Orbital propellant depot - Knowledge (XXG)

1278: 1290: 192:(LOX) as an oxidizer because of the large specific impulse possible, but must carefully consider a problem called "boil off," or the evaporation of the cryogenic propellant. The boil off from only a few days of delay may not allow sufficient fuel for higher orbit injection, potentially resulting in a mission abort. Lunar or Mars missions will require weeks to months to accumulate tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of kilograms of propellant, so additional equipment may be required on the transfer stage or the depot to mitigate boiloff. 150:

could have a larger mass or use a smaller launch vehicle. With a LEO depot or tanker fill, the size of the launch vehicle can be reduced and the flight rate increased—or, with a newer mission architecture where the beyond-Earth-orbit spacecraft also serves as the second stage, can facilitate much larger payloads—which may reduce the total launch costs since the fixed costs are spread over more flights and fixed costs are usually lower with smaller launch vehicles. A depot could also be placed at Earth-Moon

25: 1314: 885:

precisely-timed departure. Less efficient departure times from the same depot to the same destination exist before and after the well-aligned opportunity, but more research is required to show whether the efficiency falls off quickly or slowly. By contrast, launching directly in only one launch from the ground without orbital refueling or docking with another craft already on orbit offers daily launch opportunities though it requires larger and more expensive launchers.

1891:

DCSS propellant load, providing a significant performance boost compared to our existing upper stages. The baseline 41-mT propellant load is contained in a 5m diameter, common bulkhead stage that is about the same length as ULA's existing upper stages. ACES will become the foundation for a modular system of stages to meet the launch requirements of a wide variety of users. A common variant is a stretched version containing 73

64: 1302: 3999: 586:(3,900 cu ft) in volume, and store 5 mT of LH2. "At a useful mixture ratio (MR) of 6:1 this quantity of LH2 can be paired with 25.7 mT of LO2, allowing for 0.7 mT of LH2 to be used for vapor cooling, for a total useful propellant mass of 30 mT. ... the described depot would have a boil-off rate approaching 0.1 percent per day, consisting entirely of hydrogen." 1171:. Such a purchase would add somewhere between two and four years of additional service life for up to five Intelsat satellites, assuming 200 kg of fuel is delivered to each one. As of March 2010, the spacecraft could be ready to begin refueling communication satellites by 2015. As of January 2013, no customers had signed up for an MDA refueling mission. 352:(ACES) tanker, a concept that dates to work by Boeing in 2006, sized to transport up to 73 tonnes (161,000 lb) of propellant—in early design, a first flight was proposed for no earlier than 2023, with initial usage as a propellant tanker potentially beginning in the mid-2020s. ACES was not funded, but some of the ideas were used in the Centaur stage of the 1114:. Each tool was a prototype of "devices that could be used by future satellite servicing missions to refuel spacecraft in orbit. RRM is the first in-space refueling demonstration using a platform and fuel valve representative of most existing satellites, which were never designed for refueling. Other satellite servicing demos, such as the U.S. military's 949:, the smaller the tank, the faster the liquids will boil off. Some propellant tank designs have achieved a liquid hydrogen boil off rate as low as approximately 0.13% per day (3.8% per month) while the much higher temperature cryogenic fluid of liquid oxygen would boil off much less, about 0.016% per day (0.49% per month). 795:

that refines the propellant. By using several tanker rockets the tankers can be smaller than the depot and larger than the spacecraft they are intended to resupply. Short range chemical propulsion tugs belonging to the depot may be used to simplify docking tanker rockets and large vehicles like Mars Transfer Vehicles.

3375:

other requirements over the next six months before both parties authorize the build phase of the program. The first refueling mission is to be available 3.5 years following the commencement of the build phase. ... The services provided by MDA to Intelsat under this agreement are valued at more than US$ 280 million.

1036:(ULA) has proposed a cryogenic depot which would use a conical sun shield to protect the cold propellants from solar and Earth radiation. The open end of the cone allows residual heat to radiate to the cold of deep space, while the closed cone layers attenuates the radiative heat from the Sun and Earth. 3439:

ViviSat, a new 50-50 joint venture of U.S. Space and ATK, is marketing a satellite-refueling spacecraft that connects to a target spacecraft using the same probe-in-the-kick-motor approach as MDA, but does not transfer its fuel. Instead, the vehicle becomes a new fuel tank, using its own thrusters to

1991:

So it is a bit tricky. Because we have to figure out how to improve the cost of the trips to Mars by five million percent ... translates to an improvement of approximately 4 1/2 orders of magnitude. These are the key elements that are needed in order to achieve a 4 1/2 order of magnitude improvement.

1890:

ACES design conceptualization has been underway at ULA for many years. It leverages design features of both the Centaur and Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS) upper stages and intends to supplement and perhaps replace these stages in the future. The baseline ACES will contain twice the Centaur or 4m

836:

The proposed Simple Depot cryogenic PTSD (Propellant Transfer and Storage Demonstration) mission would uses "remote berthing arm and docking and fluid transfer ports" both for propellant transfer to other vehicles, as well as for refilling the depot up to the full 30 tonne propellant capacity. It was

677:

In August 2011, NASA made a significant contractual commitment to the development of propellant depot technology by funding four aerospace companies to "define demonstration missions that would validate the concept of storing cryogenic propellants in space to reduce the need for large launch vehicles

413:

Because a large portion of a rocket is propellant at time of launch, proponents point out several advantages of using a propellant depot architecture. Spacecraft could be launched unfueled and thus require less structural mass, or the depot tanker itself could serve as the second-stage on launch when

545:

The Future In-Space Operations (FISO) Working Group, a consortium of participants from NASA, industry and academia, discussed propellant depot concepts and plans on several occasions in 2010, with presentations of optimal depot locations for human space exploration beyond low Earth orbit, a proposed

2854:

more than 40 different types of fueling systems ... SIS will be carrying enough tools to open 75 percent of the fueling systems aboard satellites now in geostationary orbit. ... the SIS spacecraft is designed to operate for seven years in orbit but that it is likely to be able to operate far longer

3304:

the refueling vehicle would dock at the target satellite's apogee-kick motor, peel off a section of the craft's thermal protection blanket, connect to a fuel-pressure line and deliver the propellant. MDA officials estimate the docking maneuver would take the communications satellite out of service

996:

Another NASA study in June 2003 for conceptual Mars mission showed mass savings over traditional, passive-only cryogenic storage when mission durations are 5 days in LEO for oxygen, 8.5 days for methane and 64 days for hydrogen. Longer missions equate to greater mass savings. Cryogenic xenon saves

794:

is the responsibility of the propellant depot's operator. Since space agencies like NASA hope to be purchasers rather than owners, possible operators include the aerospace company that constructed the depot, manufacturers of the rockets, a specialist space depot company, or an oil/chemical company

269:

In the heavy lift architecture, propellant, which can be two-thirds or more of the total mission mass, is accumulated in fewer launches and possibly shorter time frame than the depot centric architecture. Typically the transfer stage is filled directly and no depot is included in the architecture.

