 'giant' species such as the
1398:
485:
A number of segments in the forward part of the body are modified by the presence of numerous secretory glands. Together, they form the
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vessels are muscular, effectively forming hearts; from one to five pairs of such hearts is typical. The blood of oligochaetes contains
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1366:
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surround the intestine and the dorsal blood vessel, forming a tissue that functions in a similar fashion to the vertebrate
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1363:
A Series of
Searchable Texts on Earthworm Biodiversity, Ecology and Systematics from Various Regions of the World
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and in the debris that accumulates in leaf axils and crevices; some others make their homes in the rosettes of
1107:
1454:
649:
reproduction is common in some genera, especially among aquatic species. Members of the
Naididae reproduce
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954:
897:
792:
768:
462:; these are found largely in the tidal and shallow subtidal zones, but a few are found at abyssal depths.
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swamps, mud or the borders of water bodies. About two hundred species are marine, mostly in the families
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642:
eggs of oligochaetes do not have a larval stage and develop directly into juvenile worms in the cocoon.
509:. The digestive tract is essentially a tube running the length of the body, but has a powerful muscular
533:. Some of these cells also float freely in the body cavity, where they are referred to as "eleocytes".
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http://mail2web.com/cgi-bin/redir.asp?lid=0&newsite=https://archive.org/details/oligochaeta10mich
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Erséus, C.; Källersjö, M. (2003). "18S rDNA phylogeny of basal groups of
Clitellata (Annelida)".
1350:. Eds. A. A. & V. V. Pop. Proceedings IOTM2, Cluj University Press. Romania. Pp. 63–84.
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679:
505:
499:
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https://web.archive.org/web/20080105055856/http://bio-eco.eis.ynu.ac.jp/eng/database/earthworm/
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https://web.archive.org/web/20220120182537/http://www.annelida.net/earthworm/Octochaetidae5.pdf
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earthworms (some of which are semiaquatic or fully aquatic), and freshwater or semiterrestrial
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The Study of Trace
Fossils: A Synthesis of Principles, Problems, and Procedures in Ichnology
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includes "calciferous glands" that maintain calcium balance by excreting indigestible
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Most oligochaetes are detritus feeders, although some genera are predaceous, such as
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Blakemore, R. J. (2005). Whither
Octochaetidae? – its family status reviewed. In:
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With around 10,000 known species, the
Oligochaeta make up about half of the phylum
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With their soft bodies, earthworms do not fossilize well, though they may form
1412:, earlier accredited to the composite Microchaetidae (Annelida: Oligochaeta).
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1397:. Friedländer & Sohn, Berlin. Pp. xxix+575, figs. 1-13. Online here:
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Blakemore, R. J. (2006). Revised Key to Earthworm Families (Ch. 9). In:
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was given to a genus of segmented worms without bristles found in the
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1197:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 528–547.
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This article is about the group of worms. For the plant genus, see
609:
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482:, alternately contracting and stretching to push itself forward.
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Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).
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Plisko, J.D. (2013). A new family Tritogeniidae for the genera
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Oligochaetes are well-segmented worms and most have a spacious
379:(chaetae) or "bristles" on their outer body surfaces, and lack
645:
Reproduction among oligochaetes is mainly by sexual means but
294:
438:. Earthworms are found in all parts of the world except for
328:, which is made up of many types of aquatic and terrestrial
1292:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 432–433.
1221:
Balian, E.V.; Lévêque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (2008).
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in all but the smallest of species, which have no need of
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1322:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 30–37.
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336:. Specifically, oligochaetes comprise the terrestrial
1227:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 119.
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Movement and burrowing of earthworms is performed by
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Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 21: 346-351.
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http://www.annelida.net/earthworm/Octochaetidae5.pdf
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1429:http://research.amnh.org/~siddall/pub/livanow.pdf
605:swim by means of the cilia on their prostomia.
8:
1169:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1125:Opuscula Zoologica. 36: 19-30 (Aug. 2007)
552:, which dissolves rapidly into the water.
548:, but the aquatic forms typically secrete
121:
38:
1311:
1309:
1140:
1138:
1136:
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368:) and several interstitial marine worms.
27:Subclass of annelids including earthworms
1438:. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Pp. 978.
