307:
688:
66:
271:
829:
664:
256:
726:
294:
75:
769:
forts on the approach to Canton and proceeded to bombard Canton itself, but had insufficient forces to take and hold the city. On 15 December, during a riot in Canton, European commercial properties were set on fire and
Bowring appealed for military intervention. The execution of a French missionary
791:
for the expenses of the recent conflict, open a second group of ten ports to
European commerce, legalize the opium trade, and grant foreign traders and missionaries rights to travel within China. This also included China being required to bend to Western diplomatic behaviors instead of their normal
593:
advising the use of military force to resolve the dispute with the
Chinese government. A small skirmish occurred between British and Chinese warships in the Kowloon Estuary on 4 September 1839. After almost a year, the British government decided, in May 1840, to send a military expedition to impose
573:
March, emphasising the serious penalties for opium smuggling that would now apply henceforth. Lin ordered the seizure of all opium in Canton, including that held by foreign governments and trading companies (called factories), and the companies prepared to hand over a token amount to placate him.
839:
On the morning of 7 October, the French army broke into the Old Summer Palace and began to rob it. British soldiers who arrived in the afternoon also joined the robbery, and the most precious things in the Old Summer Palace were looted. All twelve bronze statues of animal heads began to be lost
820:
In
February 1860, the British and French imperialist authorities again appointed Elgin and Grotto as plenipotentiaries respectively, leading more than 15,000 British troops and about 7,000 French troops to expand the war against China. The British and French forces invaded Beijing, and the Qing
687:
641:(Amoy). The treaty also stipulated that China would pay a twenty-one million dollar payment to Britain as reparations for the destroyed opium, with six million to be paid immediately, and the rest through specified installments thereafter. Another treaty the following year gave
663:
578:, Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China, arrived 3 days after the expiry of Lin's deadline, as Chinese troops enforced a shutdown and blockade of the factories. The standoff ended after Elliot paid for all the opium on credit from the
522:
issued edicts making opium illegal in 1729, 1799, 1814, and 1831, but imports grew as smugglers and colluding officials in China sought profit. Some
American merchants entered the trade by smuggling opium from Turkey into China, including
796:", this term referring to how China lost control of many territories to its enemies after being forced into treaties which were unfair in their own regard. After a second phase of fighting which included the sack of the
2775:
507:, selling it to private merchants who transported it to China and covertly sold it on to Chinese smugglers. By 1797, the EIC was selling 4,000 chests of opium (each weighing 77 kg) to private merchants
550:
In 1834, the EIC's monopoly on
British trade with China ceased, and the opium trade burgeoned. Partly concerned with moral issues over the consumption of opium and partly with the outflow of silver, the
844:
by
British soldiers, and France refused to provide aid. The fire burned for three days and nights, razing the buildings of the Old Summer Palace to the ground and destroying nearby royal properties.
2703:
821:
emperor fled to
Chengde. The British and French forces broke into the Old Summer Palace, looted jewelry, and burned it. Among the cultural relics that were looted were the well-known
1710:
594:
reparations for the financial losses experienced by opium traders in Canton and to guarantee future security for the trade. On 21 June 1840, a
British naval force arrived off
2360:
943:
758:
408:
to grant favourable tariffs, trade concessions, reparations and territory to
Western powers. The two conflicts, along with the various treaties imposed during the
518:
qualities, but new Chinese practices of smoking opium recreationally increased demand tremendously and often led to smokers developing addictions. Successive
472:
260:
255:
1523:
The Opium War, 1840β1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early Part of the Nineteenth Century and the War by Which They Forced Her Gates Ajar
847:
As of December 2020, seven of the twelve bronze statues have been found and returned to China. The whereabouts of the remaining five are still unknown.