260:

In simple terms, a passive cryogenic depot is a transfer stage with stretched propellant tanks, additional insulation, and a sun shield. In one concept, hydrogen boiloff is also redirected to reduce or eliminate liquid oxygen boiloff and then used for attitude control, power, or reboost. An active

3374:

MDA plans to launch its Space Infrastructure Servicing ("SIS") vehicle into near geosynchronous orbit, where it will service commercial and government satellites in need of additional fuel, re-positioning or other maintenance. ... MDA and Intelsat will work together to finalize specifications and

3339:

if the MDA spacecraft performs as planned, Intelsat will be paying a total of some $ 200 million to MDA. This assumes that four or five satellites are given around 200 kilograms each of fuel. ... The maiden flight of the vehicle would be on an International Launch Services Proton rocket, industry

256:

In the depot-centric architecture, the depot is filled by tankers, and then the propellant is transferred to an upper stage prior to orbit insertion, similar to a gas station filled by tankers for automobiles. By using a depot, the launch vehicle size can be reduced and the flight rate increased.

149:

A low Earth orbit (LEO) depot's primary function would be to provide propellant to a transfer stage headed to the Moon, Mars, or possibly a geosynchronous orbit. Since all or a fraction of the transfer stage propellant can be off-loaded, the separately launched spacecraft with payload and/or crew

1144:

announced in early 2010 that they were designing a single spacecraft that would refuel other spacecraft in orbit as a satellite-servicing demonstration. "The business model, which is still evolving, could ask customers to pay per kilogram of fuel successfully added to their satellite, with the

340:

Both approaches were considered feasible with 2009 spaceflight technology, but anticipated that significant further engineering development and in-space demonstration would be required before missions could depend on the technology. Both approaches were seen to offer the potential of long-term

537:

technologies using the Centaur upper stage after primary payload separation. Named CRYOTE, or CRYogenic Orbital TEstbed, it will be a testbed for demonstrating a number of technologies needed for cryogenic propellant depots, with several small-scale demonstrations planned for 2012–2014. As of

585:

upper stage LH2 tank for long-term storage of LO2 while LH2 would be stored in the Simple Depot LH2 module, which would be launched with only ambient-temperature gaseous Helium in it. The SD LH2 tank was to be 3 metres (9.8 ft) diameter and 16 metres (52 ft) long, 110 cubic metres

899:

New approaches have been discovered for LEO to interplanetary orbital transfers where a three-burn orbital transfer is used, which includes a plane change at apogee in a highly-elliptical phasing orbit, in which the incremental delta-v is small—typically less than five percent of the total

884:

is typically extremely high. On the other hand, depots are typically proposed for exploration missions, where the change over time of the depot's orbit can be chosen to align with the departure vector. This allows one well-aligned departure time minimizing fuel use that requires a very

42:. The reason given is: This article contains out of date information (including mentions of future/planned things that have already happened or have been cancelled by now, such as CRYOSTAT) and needs to be reviewed and revised by an expert or someone with access to up to date sources.. 956:'s Supplemental Multilayer Insulation Research Facility (SMIRF) over the summer of 1998 demonstrated that a hybrid thermal control system could eliminate boiloff of cryogenic propellants. The hardware consisted of a pressurized 50 cu ft (1,400 litres) tank insulated with 34 2997: 2855:

than that. Key to the business model is MDA's ability to launch replacement fuel canisters that would be grappled by SIS and used to refuel dozens of satellites over a period of years. These canisters would be much lighter than the SIS vehicle and thus much less expensive to launch.

1254:, a silicon valley startup company founded in early 2018, flew the first of a series of experiments to the ISS in order to test and demonstrate technologies to allow for commercial in space refueling. These first rounds of testing used water as a propellant simulant. In June 2021, 414:

it is reusable. An on-orbit market for refueling may be created where competition to deliver propellant for the lowest price takes place, and it may also enable an economy of scale by permitting existing rockets to fly more often to refuel the depot. If used in conjunction with a

1207:, also under development since the early 2010s, illustrates one alternative approach that would connect to the target satellite similarly to MDA SIS, via the kick motor, but would not transfer fuel. Rather, the Mission Extension Vehicle would use "its own thrusters to supply 860:

Demetriades' proposal was further refined by Christopher Jones and others In this proposal, multiple collection vehicles accumulate propellant gases at around 120 km altitude, later transferring them to a higher orbit. However, Jones' proposal does require a network of

261:

cryogenic depot is a passive depot with additional power and refrigeration equipment/cryocoolers to reduce or eliminate propellant boiloff. Other active cryogenic depot concepts include electrically powered attitude control equipment to conserve fuel for the end payload.

247:

Ex-NASA administrator Mike Griffin commented at the 52nd AAS Annual Meeting in Houston, Texas, November 2005, that "at a conservatively low government price of $ 10,000 per kg in LEO, 250 MT of fuel for two missions per year is worth $ 2.5 billion, at government rates."

747:-18 mission to flight-test centrifugal propellant settling as a cryogenic fuel management technique that might be used in future propellant depots. The proposed Simple Depot PTSD mission would use several techniques to achieve adequate settling for propellant transfer. 383:

over what NASA approaches have achieved, refilling of propellants in orbit is one of the four key elements. In a novel mission architecture, the SpaceX design intends to enable the long-journey spacecraft to expend almost all of its propellant load during the launch to

944:

Boil-off rate is governed by heat leakage and by the quantity of propellant in the tanks. With partially filled tanks, the percentage loss is higher. Heat leakage depends on surface area, while the original mass of propellant in the tanks depends on volume. So by the

1024:

necessary, is theoretically capable of achieving a system-level solution to boil-off. Such proposals have been suggested as supplementing good technological techniques to reduce boil-off, but would not replace the need for efficient technological storage solutions.