1316:Edwards, Clive A.; Bohlen, P.J. (1996).
1216:
1214:
1261:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
1248:
1246:
1244:
1088:
1224:Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment
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1149:. Cengage Learning. pp. 459–471.
489:, which is important in reproduction.
1395:Das Tierreich 10: Vermes, Oligochaeta
692:. The more advanced families such as
7:
1659:a6152807-8eba-440a-8dc2-791698776e02
1584:14a07904-6f9f-420b-8e0f-88438afee413
1257:An Introduction to the Invertebrates
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
634:larvae that disperse as part of the
525:into the gut. A number of yellowish
544:. Terrestrial oligochaetes secrete
25:
1348:Advances in Earthworm Taxonomy II
1319:Biology and Ecology of Earthworms
1147:Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition
1448:
1387:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2004.00146.x
266:
148:
928:Fender & McKey-Fender, 1990
856:Brinkhurst & Jamieson, 1971
775:Brinkhurst & Jamieson, 1971
375:. These worms usually have few
332:, including all of the various
321:of soft-bodied animals in the
1:
665:also occurs in some species.
1036:Erséus & Strehlow, 1986
1721:
1193:Barnes, Robert D. (1982).
866:(including Diporodrilinae
741:(including Komarekionidae
728:(including Diplocardiinae
536:Most oligochaetes have no
478:burrowing, the body moves
29:
918:(including Pontodrilinae
589:being the most speciose.
405:giant Gippsland earthworm
238:
233:
145:Scientific classification
143:
129:
120:
41:
980:(including Malabariinae
773:(including Biwadrilidae
580:Distribution and habitat
1434:Stephenson, J. (1930).
1393:Michaelsen, W. (1900).
1108:Oxford University Press
1052:Smith & Green, 1919
993:(including Benhamiinae
876:Omodeo & Rota, 1989
880:Qiu & Bouché, 1998
874:; Spermophorodrilinae
837:(including Vignysinae
669:Evolution and taxonomy
470:The first segment, or
409:Megascolides australis
1415:African Invertebrates
1253:Moore, Janet (2001).
1104:UK English Dictionary
344:forms, including the
1579:Fauna Europaea (new)
1457:at Wikimedia Commons
1195:Invertebrate Zoology
959:(including Naidinae
562:respiratory pigments
417:Amynthas mekongianus
136:Lumbricus terrestris
1286:Frey, R.W. (2012).
926:and Argilophilinae
882:; Allolobophorinae
399:(coelom) used as a
32:Oligochaeta (plant)
995:Michaelsen, 1895/7
1682:
1681:
1467:Taxon identifiers
1453:Media related to
1375:Zoologica Scripta
1329:978-0-412-56160-3
1299:978-3-642-65923-2
1272:978-0-521-77914-2
1234:978-1-4020-8259-7
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1110:. Archived from
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1137:
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1127:
1121:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1098:
1097:"Oligochaeta"
1092:
1089:
1082:
1074:
1071:
1066:
1065:Tritogeniidae
1063:
1058:
1055:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1023:
1020:Beddard, 1891
1018:
1017:Phreodrilidae
1015:
1010:
1009:Parvidrilidae
1007:
1002:
999:
989:
988:Octochaetidae
986:
978:Beddard, 1891
976:
973:
968:
965:
956:
951:
948:
943:
940:
935:
932:
914:
911:
908:McMahan, 1978
906:
903:
899:
895:
894:Lumbriculidae
892:
870:; Eiseniinae
862:
859:
854:
851:
846:
833:
830:
825:
822:
817:
814:
809:
806:
801:
798:
794:
790:
789:Enchytraeidae
787:
782:
779:
770:
766:
763:
760:Duboscq, 1902
758:
755:
750:
747:
737:
734:
724:
721:
720:
715:
713:
710:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
690:Lumbriculidae
686:
682:
681:
676:
675:trace fossils
668:
666:
664:
660:
659:fragmentation
656:
652:
648:
643:
641:
637:
633:
628:
624:
616:
614:
611:
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604:
603:Aeolosomatids
600:
592:
590:
588:
579:
577:
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571:
565:
563:
559:
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547:
543:
542:metanephridia
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501:
492:
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456:Enchytraeidae
451:
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429:
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410:
406:
402:
401:hydroskeleton
398:
390:
388:
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369:
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366:Lumbriculidae
363:
359:
358:Enchytraeidae
355:
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33:
19:
1474:
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1394:
1378:
1374:
1362:
1347:
1341:Bibliography
1318:
1288:
1281:
1256:
1223:
1194:
1146:
1120:
1112:the original
1100:
1091:
1068:Plisko, 2013
1057:Tiguassuidae
1033:Randiellidae
1028:Coates, 1986
1012:Erséus, 1999
905:Lutodrilidae
872:Omodeo, 1956
868:Bouché, 1970
844:
841:and Xaninae
839:Bouché, 1970
824:Haplotaxidae
781:Dorydrilidae
765:Criodrilidae
749:Alluroididae
739:Bouché, 1969
711:
678:
672:
644:
638:, while the
620:
617:Reproduction
607:
596:
583:
566:
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516:
504:
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484:
476:
469:
452:
421:
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370:
261:
260:
247:Lumbriculida
227:
201:
188:
134:
36:
18:Oligochaetes
1605:iNaturalist
1532:Oligochaeta
1519:Oligochaeta
1505:Oligochaeta
1499:Wikispecies
1475:Oligochaeta
1455:Oligochaeta
1421:(1): 69–92.
1076:Righi, 1995
1025:Propappidae
982:Gates, 1966
970:Righi, 1983
945:Claus, 1880
864:Claus, 1876
861:Lumbricidae
843:Diaz Cosin
803:Claus, 1880
743:Gates, 1974
726:Claus, 1880
702:Lumbricidae
680:Protoscolex
677:. The name
632:trochophore
599:peristalsis
558:haemoglobin
506:Phagodrilus
500:Agriodrilus
428:Lumbricidae
413:Mekong worm
397:body cavity
262:Oligochaeta
242:Haplotaxida
228:Oligochaeta
42:Oligochaeta
1705:Clitellata
1695:Composting
1689:Categories
1410:Michalakus
1406:Tritogenia
1083:References
916:Rosa, 1891
800:Eudrilidae
784:Cook, 1971
593:Locomotion
519:oesophagus
472:prostomium
448:bromeliads
411:) and the
385:polychaeta
362:blackworms
346:tubificids
342:microdrile
334:earthworms
224:Subclass:
218:Clitellata
208:Sedentaria
1165:cite book
1073:Tumakidae
967:Narapidae
955:Vejdovsky
898:Vejdovsky
853:Kynotidae
793:Vejdovsky
769:Vejdovsky
651:asexually
627:clitellum
487:clitellum
391:Diversity
383:, unlike
381:parapodia
354:ice worms
350:pot worms
338:megadrile
168:Kingdom:
162:Eukaryota
131:Earthworm
1700:Annelids
1545:58853855
1484:Wikidata
1354: ;
950:Naididae
716:Families
655:paratomy
636:plankton
587:Naididae
460:Naididae
373:Annelida
326:Annelida
319:subclass
182:Annelida
178:Phylum:
172:Animalia
158:Domain:
51:– recent
49:Triassic
1597:8166676
1490:Q193006
808:Exxidae
757:Almidae
550:ammonia
511:pharynx
466:Anatomy
440:deserts
317:) is a
234:Orders
214:Class:
1656:NZOR:
1558:1OLIGC
1326:
1296:
1269:
1265:–124.
1231:
1201:
1153:
1102:Lexico
957:, 1884
900:, 1884
847:, 1989
845:et al.
795:, 1879
771:, 1884
647:clonal
570:ocelli
323:phylum
1667:WoRMS
1636:68422
1618:IRMNG
1610:84842
1571:11851
640:yolky
610:mucus
538:gills
531:liver
377:setae
330:worms
202:Clade
189:Clade
1672:2036
1649:6381
1644:NCBI
1631:ITIS
1623:1213
1592:GBIF
1553:EPPO
1408:and
1324:ISBN
1294:ISBN
1267:ISBN
1229:ISBN
1199:ISBN
1171:link
1151:ISBN
704:and
546:urea
503:and
458:and
444:moss
434:and
352:and
56:PreꞒ
1540:EoL
1527:AFD
1514:ADW
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