2330:
2811:
1933:
1703:
389:. The British government responded by sending a naval expedition to force the Chinese government to pay reparations and allow the opium trade. The
2793:
773:
Britain and France now sought greater concessions from China, including the legalization of the opium trade, expanding of the transportation of
543:. By 1833, the Chinese opium trade soared to 30,000 chests. British and American merchants sent opium to warehouses in the free-trade port of
2126:
1400:
900:
2883:
2156:
1969:
2799:
2733:
1544:
479:) and Britain's diplomatic status among Chinese officials. In the eighteenth century, China enjoyed a trade surplus with Europe, trading
1696:
749:, was appointed at Canton, determined to stamp out the opium trade, which was still technically illegal. In October 1856, he seized the
536:
2011:
1066:
2612:
1957:
1806:
582:(despite lacking official authority to make the purchase) and handed the 20,000 chests (1,300 metric tons) over to Lin, who had them
1580:
1350:
1277:
1227:
1142:
626:
1836:
982:
2829:
579:
1243:
2877:
2462:
1794:
2817:
2089:
2174:
1758:
1631:
832:
822:
378:
341:
441:
65:
2270:
2258:
2246:
2216:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2162:
2138:
998:
856:
762:
583:
333:
1085:
2528:
2198:
1740:
1720:
1603:
401:
2715:
2667:
2053:
1173:
730:
670:
35:
2252:
563:
requesting her cooperation in halting the opium trade. The letter never reached the Queen. It was later published in
828:
2276:
2204:
2144:
1993:
1681:
2534:
1921:
1848:
1764:
1157:
1107:
861:
792:
way of conducting business through a tribute system. This treaty led to the era in Chinese history known as the "
569:
as a direct appeal to the British public for their cooperation. An edict from the Daoguang Emperor followed on 18
2546:
400:
In each war, the superior military advantages enjoyed by European forces led to several easy victories over the
2787:
2600:
2432:
2420:
2390:
2132:
2023:
1824:
1818:
532:
30:
For the 1967 conflict between marooned elements of the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Kingdom of Laos, see
779:
to European colonies, opening all of China to British and French citizens and exempting foreign imports from
2751:
2685:
2522:
2486:
2372:
2288:
2264:
2222:
2095:
2083:
2065:
2005:
1999:
1800:
1782:
916:
Feige, Miron; Chris1, Jeffrey (2008). "The opium wars, opium legalization and opium consumption in China".
2727:
2336:
2318:
2312:
2035:
1903:
1788:
1770:
1688:
1455:"Health Canada has warned consumers against using Nasutra because it has been found to contain sildenafil"
409:
52:
2384:
2210:
1927:
937:
528:
429:
1987:
1854:
1655:
2781:
2570:
2516:
2444:
2366:
2354:
2150:
1909:
1830:
1366:
809:
642:
394:
312:
172:
397:
against China from 1856 to 1860, and consequently resulted in China being forced to legalise opium.
2917:
2655:
2468:
2426:
1879:
1746:
766:
694:
646:
214:
2823:
2691:
2673:
2624:
2588:
2576:
2564:
2510:
2282:
2240:
2071:
2047:
2017:
1945:
1112:
784:
496:
386:
275:
167:
1393:
Central Government Silver Treasury: Revenue, Expenditure and Inventory Statistics, ca. 1667β1899
2841:
2835:
2745:
2606:
2552:
2408:
2059:
1981:
1951:
1842:
1627:
1576:
1470:
1436:
1396:
1346:
1340:
1273:
1223:
1138:
1062:
896:
892:
797:
793:
738:
654:
610:
524:
504:
437:
421:
218:
210:
152:
88:
1058:
1052:
882:
2865:
2853:
2847:
2805:
2709:
2679:
2594:
2414:
2396:
2378:
2348:
1963:
1812:
1752:
1594:
1590:
1462:
1454:
1428:
925:
888:
841:
780:
754:
725:
720:
618:
606:
used its superior ships and guns to inflict a series of decisive defeats on Chinese forces.
552:
519:
433:
390:
284:
197:
115:
965:. Chapter 29: "South And East Asia, 1815β1914" – via Schaffer Library of Drug Policy.
2757:
2697:
2636:
2630:
2558:
2438:
2342:
2324:
1975:
788:
540:
464:
458:
370:
246:
223:
106:
84:
1897:
958:
74:
2889:
2618:
2540:
2498:
2492:
2480:
2168:
1724:
801:
770:
inspired support from France. The United States and Russia also intervened in the war.
706:
674:
614:
575:
425:
405:
374:
299:
31:
2911:
2895:
2871:
2769:
2763:
2661:
2101:
2029:
1915:
1885:
1488:
1466:
1292:
1247:
1216:
1211:
363:
1324:
2739:
2582:
2456:
2107:
2077:
1860:
622:
468:
413:
359:
2402:
1545:"The Last War of the Romantics: De Quincey, Macaulay, the First Chinese Opium War"
1621:
1570:
412:, weakened the Chinese government's authority and forced China to open specified
2859:
2504:
2300:
2234:
2041:
1891:
1676:
746:
1023:
2306:
2228:
1939:
1776:
1531:
Soldiers and Evangelicals: Britain's 1840β42 War with China, and its Aftermath
977:
929:
678:
603:
515:
476:
320:
1474:
1440:
2721:
2474:
2294:
1672:
1329:
on the website of the US-China Institute at University of Southern Carolina.
698:
565:
544:
480:
385:, which included destroying opium stocks owned by British merchants and the
621:
and surrounding smaller islands to Britain, and established five cities as
1649:
Deadly Dreams: Opium, Imperialism, and the Arrow War (1856β1860) in China.