729:

missions. The design issues include propellant settling and transfer, propellant usage for attitude control and reboost, the maturity of the refrigeration equipment/cryocoolers, and the power and mass required for reduced or zero boiloff depots with refrigeration.

286:

less expensive than a heavy-lift architecture over a 20-year time frame. The cost of large launch vehicles is so high that a depot able to hold the propellant lifted by two or more medium-sized launch vehicles may be cost effective and support more payload mass on

1160:, remove a small part of the target spacecraft's thermal protection blanket, connect to a fuel-pressure line and deliver the propellant. "MDA officials estimate the docking maneuver would take the communications satellite out of service for about 20 minutes." 1211:

for the target." ViviSat believes their approach is more simple and can operate at lower cost than the MDA propellant transfer approach, while having the technical ability to dock with and service a greater number (90 percent) of the approximately 450

270:

For cryogenic vehicles and cryogenic depots, additional boiloff mitigation equipment is typically included on the transfer stage, reducing payload fraction and requiring more propellant for the same payload unless the mitigation hardware is expended.

1992:

Most of the improvement would come from full reusability—somewhere between 2 and 2 1/2 orders of magnitude—and then the other 2 orders of magnitude would come from refilling in orbit, propellant production on Mars, and choosing the right propellant.

2674:

the waste hydrogen that has boiled off happens to be the best known propellant (as a monopropellant in a basic solar-thermal propulsion system) for this task. A practical depot must evolve hydrogen at a minimum rate that matches the station keeping

997:

mass over passive storage almost immediately. When power to run the ZBO is already available, the break-even mission durations are even shorter, e.g. about a month for hydrogen. The larger the tank, the fewer days in LEO when ZBO has reduced mass.

549:

NASA also has plans to mature techniques for enabling and enhancing space flights that use propellant depots in the "CRYOGENIC Propellant STorage And Transfer (CRYOSTAT) Mission". The CRYOSTAT vehicle was expected to be launched to LEO in 2015.

422:

or propellant could be exported back to the depot, further reducing the cost of propellant. An exploration program based on a depot architecture could be less expensive and more capable, not needing a specific rocket or a heavy lift such as the

281:

Both theoretical studies and funded development projects that are currently underway aim to provide insight into the feasibility of propellant depots. Studies have shown that a depot-centric architecture with smaller launch vehicles could be

2991: 845:, at an altitude of around 120 km, Demetriades' proposed depot extracts air from the fringes of the atmosphere, compresses and cools it, and extracts liquid oxygen. The remaining nitrogen is used as propellant for a nuclear-powered 2444: 900:

delta-v—"enabling departures to deep-space destinations advantage of a depot in LEO" and providing frequent departure opportunities. More specifically, the 3-burn departure strategy has been shown to enable a single LEO depot in an

335:

In-space depot. An alternative approach is for many tankers to rendezvous and transfer propellant to an orbital depot. Then, at a later time, a spacecraft may dock with the depot and receive a propellant load before departing Earth

2633:

a LO2/LH2 PTSD (Propellant Transfer and Storage Demonstration) mission by 2015. ... it would be launched on an Atlas 551 ... would provide ~12 mT of Centaur residuals (combined LH2 and LO2) in a 28.5 degrees by 200 nm circular

400:

required to put the spacecraft onto an interplanetary trajectory. The Starship tanker is designed to transport approximately 100 tonnes (220,000 lb) of propellant to low Earth orbit. In April 2021, NASA selected the SpaceX

1000:

In addition to technical solutions to the challenge of excessive boil-off of cryogenic rocket propellants, system-level solutions have been proposed. From a systems perspective, reductions in the standby time of the

2088: 1513: 979:(MSFC) was implemented to develop ZBO concepts for in-space cryogenic storage. The main program element was a large-scale, ZBO demonstration using the MSFC multipurpose hydrogen test bed (MHTB) – 18.10 m3 L 742:

is complicated by the uncertain distribution of liquid and gasses within a tank. Propellant settling at an in-space depot is thus more challenging than in even a slight gravity field. ULA plans to use the

121:

Satellite servicing depots would extend the lifetime of satellites that have nearly consumed their orbital maneuvering fuel and are likely placed in a geosynchronous orbit. The spacecraft would conduct a

3423: 2434: 3305:

for about 20 minutes. ... The servicing robot would have an in-orbit life of about five years, and would carry enough fuel to perform 10 or 11 satellite-refueling or orbital-cleanup missions.

1360: 310: 1864: 328:

delivery. In this approach, a single tanker performs a rendezvous and docking with an on-orbit spacecraft. The tanker then transfers propellant and departs. This approach is "much like an

1948: 993:). A commercial cryocooler was interfaced with an existing MHTB spray bar mixer and insulation system in a manner that enabled a balance between incoming and extracted thermal energy. 223:, can be kept in liquid form with less boiloff than the cryogenic fuels, but also have lower specific impulse. Additionally, gaseous or supercritical propellants such as those used by 2620: 2833: 2335: 1277: 3035: 3564: 2921:

Massonnet, Didier; Meyssignac, Benoît (July–September 2006). "A captured asteroid: Our David's stone for shielding earth and providing the cheapest extraterrestrial material".

1917: 662:. ACES hardware is designed from the start as an in-space propellant depot that could be used as way-stations for other rockets to stop and refuel on the way to beyond-LEO or 538:

August 2011, ULA said this mission could launch as soon as 2012 if funded. The ULA CRYOTE small-scale demonstrations are intended to lead to a ULA large-scale cryo-sat

2647: 1193:

fuel transfer exist. It is possible to bring additional propellant to a space asset, and use the propellant for attitude control or orbital velocity change, without ever

91:

or the transfer stage of the spacecraft to be fueled in space. It is one of the types of space resource depots that have been proposed for enabling infrastructure-based

3397: 1289: 3318: 2084: 2589: 964:

that has a cooling capacity of 15 to 17.5 watts (W). Liquid hydrogen was the test fluid. The test tank was installed into a vacuum chamber, simulating space vacuum.

3655: 3457: 2911:

Jones, C., Masse, D., Glass, C., Wilhite, A., and Walker, M. (2010), "PHARO: Propellant harvesting of atmospheric resources in orbit," IEEE Aerospace Conference.

2540: 3786: 2757: 1709: 1488: 3340:

officials said. One official said the MDA spacecraft, including its 2,000 kilograms of refueling propellant, is likely to weigh around 6,000 kilograms at launch.

1410: 3060: 2560: 888:

The restrictions on departure windows arise because low earth orbits are susceptible to significant perturbations; even over short periods they are subject to

876:

Propellant depots in LEO are of little use for transfer between two low earth orbits when the depot is in a different orbital plane than the target orbit. The

651:

with other spacecraft that would be inbound to receive fuel from the depot. As part of the Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture, ULA has proposed the

3283: 2401: 1660: 3135: 1458: 941:

and other sources must be mitigated, eliminated, or used for economic purposes. For non-cryogenic propellants, boil-off is not a significant design problem.

705:

with in-orbit refuelling for their initial lunar human landing system. In 2022, a larger propellant-depot Starship was being planned for Lunar Starship HLS.

2993:

Practical Methodologies for Low Delta-V Penalty, On-Time Departures to Arbitrary Interplanetary Destinations From a Medium-Inclination Low-Earth Orbit Depot

99:

that delivers a single load to a spacecraft at a specified orbital location and then departs. In-space fuel depots are not necessarily located near or at a

2469: 1736: 1056:) become brittle and fracture following exposure to hydrogen. The resulting leaks make storing cryogenic propellants in zero gravity conditions difficult. 2968: 1127: 546:

simpler (single vehicle) first-generation propellant depot and six important propellant-depot-related technologies for reusable cislunar transportation.

1593: 3103: 2261: 2124: 3352: 372: 2160: 1145:

per-kilogram price being a function of the additional revenue the operator can expect to generate from the spacecraft's extended operational life."

952:

It is possible to achieve zero boil-off (ZBO) with cryogenic propellant storage using an active thermal control system. Tests conducted at the NASA

744: 158: 3488: 1873: 2841: 833:

of fuel in the launch load, enabling further refueling of additional satellites after the initial multi-satellite servicing mission is complete.

3853: 3183:

Kutter, Bernard F.; et al. (September 9–11, 2008). "A Practical, Affordable Cryogenic Propellant Depot Based on ULA's Flight Experience".

1940: 3210: 2218: 1654: 2019: 154:

1 (EML-1) or behind the Moon at EML-2 to reduce costs to travel to the Moon or Mars. Placing a depot in Mars orbit has also been suggested.

2612: 506:

chilldown and RL10 two-phase shutdown operations." "The light weight of DMSP-18 allowed 12,000 pounds (5,400 kg) of remaining liquid O

317:, which "examined the current concepts for in-space refueling." The report determined there are essentially two approaches to refueling a 3257: 2327: 1837: 1778: 3078: 2782: 273:

Heavy Lift is compared with using Commercial Launch and Propellant Depots in this power point by Dr. Alan Wilhite given at FISO Telecon.

3942: 3648: 3561: 3020: 2224: 1313: 683: 678:

for deep-space exploration." These study contracts for storing/transferring cryogenic propellants and cryogenic depots were signed with

908:

targets perform any phasing maneuvers to align with any of the departure asymptotes ... extending the economic benefits of dedicated

2520: 782:. Since no crew were present on either spacecraft, this was reported as the first autonomous spacecraft-to-spacecraft fluid transfer. 725:

There are a number of design issues with propellant depots, as well as several tasks that have not, to date, been tested in space for

539: 430:

NASA studies in 2011 showed lower cost and faster alternatives than the Heavy Lift Launch System and listed the following advantages:

2301: 298:

launch vehicle was required to stage a US government Mars reference mission due to 70 tons of boiloff, assuming 0.1% boiloff/day for

2724: 1909: 573:

The "Simple Depot" mission was proposed by NASA in 2011 as a potential first PTSD mission, with launch no earlier than 2015, on an

2807: 2493: 1684: 1167:

agreed to purchase one-half of the 2,000 kilograms (4,400 lb) of propellant payload that the MDA spacecraft would carry into

3326: 2368: 349: 2435:

Successful Flight Demonstration Conducted by the Air Force and United Launch Alliance Will Enhance Space Transportation: DMSP-18

2658: 1174:

In 2017, MDA announced that it was restarting its satellite servicing business, with Luxembourg-based satellite owner/operator

679: 257:

Since the accumulation of propellant may take many weeks to months, careful consideration must be given to boiloff mitigation.

1242:, remaining on orbit indefinitely, and refueling itself from subsequent transport ships carrying later cargo carrier modules. 798:

Transfers of propellant between a LEO depot, reachable by rockets from Earth, and the possible deep space ones such as at the

95:. Many depot concepts exist depending on the type of fuel to be supplied, location, or type of depot which may also include a 3641: 3031: 818: 139: 3389: 790:

After propellant has been transferred to a customer, the depot's tanks will need refilling. Organizing the construction and

533:

with partners called CRYOTE. As of 2010, ULA is also planning additional in-space laboratory experiments to further develop

3162: 1808: 4045: 4025: 4003: 3969: 3781: 2586: 1615: 1301: 652: 593:

concept to propose propellant depots that could be used as way-stations for other spacecraft to stop and refuel—either in

3291: 34: 4035: 3814: 3453: 3129:"An Updated Zero Boil-Off Cryogenic Propellant Storage Analysis Applied to Upper Stages or Depots in an LEO Environment" 2537: 2005: 1435: 1365: 1350: 976: 854: 755:

In the absence of gravity, propellant transfer is somewhat more difficult, since liquids can float away from the inlet.

726: 3079:"Zero Boiloff Storage of Cryogenic Propellants Achieved at Lewis' Supplemental Multilayer Insulation Research Facility" 2750: 1702: 1481: 4040: 4030: 1239: 1208: 901: 640: 465: 2870:

Demetriades, S.T. (March 1962). "The Use of Atmospheric and Extraterrestrial Resources in Space Propulsion Systems".

1403: 766:

propellant was successfully transferred between two single-purpose designed technology demonstration spacecraft. The

3543: 3064: 2557: 4060: 3974: 3910: 3128: 2394: 1634: 1335: 905: 881: 368: 1216:

satellites in orbit. As of January 2013, no customers had signed up for a ViviSat-enabled mission extension.

4055: 3957: 3917: 3627: 3549: 2691: 1872:. AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Archived from 1450: 1370: 1340: 1204: 1081: 803: 196: 2466: 1743: 302:

propellant. The study identified the need to decrease the design boiloff rate by an order of magnitude or more.