17:
2450:
1538:
The Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another
1416:
1054:
The Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another
560:
556:
417:
1432:
753:, a ship claiming British registration, and threw its crew into chains.
1599:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1572:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
805:
742:
599:
1218:
Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another
775:
702:
650:
638:
634:
630:
590:
492:
349:
673:
from the surrounding heights, 29 May 1841. Watercolour painting by
827:
724:
595:
500:
420:) to Western merchants. In addition, China ceded sovereignty over
382:
133:
1489:"China: Looted horse head returns to Beijing's Old Summer Palace"
1623:
Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839β1861
484:
1692:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1196:
1194:
27:
Two 19th-century conflicts between China and the Western powers
488:
436:
also contracted slightly as a result of the wars, though the
1565:(May 2002) Vol. 52 Issue 5, pp 42β49, online popular history
1556:
The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams, and the Making of Modern China
514:
In earlier centuries, opium was utilised as a medicine with
404:, with the consequence that China was compelled to sign the
1679:
discussion with Yangwen Zheng, Lars Laamann, and Xun Zhou (
957:
Taylor Wallbank; Bailkey; Jewsbury; Lewis; Hackett (1992).
559:
with ending the trade. In 1839, Lin published in Canton an
475:
and was fought over trading rights (including the right of
653:
secured several of the same concessions from China in the
527:, the grandfather of twentieth-century American President
787:(Tianjin), in which the Chinese government agreed to pay
765:
fleet, which, on 23 October, bombarded and captured the
757:, Governor of British Hong Kong, called up Rear Admiral
617:
between China and Western powers. The treaty ceded the
2646:
2117:
1870:
1731:
999:"Over 2000 years of economic history, in one chart"
645:status to Britain and added provisions for British
1607:, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 38β41.
1215:
1288:
1286:
1051:Hanes, Wiliam Travis III; Sanello, Frank (2004).
745:. In spite of this, a new Imperial Commissioner,
705:government. Watercolour by military illustrator
701:), 21 July 1842, resulting in the defeat of the
1656:"Did China Have a Chance to Win the Opium War?"
373:was fought from 1839 to 1842 between China and
45:
1561:Marchant, Leslie R. "The War of the Poppies",
816:The impact of the Opium War on cultural relics
1704:
737:In 1853, northern China was convulsed by the
8:
1626:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1185:
942:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
693:The 98th Regiment of Foot at the attack on
428:, which maintained control over the region
1711:
1697:
1689:
649:, making Britain exempt from Chinese law.
381:'s campaign to enforce its prohibition of
42:
1086:"A Century of International Drug Control"
1057:. United States: Sourcebooks. pp.
893:10.5790/hongkong/9789888390564.001.0001
873:
659:
997:Desjardins, Jeff (15 September 2017).
935:
111:4 September 1839 β 29 August 1842
1525:. University of North Carolina Press.
1169:
539:this is sometimes referred to as the
120:8 October 1856 β 24 October 1860
7:
1970:Regulator Movement in North Carolina
1536:Hanes, W. Travis and Frank Sanello.
1508:Cited references and further reading
1244:"China Commemorates Anti-opium Hero"
1080:
1078:
1046:
1044:
613:(Nanjing) in 1842, the first of the
547:, and sold it to Chinese smugglers.
1593:, "Blundering into War" (review of
1153:
1024:"Opium trade β History & Facts"
959:"A Short History of the Opium Wars"
741:, which established its capital at
444:had a much larger economic effect.
358:) were two conflicts waged between
1642:The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes
1417:"Internationale Studienergebnisse"
976:Kenneth Pletcher (16 April 2024).
808:, the treaty was confirmed by the
677:(1814β1901), Naval Surgeon to the
499:(EIC) expanded the cultivation of
25:
1719:Colonial conflicts involving the
1616:(Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1992).
1326:Treaty Of Nanjing (Nanking), 1842
842:Old Summer Palace was burned down
598:and moved to bombard the port of
1467:10.2165/00128413-200615370-00054
1108:"The Opium War's Secret History"
686:
662:
495:. By the late 18th century, the
305:
292:
269:
254:
73:
64:
1795:Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
1106:Meyer, Karl E. (28 June 1997).
881:Chen, Song-Chuan (1 May 2017).
783:. The war resulted in the 1858
602:. In the ensuing conflict, the
1898:Father Rale's War/Dummer's War
1272:. I. B. Tauris. pp. 3β13, 29.
983:Encyclopædia Britannica Online
963:Civilizations Past And Present
887:. Hong Kong University Press.
833:Old Summer Palace bronze heads
823:Old Summer Palace bronze heads
733:. Book illustration from 1873.
354:
345:
337:
1:
2295:Black War (Van Diemen's Land)
2139:Castle Hill convict rebellion
1620:Wakeman, Frederic E. (1966).