3776: 3771: 3679: 1153: 415: 111: 2960: 1565:. 40th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, July 11–14, 2004. 1536: 3922: 3895: 3756: 3738: 3096: 2250: 2114: 1641:. 44th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Hartford, Connecticut, July 21–23, 2008. 1585: 1375: 1190: 1133: 1069: 1006: 938: 862: 620: 530: 526: 364: 3360: 2996:. 2017 AAS/AIAA Astrodynamics Specialist Conference. 20–24 August 2017. Stevenson, Washington. AAS 17-696. 933:. From a technical perspective: for a propellant depot with passive insulation system to effectively store 3932: 3927: 3900: 3701: 2478: 2439: 2152: 1999: 1737:"A Sustainable Evolved Human Space Exploration Architecture Using Commercial Launch and Propellant Depots" 1045: 1033: 957: 663: 636: 582: 534: 484: 476: 345: 107: 68: 3021:"RAAN-agnostic 3-burn Departure Methodology for Deep Space Missions from LEO Depots [AAS 18-447]" 3858: 3748: 3664: 3555: 2783:"Boeing Orbital Express Conducts First Autonomous Spacecraft-to-Spacecraft Fluid and Component Transfer" 1330: 1263: 1118:

mission in 2007, transferred propellant between satellites with specially-built pumps and connections."

972: 953: 628: 3480: 3905: 3868: 3848: 2930: 2894: 2198: 1224: 968: 846: 841:

In 1962, S.T. Demetriades proposed a method for refilling by collecting atmospheric gases. Moving in

714: 695: 632: 143: 3962: 3937: 3809: 3716: 1213: 1194: 1168: 1088: 1065: 424: 380: 115: 3097:"Large-Scale Demonstration of Liquid Hydrogen Storage With Zero Boiloff for In-Space Applications" 809:

Two missions are currently under development or proposed to support propellant depot refilling.

3979: 3511: 2395:"Space Transportation Infrastructure Supported By Propellant Depots – AIAA Space 2011 – 26 pages" 2030: 1977: 1091:

experiments on the exposed facility platform of the International Space Station in January 2013.

444: 376: 288: 212: 371:

set of technologies. While the interplanetary mission architecture consists of a combination of

3249: 1163:

As of March 2011, MDA had secured a major customer for the initial demonstration project.

3206: 3082: 2786: 2425:

Dewar, James. "To The End Of The Solar System: The Story Of The Nuclear Rocket". Apogee, 2003.

2214: 1834: 1650: 1429: 1259: 1157: 1103: 929:

propellants in space may be mitigated by both technological solutions as well as system-level

771: 468:(along with nuclear "tugs" to take payloads from LEO to other destinations) in the mid-1960s. 396:, and then after refilling on orbit by multiple Starship tankers, provide the large amount of 92: 2251:"ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF A LUNAR IN-SITU RESOURCE UTILIZATION (ISRU) PROPELLANT SERVICES MARKET" 2183: 177:

For rockets and space vehicles, propellants usually take up 2/3 or more of their total mass.

3947: 3863: 3766: 3196: 3188: 2938: 2206: 1642: 1566: 1149: 889: 826: 822: 648: 644: 598: 519: 495: 329: 151: 131: 123: 2517: 2055: 4050: 3568: 3166: 2593: 2564: 2544: 2524: 2473: 2448: 2290: 1841: 1688: 1345: 1231: 1220: 1141: 1115: 946: 930: 857:). There are, however, safety concerns with placing a nuclear reactor in low Earth orbit. 842: 791: 759: 687: 616: 594: 515: 480: 393: 385: 306: 185: 518:

demonstrations. The post-spacecraft mission extension ran 2.4 hours before executing the

427:

to support multiple destinations such as the Moon, Lagrange points, asteroids, and Mars.

2934: 2898: 2202: 1771: 1404:"Infrastructure Based Exploration – An Affordable Path To Sustainable Space Development" 717:(CNSA) performed its first satellite-to-satellite on-orbit refueling test in June 2016. 161:, propellant transfer in orbit was demonstrated, a capability required for the upcoming 44:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

3952: 3726: 3721: 2800: 2291:"Internal NASA Studies Show Cheaper and Faster Alternatives to the Space Launch System" 1014: 850: 799: 775: 691: 601: 499: 472: 450:

Reduced critical path mission complexity (AR&Ds, events, number of unique elements)

379:(BEO) spaceflights possible by reducing the cost per ton delivered to Mars by multiple 353: 216: 181: 3556:

Evolved Human Space Exploration Architecture Using Commercial Launch/Propellant Depots

2357: 1681: 4019: 3984: 3696: 2716: 2184:"Using the resources of the Moon to create a permanent, cislunar space faring system" 1356: 814: 220: 189: 100: 2942: 63: 3888: 3761: 3731: 3711: 3688: 3607: 3597: 1772:"Near Term Space Exploration with Commercial Launch Vehicles Plus Propellant Depot" 1010: 739: 702: 671: 402: 389: 224: 166: 3353:"Intelsat Picks MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. for Satellite Servicing" 1804: 1561:

Thunnissen, Daniel P.; Guernsey, C. S.; Baker, R. S.; Miyake, R. N. (July 2004).

3883: 3878: 3706: 3617: 3440:

supply attitude control for the target. ... concept is not as far along as MDA.

3159: 1380: 1186: 1111: 896:

of perigee. Equatorial depots are more stable but also more difficult to reach.

817:

communications satellites with the fuel that is initially launched with the MDA

656: 624: 419: 1619: 904:-inclination orbit (51 degrees) to dispatch nine spacecraft to "nine different 3843: 3793: 3623: 3613: 3603: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3063:. Space Travel Guide on Oracle ThinkQuest Education Foundation. Archived from 1971: 1835:

HSF Final Report: Seeking a Human Spaceflight Program Worthy of a Great Nation

961: 893: 553:

The CRYOSTAT architecture comprises technologies in the following categories:

318: 88: 80: 3512:"Startup Launches Refueling Station Into Orbit, Gets $ 10 Million in Funding" 3873: 3201: 3187:. AIAA SPACE 2008 Conference & Exposition. San Diego, California: AIAA. 2538:

Potential Propellant Depot Locations Supporting Beyond-LEO Human Exploration

2119: 1255: 1251: 1227: 1107: 934: 926: 763: 208: 162: 2613:"NASA interest in an interplanetary highway supported by Propellant Depots" 1777:. Georgia Institute of Technology / National Institute of Aerospace. 2011. 1976:(video). IAC67, Guadalajara, Mexico: SpaceX. Event occurs at 9:20–10:10. 1064:

In the early 2010s, several in-space refueling projects got underway. Two

1514:"NASA Artemis Mission Progresses with SpaceX Starship Test Flight – NASA" 1235: 1175: 1164: 1132:

As of March 2010, a small-scale refueling demonstration project for

1085: 1053: 909: 612: 299: 204: 135: 3633: 3192: 2210: 1646: 1201: 877: 779: 667: 574: 491: 488: 397: 236: 3390:"MDA restarts satellite servicing business with SES as first customer" 1570: 405:

with in-orbit refueling for their initial lunar human landing system.