1342:China at War: An Encyclopedia
1315:Haythornthwaite 2000, p. 239.
1270:A Modern History of Hong Kong
1246:. 4 June 2009. Archived from
1200:Haythornthwaite, 2000, p.237.
1135:The Colonial Wars Source Book
978:"Chinese history: Opium Wars"
857:Destruction of opium at Humen
840:overseas. On 18 October, the
763:East Indies and China Station
609:The war was concluded by the
561:open letter to Queen Victoria
366:during the mid-19th century.
1659:Military History in the News
1604:The New York Review of Books
1133:Haythornthwaite, Philip J.,
1533:. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
1371:visualizingcultures.mit.edu
36:Opium Wars (disambiguation)
2934:
2812:Jewish revolt in Palestine
2457:Fenian Rebellion in Canada
2102:Dwyer's guerrilla campaign
1994:American Revolutionary War
1569:Platt, Stephen R. (2018).
1427:(7/08): 16β20. July 2018.
1367:"MIT Visualizing Cultures"
884:Merchants of War and Peace
800:and the occupation of the
718:
497:British East India Company
467:broke out in 1839 between
456:
432:. During this period, the
387:British East India Company
377:. It was triggered by the
29:
2583:Jameson Raid South Africa
1345:. ABC-CLIO. p. 468.
930:10.1080/13504850600972295
918:Applied Economics Letters
862:History of opium in China
731:1860 battle of Taku Forts
625:open to Western traders:
555:charged Governor General
393:was waged by Britain and
240:
95:
58:
50:
2794:Arab revolt in Palestine
2391:Second Anglo-Burmese War
2133:Second Anglo-Maratha War
2024:Australian frontier wars
1529:Gelber, Harry G. Opium,
1521:Fay, Peter Ward (1975).
1186:Hanes & Sanello 2002
533:Francis Blackwell Forbes
2788:Second Mohmand campaign
2523:Third Anglo-Burmese War
2487:Second Anglo-Afghan War
2289:First Anglo-Burmese War
2265:Third Anglo-Maratha War
2096:Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
2006:Second Anglo-Mysore War
2000:First Anglo-Maratha War
1137:, London, 2000, p.237.
1028:Encyclopedia Britannica
781:internal transit duties
537:American historiography
2728:Third Anglo-Afghan War
2613:First Mohmand campaign
2337:First Anglo-Afghan War
2036:Third Anglo-Mysore War
1515:The Chinese Opium Wars
1461:(1537): 21. May 2006.
836:
794:Century of Humiliation
734:
589:Elliott then wrote to
410:century of humiliation
53:century of humiliation
34:. For other uses, see
2385:Second Anglo-Sikh War
2042:Cotiote (Wayanad) War
1928:French and Indian War
1517:(Harvest Books, 1975)
1395:. BRILL. p. 33.
1268:Tsang, Steve (2007).
831:
728:
671:bombardment of Canton
529:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2547:HunzaβNagar Campaign
2355:First Anglo-Sikh War
2331:EgyptianβOttoman War
1651:(Cambridge UP, 2002)
1612:Polachek, James M.,
1391:Zhihong Shi (2016).
1339:Xiaobing Li (2012).
1003:World Economic Forum
810:Convention of Peking
643:most favoured nation
313:Second French Empire
173:Convention of Peking
164:Anglo-French victory
83:Naval battle in the
2800:Waziristan campaign
2734:Waziristan campaign
2427:Revolt of Rajab Ali
1904:War of Jenkins' Ear
1654:Yu, Miles Maochun.
1640:Waley, Arthur, ed.
1614:The inner opium war
1575:. New York: Knopf.
1433:10.1055/a-0603-1331
1250:on 14 November 2013
932:– via Scopus.
759:Sir Michael Seymour
647:extraterritoriality
342:traditional Chinese
215:Stonecutters Island
2674:Bambatha Rebellion
2589:Anglo-Zanzibar War
2577:Chitral Expedition
2511:Anglo-Egyptian War
2283:Anglo-Ashanti wars
1988:Lord Dunmore's War
1946:Anglo-Cherokee War
1855:King William's War
1210:Hanes, W. Travis;
1113:The New York Times
837:
804:palace complex in
785:Treaty of Tientsin
735:
584:destroyed at Humen
580:British government
379:Chinese government
334:simplified Chinese
276:East India Company
168:Treaty of Tientsin
2905:
2904:
2836:Malayan Emergency
2746:Malabar rebellion
2607:Siege of Malakand
2553:Anglo-Manipur War
2409:Anglo-Persian War
1958:Anglo-Spanish War
1910:King George's War
1831:King Philip's War
1807:Anglo-Spanish War
1549:Wordsworth Circle
1543:Kitson, Peter J.
1491:. 2 December 2020
1402:978-90-04-30733-9
1294:Treaty of Nanjing
902:978-988-8390-56-4
798:Old Summer Palace
739:Taiping Rebellion
729:Depiction of the
655:Treaty of Whampoa
611:Treaty of Nanking
525:Warren Delano Jr.
505:Bengal Presidency
438:Taiping Rebellion
326:
325:
236:
235:
219:British Hong Kong
211:Kowloon Peninsula
206:Second Opium War:
160:Second Opium War:
153:Treaty of Nanking
151:British victory,
89:Battle of Palikao
16:(Redirected from
2925:
2854:Cyprus Emergency
2680:Maritz rebellion
2668:Tibet expedition
2601:Benin Expedition
2421:Indian Rebellion
2415:Second Opium War
2397:Eureka Rebellion
2373:British Honduras
2349:New Zealand Wars
1934:Seven Years' War
1880:Queen Anne's War
1713:
1706:
1699:
1690:
1685:, 12 April 2007)
1637:
1595:Stephen R. Platt
1591:Kenneth Pomeranz
1586:
1526:
1513:Beeching, Jack.
1501:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1336:
1330:
1322:
1316:
1313:
1302:
1290:
1281:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1221:
1207:
1201:
1198:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1167:
1161:
1151:
1145:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1090:
1082:
1073:
1072:
1048:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1009:
994:
988:
987:
973:
967:
966:
954:
948:
947:
941:
933:
913:
907:
906:
878:
755:Sir John Bowring
721:Second Opium War
715:Second Opium War
690:
666:
619:Hong Kong Island
615:Unequal treaties
572:
553:Daoguang Emperor
520:Chinese emperors
491:in exchange for
406:unequal treaties
402:Chinese military
391:Second Opium War
356:
355:YΔpiΓ n zhΓ nzhΔng
347:
339:
311:
309:
308:
298:
296:
295:
285:Second Opium War
274:
273:
272:
259:
258:
200:ceded to Britain
193:First Opium War:
147:First Opium War:
121:
116:Second Opium War
112:
97:
96:
77:
68:
43:
21:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2842:Kenya Emergency
2648:
2642:
2637:Second Boer War
2631:Boxer Rebellion
2559:Pahang Uprising
2439:Ambela campaign
2361:RΓo de la Plata
2343:First Opium War
2325:Aden Expedition
2157:RΓo de la Plata
2119:
2113:
2084:Irish Rebellion
1976:First Carib War
1872:
1866:
1789:Confederate War
1783:Irish Rebellion
1733:
1727:
1717:
1668:
1661:, July 3, 2018.
1634:
1619:
1583:
1568:
1554:Lovell, Julia.
1520:
1510:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1492:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1459:Inpharma Weekly
1453:
1452:
1448:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1305:
1291:
1284:
1267:
1263:
1253:
1251:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1222:. Sourcebooks.
1209:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1168:
1164:
1152:
1148:
1132:
1128:
1118:
1116:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1050:
1049:
1042:
1032:
1030:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1007:
1005:
996:
995:
991:
975:
974:
970:
956:
955:
951:
934:
924:(12): 911β913.
915:
914:
910:
903:
880:
879:
875:
870:
853:
818:
789:war reparations
723:
717:
710:
691:
682:
667:
570:
541:Old China Trade
465:First Opium War
461:
459:First Opium War
455:
453:First Opium War
450:
434:Chinese economy
371:First Opium War
317:
306:
304:
293:
291:
283:
280:
270:
268:
253:
247:First Opium War
232:
229:
226:ceded to Russia
224:Outer Manchuria
203:
186:
180:
177:
157:
136:
124:
119:
110:
107:First Opium War
85:First Opium War
82:
81:
80:
79:
78:
70:
69:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2931:
2929:
2921:
2920:
2910:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2893:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2869:
2863:
2857:
2851:
2845:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2782:Barzani revolt
2779:
2773:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2652:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2619:Tirah campaign
2616:
2610:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2538:
2532:
2529:Central Africa
2526:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2499:First Boer War
2496:
2490:
2484:
2481:Anglo-Zulu War
2478:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2232:
2226:
2220:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2169:Froberg mutiny
2166:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2123:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1895:
1889:
1883:
1876:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1849:Williamite War
1846:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1737:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1725:British Empire
1718:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1673:The Opium Wars
1667:
1666:External links
1664:
1663:
1662:
1652:
1647:Wong, John Y.