2569: 2026: 1137: 1099: 767: 659: 434:

Tens of billions of dollars of cost savings to fit the budget profile

360: 295: 106:

Potential users of in-orbit refueling and storage facilities include

3019:

Loucks, Michel; Goff, Jonathan; Carrico, John; Hardy, Brian (2018).

1353:, satellite that gathers oxygen and other gasses to supply the depot 1013:

technology to split the long-term storable feedstock—water—into the

3600:

of XCOR Aerospace, Augustine Commission meeting, July 2009 (25 min)

3173:, December 14, 2012, at 1:08:20-1:09:50, accessed January 3, 2013. 1892: 1487:. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 13. 1110:

tools that could be attached to the distal end of a Space Station

1095: 1084:(RRM) was launched in 2011 and successfully completed a series of 821:

vehicle, the SIS vehicle is being designed to have the ability to

232: 228: 84: 62: 3454:"Lockheed Martin Pitches Reusable Tug for Space Station Resupply" 1639:

44th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit

437:

Allows first NEA/Lunar mission by 2024 using conservative budgets

2328:"Did NASA Hide In-space Fuel Depots To Get a Heavy Lift Rocket?" 1563:

Advanced Space Storable Propellants for Outer Planet Exploration

1049: 849:

engine, which maintains the orbit, compensating for atmospheric

643:, as well as providing limited propellant and thrust to use for 608: 503: 314: 200: 3637: 611:

Space 2010 conference. The concept proposes that waste gaseous

165:

mission which will attempt to land a crew on the Moon with the

1941:"United Launch Alliance Boldly Names Its Next Rocket: Vulcan!" 1633:

Massey, Dean R.; King, Lyon B.; Makela, Jason M. (July 2008).

1258:

flew the first propellant depot, Tanker-001 Tenzing, carrying

1106:

similar to those used on many satellites and a series of four

1068:

and a government sponsored test mission were in some level of

1021: 1017: 1002: 18: 2648:"Evolving to a Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture" 2518:

Future In-Space Operations (FISO) Working Group presentations

1910:"ULA chief explains reusability and innovation of new rocket" 215:(NTO), and mildly cryogenic, space-storable propellants like 2587:

CRYOGENIC Propellant STorage And Transfer (CRYOSTAT) Mission

1866:

Evolving to a Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture

1635:"Development of a Direct Evaporation Bismuth Hall Thruster" 440:

Launch every few months rather than once every 12–18 months

2494:"ULA Proposes On-Orbit Gas Stations for Space Exploration" 2393:

Smitherman, David; Woodcock, Gordon (September 26, 2011).

2182:

Spudis, Paul D.; Lavoie, Anthony R. (September 29, 2011).

1805:"Ares V Utilization in Support of a Human Mission to Mars" 1361:

Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee

868:

Asteroids can also be processed to provide liquid oxygen.

2834:"Intelsat Signs Up for MDA's Satellite Refueling Service" 2573:, FISO Colloquium, 2010-12-01, accessed January 10, 2011. 2482:, FISO Colloquium, 2010-11-10, accessed January 10, 2011. 1451:"Plans Scrapped for Private Robotic Gas Station in Space" 635:. The waste hydrogen would be productively used for both 130:, and then transfer propellant to be used for subsequent 3620:

of the Lunar and Planetary Institute, ISDC 2011 (25 min)

2801:"Human Lunar Exploration Mission Architectures, page 22" 2558:

Top 10 Technologies for Reusable Cislunar Transportation

2547:, FISO Colloquium, 2010-10-13, accessed August 22, 2011. 1691:

Remarks For AIAA Space 2005 Conference & Exhibition.

829:

with a replacement fuel canister after transferring the

373:

several elements that are considered by SpaceX to be key

3582:

Animation of a Boeing depot launch and refuel operation

3160:

Shackleton Energy's cislunar economic development plans

1094:

The set of experiments included a number of propellant

3550:

Presentation of Boeing's proposed LEO Propellant Depot

2990:

Loucks, Michel; Goff, Jonathan; Carrico, John (2017).

2959:

Livingston, David M.; Adamo, Dan (September 6, 2010).

2756:. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 1766: 1764: 1708:. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 1005:

cryogenic storage in order to achieve, effectively, a

3250:"Satellite refueling testbed completes demo in orbit" 2085:"Elon Musk Shows Off Interplanetary Transport System" 1009:

delivery to each customer, matched with the balanced

2885:

Demetrades, S.T. (April 1962). "Plasma Propulsion".

2646:

Zegler, Frank; Kutter, Bernard (September 2, 2010).

2115:"NASA selects SpaceX to develop crewed lunar lander" 1863:

Zegler, Frank; Kutter, Bernard (September 2, 2010).

38:

of parts of this article (those related to article)

3836: 3802: 3747: 3687: 3678: 3671: 3588:

NASA Cryogenic Propellant Depot – Mission Animation

3319:"Intelsat Signs Up for Satellite Refueling Service" 309:(LEO) propellant depots were also discussed in the 1742:. FISO Telecon (February 13, 2013). Archived from 3562:Distributed Launch – Enabling Beyond LEO Missions 1402:Pittman, Bruce; Rasky, Dan; Harper, Lynn (2012). 792:launch of the tanker rockets bearing the new fuel 359:Beyond theoretical studies, since at least 2017, 294:In a 2010 NASA study, an additional flight of an 180:Large upper-stage rocket engines generally use a 40:may be compromised due to out-of-date information 3169:David Livingston interview with James Keravala, 1846:Review of U.S. Human Spaceflight Plans Committee 514:propellant, 28% of Centaur's capacity," for the 3544:A Backgrounder for On-Orbit Satellite Servicing 3481:"Orbit Fab to test refueling technology on ISS" 2461: 2459: 2457: 1858: 1856: 1854: 464:Propellant depots were proposed as part of the 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 2865: 2863: 2685: 2683: 2527:, FISO, 2011-01-07, accessed January 10, 2011. 2078: 2076: 1148:The plan is that the fuel-depot vehicle would 865:, to avoid placing nuclear reactors in orbit. 3649: 3417: 3415: 3284:"MDA Designing In-orbit Servicing Spacecraft" 3277: 3275: 2887:Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 2606: 2604: 2602: 2581: 2579: 2367:. SpaceRef.com/nasawatch.com. July 21, 2011. 2284: 2282: 2108: 2106: 1803:Holiday, J.; et al. (November 1, 2010). 1537:"Artemis' Next Giant Leap: Orbital Refueling" 1283:NASA concept for a propellant depot from 1970 591:Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture 265:Heavy lift versus depot-centric architectures 16:Cache of propellant used to refuel spacecraft 8: 3228:Hydrogen Environment Embrittlement of Metals 2954: 2952: 2443:, October 2009, accessed January 10, 2011. 1830: 1828: 1826: 1122:MDA in-space refueling demonstration project 1048:, a process by which some metals (including 3624:Plan to mine water on the moon using depots 3185:AIAA SPACE 2008 Conference & Exposition 2744: 2742: 2655:AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition 2191:AIAA Space 2011 Conference & Exposition 802:and Phobos depots could be performed using 566:Automated Rendezvous and Docking (AR&D) 3998: 3684: 3675: 3656: 3642: 3634: 2146: 2144: 2142: 1197:the propellant to the target space asset. 1182:Space tug alternatives to direct refueling 1128:MDA Space Infrastructure Servicing vehicle 146:, but all plans have been since scrapped. 3510:Tangermann, Victor (September 14, 2021). 3200: 2717:"Space: China Achieves Orbital Refueling" 1618:. Ad Astra Rocket Company. Archived from 1586:"Ion Propulsion – 50 Years in the Making" 1397: 1395: 1060:In-space refueling demonstration projects 3571:, United Launch Alliance, September 2015 3558:, Wilhite/Arney/Jones/Chai, October 2012 2785:. Boeing. April 17, 2007. Archived from 2083:Richardson, Derek (September 27, 2016). 2020:"Making Humans a Multiplanetary Species" 989: 982: 967:In 2001, a cooperative effort by NASA's 937:fluids, boil-off caused by heating from 701:In April 2021, NASA selected the SpaceX 3317:de Selding, Peter B. (March 14, 2011). 3081:. Glenn Research Center. Archived from 2832:de Selding, Peter B. (March 18, 2011). 2751:"Realistic Near-Term Propellant Depots" 2407:from the original on September 14, 2020 1703:"Realistic Near-Term Propellant Depots" 1482:"Realistic Near-Term Propellant Depots" 1391: 1307:A 2011 NASA proposal for a Depot at GEO 1273: 813:In addition to refueling and servicing 252:Cryogenic depot architectures and types 3854:Differential technological development 3282:de Selding, Peter B. (March 3, 2010). 2763:from the original on February 24, 2020 2690:Morring, Frank Jr. (August 10, 2011). 1997: 1980:from the original on December 20, 2021 1973:Making Humans a Multiplanetary Species 1715:from the original on February 24, 2020 1494:from the original on February 24, 2020 1461:from the original on November 16, 2018 1427: 670:technical capacity for the cleanup of 615:—an inevitable byproduct of long-term 581:would use the "used" (nearly-emptied) 87:around Earth or another body to allow 3610:of XCOR Aerospace, ISDC 2011 (42 min) 3422:Morring, Frank Jr. (March 22, 2011). 3260:from the original on January 29, 2013 2971:from the original on February 5, 2018 2692:"NASA To Study Cryo Storage In Space" 2358:"Propellant Depot Requirements Study" 2230:from the original on January 30, 2012 1784:from the original on February 4, 2016 1449:Choi, Charles Q. (January 19, 2012). 1230:. If built, Jupiter would operate in 837:proposed in 2010, for launch in 2015. 597:(LEO) for beyond-LEO missions, or at 7: 3491:from the original on October 1, 2021 3460:from the original on October 1, 2021 3400:from the original on October 1, 2021 3109:from the original on October 1, 2021 3061:"Drawbacks of Cryogenic Propellants" 3041:from the original on August 13, 2019 3000:from the original on October 1, 2021 2623:from the original on August 12, 2011 2307:from the original on October 1, 2021 2091:from the original on October 1, 2016 2029:. September 27, 2016. Archived from 1136:(RCS) fluids was under development. 912:launch to interplanetary missions." 67:Artist's concept of a once proposed 3943:Future-oriented technology analysis 3248:Clark, Stephen (January 25, 2013). 3141:from the original on April 26, 2010 2492:Warwick, Graham (August 10, 2011). 2267:from the original on March 25, 2012 1951:from the original on April 14, 2015 1920:from the original on April 17, 2015 1663:from the original on April 30, 2019 1416:from the original on March 21, 2016 1409:. IAC – 12, D3, 2, 4, x14203: IAC. 1319:An evolved propellant depot concept 916:Specific issues of cryogenic depots 853:. This system was called "PROFAC" ( 607:for interplanetary missions—at the 3594:Advantages of a depot architecture 2961:"Broadcast 1420 (Special Edition)" 2727:from the original on July 10, 2016 2338:from the original on March 3, 2016 2289:Cowing, Keith (October 12, 2011). 2151:Simberg, Rand (November 4, 2011). 1811:from the original on June 18, 2016 738:Transfer of liquid propellants in 589:In September 2010, ULA released a 71:propellant depot with sun shields. 