1645:
1638:
1632:
1617:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1581:
1566:
1559:
1552:
1541:
1534:
1527:
1518:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1480:
1446:
1408:
1401:
1383:
1358:
1351:
1331:
1317:
1303:
1282:
1261:
1235:
1228:
1212:Sanello, Frank
1202:
1190:
1178:
1162:
1146:
1126:
1098:
1074:
1068:978-1402201493
1067:
1040:
1015:
989:
968:
949:
908:
901:
872:
871:
869:
866:
865:
864:
859:
852:
849:
817:
814:
802:Forbidden City
719:Main article:
716:
713:
712:
711:
707:Richard Simkin
695:Chin-Kiang-Foo
692:
685:
683:
675:Edward H. Cree
668:
661:
576:Charles Elliot
457:Main article:
454:
451:
449:
446:
426:British Empire
364:Western powers
324:
323:
318:
316:
315:
302:
300:British Empire
288:
282:
281:
279:
278:
265:
263:
261:United Kingdom
250:
243:
242:
238:
237:
234:
233:
231:
230:
228:
227:
221:
207:
204:
202:
201:
194:
190:
188:
182:
181:
179:
178:
176:
175:
170:
165:
161:
158:
156:
155:
148:
144:
142:
138:
137:
132:
130:
126:
125:
123:
122:
113:
103:
101:
93:
92:
72:
71:
63:
62:
61:
60:
59:
56:
55:
48:
47:
32:1967 Opium War
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2930:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2770:Ikhwan revolt
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2217:Spice Islands
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2175:Santo Domingo
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2116:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1964:Pontiac's War
1962:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1916:Carnatic Wars
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1886:Tuscarora War
1884:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1869:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1714:
1709:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1695:
1694:
1691:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1582:9780307961730
1578:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1563:History Today
1560:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1490:
1484:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1409:
1404:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1384:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1352:9781598844160
1348:
1344:
1343:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1321:
1318:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1278:1-84511-419-1
1275:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1236:
1231:
1229:9781402201493
1225:
1220:
1219:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1188:, p. 43.
1187:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1143:1-84067-231-5
1140:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1087:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1029:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1004:
1000:
993:
990:
985:
984:
979:
972:
969:
964:
960:
953:
950:
945:
939:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
909:
904:
898:
894:
890:
886:
885:
877:
874:
867:
863:
860:
858:
855:
854:
850:
848:
845:
843:
834:
830:
826:
824:
815:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
790:
786:
782:
778:
777:
771:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
732:
727:
722:
714:
708:
704:
700:
696:
689:
684:
680:
676:
672:
665:
660:
658:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
597:
592:
587:
585:
581:
577:
568:
567:
562:
558:
554:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
521:
517:
512:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
460:
452:
447:
445:
443:
442:Dungan Revolt
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
365:
361:
357:
351:
343:
335:
331:
322:
319:
314:
303:
301:
290:
289:
286:
277:
267:
266:
264:
262:
257:
252:
251:
248:
245:
244:
239:
225:
222:
220:
216:
212:
209:
208:
205:
199:
196:
195:
192:
191:
189:
184:
183:
174:
171:
169:
166:
163:
162:
159:
154:
150:
149:
146:
145:
143:
140:
139:
135:
131:
128:
127:
117:
114:
108:
105:
104:
102:
99:
98:
94:
90:
86:
76:
67:
57:
54:
49:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2740:Iraqi Revolt
2595:Matabeleland
2571:North Borneo
2565:Matabeleland
2517:Saskatchewan
2319:Upper Canada
2313:Lower Canada
2271:Persian Gulf
2187:Persian Gulf
2127:Newfoundland
2108:Polygar Wars
2078:Kandyan Wars
2030:Nootka Sound
1680:
1658:
1648:
1641:
1622:
1613:
1602:
1601:, Vintage),
1598:
1571:
1562:
1555:
1551:(2018) 49#3.
1548:
1537:
1530:
1522:
1514:
1493:. Retrieved
1483:
1458:
1449:
1424:
1421:Physiopraxis
1420:
1411:
1392:
1386:
1374:. Retrieved
1370:
1361:
1341:
1334:
1325:
1320:
1298:
1293:
1269:
1264:
1252:. Retrieved
1248:the original
1238:
1217:
1205:
1181:
1170:Platt (2018)
1165:
1149:
1134:
1129:
1117:. Retrieved
1111:
1101:
1092:
1053:
1031:. Retrieved
1027:
1018:
1006:. Retrieved
1002:
992:
981:
971:
962:
952:
938:cite journal
921:
917:
911:
883:
876:
846:
838:
819:
774:
772:
750:
736:
709:(1840β1926).
623:treaty ports
608:
588:
564:
549:
513:
508:
462:
414:treaty ports
399:
368:
353:
329:
327:
241:Belligerents
51:Part of the
40:
2860:Suez Crisis
2758:Transjordan
2662:West Africa
2639:(1899β1902)
2633:(1898β1901)
2625:Six-Day War
2573:(1894β1905)
2561:(1891β1895)
2541:Mashonaland
2505:Mahdist War
2445:Shimonoseki
2375:(1847β1901)
2285:(1824β1901)
2253:Cape Colony
2151:Cape Colony
2110:(1799β1805)
2104:(1799β1803)
2092:(1798β1800)
2080:(1796β1818)
2054:Cape Colony
2044:(1793β1806)
2026:(1788β1934)
1922:Nova Scotia
1892:Yamasee War
1863:(1694β1700)
1837:Child's War
1825:2nd Tangier
1819:1st Tangier
1815:(1655β1739)
1765:Saint Kitts
1743:(1593β1603)
1682:In Our Time
1677:BBC Radio 4
1376:9 September
1008:28 November
767:Pearl River
747:Ye Mingchen
416:(including
185:Territorial
2918:Opium Wars
2764:Pink's War
2656:Somaliland
2493:Basutoland
2247:Guadeloupe
2229:Xhosa Wars
2211:Seychelles
2193:Guadeloupe
2181:Martinique
2048:Rohilkhand
2012:Gold Coast
1982:Rohilkhand
1940:Bengal War
1777:Pequot War
1633:0520212398
1299:Britannica
1172:, p.
1156:, p.
1154:Fay (1975)
1059:21, 24, 25
868:References
679:Royal Navy
629:, Canton,
604:Royal Navy
516:anesthetic
477:free trade
430:until 1997
330:Opium Wars
321:Qing China
46:Opium Wars
18:Opium wars
2896:Falklands
2892:(1963β67)
2886:(1962β66)
2880:(1962β90)
2868:(1962β76)
2856:(1955β59)
2850:(1954β59)
2844:(1952β60)
2838:(1948β60)
2832:(1946β50)
2824:Indonesia
2820:(1945β46)
2818:Indochina
2814:(1944β48)
2802:(1936β39)
2796:(1936β39)
2784:(1931β32)
2778:(1930β31)
2772:(1927β30)
2754:(1922β24)
2752:Kurdistan
2736:(1919β20)
2712:(1916β17)
2692:Nyasaland
2688:(1914β15)
2682:(1914β15)
2670:(1903β04)
2664:(1901β02)
2658:(1900β20)
2621:(1897β98)
2615:(1897β98)
2597:(1896β97)
2567:(1893β94)
2531:(1886β89)
2507:(1881β99)
2501:(1880β81)
2495:(1880β81)
2489:(1879β80)
2477:(1875β76)
2463:Abyssinia
2459:(1866β71)
2453:(1864β65)
2441:(1863β64)
2433:Kagoshima
2429:(1857β58)
2423:(1857β59)
2417:(1856β60)
2411:(1856β57)
2405:(1854β56)
2403:Γ
land War
2387:(1848β49)
2363:(1845β50)
2357:(1845β46)
2351:(1845β72)
2345:(1839β42)
2339:(1839β42)
2333:(1839β41)
2321:(1837β38)
2315:(1837β38)
2309:(1831β33)
2303:(1831β32)
2297:(1828β32)
2291:(1824β26)
2267:(1817β18)
2243:(1814β16)
2237:(1812β15)
2231:(1811β79)
2225:(1810β11)
2205:Mauritius
2177:(1808β09)
2159:(1806β07)
2135:(1803β05)
2098:(1798β99)
2068:(1795β96)
2062:(1795β96)
2038:(1789β92)
2014:(1781β82)
2008:(1779β84)
2002:(1775β82)
1996:(1775β83)
1984:(1773β74)
1978:(1769β73)
1972:(1765β71)
1966:(1763β66)
1960:(1762β63)
1948:(1758β61)
1942:(1756β65)
1936:(1756β63)
1930:(1754β63)
1924:(1749β55)
1918:(1746β63)
1912:(1744β48)
1906:(1740β42)
1900:(1722β25)
1894:(1715β17)
1888:(1711β15)
1882:(1702β13)
1857:(1688β97)
1851:(1688β91)
1839:(1686β90)
1833:(1675β78)
1809:(1654β60)
1803:(1654β67)
1797:(1649β53)
1791:(1641β53)
1779:(1634β38)
1749:(1609β46)
1475:1173-8324
1441:1439-023X
1093:UNODC.org
812:in 1860.
699:Zhenjiang
657:in 1844.
566:The Times
509:per annum
481:porcelain
422:Hong Kong
217:ceded to
198:Hong Kong
2912:Category
2884:Malaysia
2806:Ethiopia
2704:Peshawar
2469:Manitoba
2451:Duar War
1747:Virginia
1587:556 pp.
1254:18 March
1214:(2002).
851:See also
669:British
627:Shanghai
557:Lin Zexu
418:Shanghai
129:Location
87:(left),
2878:Sarawak
2830:Sarawak
2722:Nigeria
2710:Mohmand
2698:Nigeria
2649:century
2307:Malacca
2301:Jamaica
2259:Algiers
2199:Reunion
2145:Surinam
2120:century
2066:Grenada
2060:Jamaica
1952:Jamaica
1873:century
1813:Jamaica
1741:Ireland
1734:century
1721:English
1644:(1960).
1558:(2011).
806:Beijing
776:coolies
743:Nanjing
600:Dinghai
503:in the
473:Britain
448:History
424:to the
375:Britain
187:changes
91:(right)
2898:(1982)
2874:(1962)
2872:Brunei
2862:(1956)
2826:(1945)
2808:(1943)
2790:(1935)
2766:(1925)
2760:(1923)
2748:(1921)
2742:(1920)
2730:(1919)
2724:(1918)
2718:(1917)
2716:Quebec
2706:(1915)
2700:(1915)
2694:(1915)
2676:(1906)
2627:(1899)
2609:(1897)
2603:(1897)
2591:(1896)
2585:(1896)
2579:(1895)
2555:(1891)
2549:(1891)
2543:(1890)
2537:(1888)
2535:Hazara
2525:(1885)
2519:(1885)
2513:(1882)
2483:(1879)
2471:(1870)
2465:(1868)
2447:(1864)
2435:(1863)
2399:(1854)
2393:(1852)
2381:(1848)
2379:Ceylon
2369:(1847)
2367:Canton
2327:(1839)
2279:(1823)
2277:Guiana
2273:(1819)
2261:(1816)
2255:(1815)
2249:(1815)
2219:(1810)
2213:(1810)
2207:(1810)
2201:(1810)
2195:(1810)
2189:(1809)
2183:(1809)
2171:(1807)
2165:(1807)
2153:(1806)
2147:(1804)
2141:(1804)
2129:(1800)
2086:(1798)
2074:(1795)
2072:Ceylon
2056:(1795)
2050:(1794)
2032:(1789)
2020:(1786)
1990:(1774)
1954:(1762)
1845:(1687)
1827:(1664)
1821:(1662)
1801:Acadia
1785:(1641)
1773:(1628)
1771:Quebec
1767:(1626)
1761:(1622)
1755:(1612)
1753:Swally
1630:
1579:
1540:(2014)
1473:
1439:
1399:
1349:
1276:
1226:
1174:online
1141:
1119:3 July
1065:
1033:3 July
899:
703:Manchu
651:France
639:Xiamen
637:, and
635:Fuzhou
631:Ningbo
591:London
571:
545:Canton
531:, and
493:silver
487:, and
395:France
352::
350:pinyin
344::
336::
310:
297:
141:Result
2776:Tirah
2686:Tochi
2475:Perak
2241:Nepal
2163:Egypt
2090:Malta
2018:Assam
1861:Ghana
1759:Ormuz
1495:7 May
1089:(PDF)
751:Arrow
596:Macao
535:; in
501:opium
469:China
383:opium
360:China
134:China
2890:Aden
2866:Oman
2848:Oman
2647:20th
2223:Java
2118:19th
1871:18th
1843:Siam
1732:17th
1628:ISBN
1577:ISBN
1497:2024
1471:ISSN
1437:ISSN
1397:ISBN
1378:2023
1347:ISBN
1274:ISBN
1256:2014
1224:ISBN
1139:ISBN
1121:2018
1063:ISBN
1035:2018
1010:2021
944:link
897:ISBN
485:silk
471:and
463:The
440:and
369:The
362:and
346:ι΄ηζ°η
338:ιΈ¦ηζδΊ
328:The
213:and
100:Date
2235:USA
1675:",
1463:doi
1429:doi
1158:143
926:doi
889:doi
761:'s
489:tea
2914::
1597:,
1547:.
1469:.
1457:.
1435:.
1425:16
1423:.
1419:.
1369:.
1306:^
1297:in
1285:^
1193:^
1110:.
1091:.
1077:^
1061:.
1043:^
1026:.
1001:.
980:.
961:.
940:}}
936:{{
922:15
920:.
895:.
825:.
633:,
586:.
511:.
483:,
348:;
340:;
118::
109::
1723:/
1712:e
1705:t
1698:v
1671:"
1636:.
1585:.
1499:.
1477:.
1465::
1443:.
1431::
1405:.
1380:.
1355:.
1301:.
1280:.
1258:.
1232:.
1176:.
1160:.
1123:.
1095:.
1071:.
1037:.
1012:.
986:.
946:)
928::
905:.
891::
835:.
697:(
681:.
332:(
287::
249::
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