14: 3614:Cislunar Space, The Next Frontier 2813:from the original on June 5, 2011 2657:. AIAA. p. 3. Archived from 2611:Bergin, Chris (August 10, 2011). 2365:HAT Technical Interchange Meeting 2326:Mohney, Doug (October 21, 2011). 2163:from the original on July 3, 2017 2127:from the original on May 21, 2021 1596:from the original on May 29, 2020 1156:, dock at the target satellite's 872:Orbital planes and launch windows 540:flagship technology demonstration 3997: 3479:Foust, Jeff (November 6, 2018). 2374:from the original on May 5, 2015 1970:Elon Musk (September 27, 2016). 1312: 1300: 1288: 1276: 1189:design alternatives to in-space 863:orbital power-beaming satellites 557:Storage of Cryogenic Propellants 531:slosh fluid dynamics experiments 479:(ULA) performed an experimental 350:Advanced Cryogenic Evolved Stage 277:Feasibility of propellant depots 142:to refuel several satellites in 23: 2943:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.02.030 2749:Goff, Jon; et al. (2009). 1701:Goff, Jon; et al. (2009). 1480:Goff, Jon; et al. (2009). 962:Gifford-McMahon (GM) cryocooler 680:Analytical Mechanics Associates 633:solar-thermal propulsion system 3604:A Settlement Strategy for NASA 3452:Foust, Jeff (March 13, 2015). 3388:Henry, Caleb (June 29, 2017). 3032:American Astronautical Society 2872:Electric Propulsion Conference 2113:Foust, Jeff (April 16, 2021). 1939:Boyle, Alan (April 13, 2015). 1908:Ray, Justin (April 14, 2015). 1584:Wright, Mike (April 6, 1999). 819:Space Infrastructure Servicing 778:serviceable client spacecraft 774:transferred propellant to the 694:. Each company was to receive 195:Non-cryogenic, earth-storable 1: 3970:Technology in science fiction 2467:Propellant Depots Made Simple 2153:"The SLS Empire Strikes Back" 666:missions, and to provide the 653:Advanced Common Evolved Stage 494:to improve "understanding of 140:initial demonstration mission 3815:Laser communication in space 1366:In-situ resource utilization 1351:Propulsive Fluid Accumulator 986:tank (about 1300 kg of 977:Marshall Space Flight Center 855:PROpulsive Fluid ACcumulator 698:600,000 under the contract. 483:demonstration on a modified 305:Approaches to the design of 3359:. CNW Group. Archived from 1240:International Space Station 466:Space Transportation System 416:mining facility on the moon 4077: 3975:Technology readiness level 3911:Technological unemployment 2592:November 18, 2011, at the 1840:February 16, 2019, at the 1336:Automated Transfer Vehicle 1125: 569:Cryogenic Based Propulsion 535:cryogenic fluid management 471:In October 2009, the U.S. 3993: 3958:Technological singularity 3918:Technological convergence 3628:Shackleton Energy Company 3567:October 20, 2016, at the 3134:. Glenn Research Center. 3102:. Glenn Research Center. 2806:. NASA. March 1–2, 2004. 2472:February 6, 2011, at the 1371:Shackleton Energy Company 1341:Liquid rocket propellants 1205:Mission Extension Vehicle 1082:Robotic Refueling Mission 1076:Robotic Refueling Mission 804:Solar electric propulsion 721:Engineering design issues 529:is working on an ongoing 197:liquid rocket propellants 110:, defense ministries and 3820:Orbital propellant depot 3777:Plasma propulsion engine 3772:Nuclear pulse propulsion 3424:"An End To Space Trash?" 3165:January 5, 2013, at the 2249:Charania, A. C. (2007). 2004:: CS1 maint: location ( 1434:: CS1 maint: location ( 1154:communications satellite 560:Cryogenic Fluid Transfer 375:to making long-duration 112:communications satellite 3923:Technological evolution 3896:Exploratory engineering 3757:Beam-powered propulsion 3739:Reusable launch vehicle 3584:, November 2011 (1 min) 2596:, MSFC, NASA, May 2010. 2543:March 17, 2012, at the 2258:space works engineering 2087:. Spaceflight Insider. 1535:By (December 7, 2023). 1376:Aquarius Launch Vehicle 1178:as its first customer. 1134:reaction control system 1072:or testing as of 2010. 892:and, less importantly, 527:Launch Services Program 447:for propellant delivery 388:while it serves as the 243:Propellant launch costs 159:third integrated flight 157:In 2024, on Starship’s 3933:Technology forecasting 3928:Technological paradigm 3901:Proactionary principle 3702:Non-rocket spacelaunch 3226:Jewett, R. P. (1973). 3085:on September 22, 2008. 2563:July 20, 2011, at the 2523:June 15, 2011, at the 2479:United Launch Alliance 2447:July 17, 2011, at the 2440:United Launch Alliance 1687:June 22, 2017, at the 1295:NASA concept from 1971 1046:hydrogen embrittlement 1034:United Launch Alliance 880:to make the necessary 637:orbital stationkeeping 627:—would be usable as a 477:United Launch Alliance 363:has undertaken funded 346:United Launch Alliance 138:showed interest in an 72: 69:United Launch Alliance 3859:Disruptive innovation 3665:Emerging technologies 2036:on September 28, 2016 1331:Progress (spacecraft) 1264:Sun-synchronous orbit 1246:New Space Involvement 973:Glenn Research Center 960:, a condenser, and a 954:Lewis Research Center 770:servicing spacecraft 348:(ULA) proposed their 332:refuels an aircraft." 311:2009 Augustine report 66: 4046:Fuels infrastructure 4026:Spaceflight concepts 3906:Technological change 3849:Collingridge dilemma 3626:, Bill Stone of the 2157:Competitivespace.org 1086:robotically actuated 969:Ames Research Center 958:layers of insulation 715:Chinese Space Agency 502:, pressure control, 341:life-cycle savings. 144:geosynchronous orbit 4036:Private spaceflight 3963:Technology scouting 3938:Accelerating change 3810:Interstellar travel 3193:10.2514/6.2008-7644 2935:2006AcAau..59...77M 2899:1962JBIS...18..392D 2332:Satellite Spotlight 2211:10.2514/6.2011-7185 2203:2011LPICo1646...80S 1647:10.2514/6.2008-4520 1169:geostationary orbit 1089:propellant transfer 1066:private initiatives 931:planning and design 921:Boil-off mitigation 847:magnetohydrodynamic 751:Propellant transfer 734:Propellant settling 496:propellant settling 485:Centaur upper stage 381:orders of magnitude 126:with the depot, or 4041:Space applications 4031:Rocket propellants 3980:Technology roadmap 3630:, TED 2011 (7 min) 3590:, May 2013 (1 min) 3294:on January 5, 2013 2556:Bienhoff, Dallas. 2056:"Seeker – YouTube" 1659:. AIAA 2008-4520. 1250:In December 2018, 1152:to an operational 823:orbitally maneuver 727:on-orbit servicing 377:beyond Earth orbit 289:beyond-Earth orbit 213:nitrogen tetroxide 83:that is placed in 73: 4061:Industry in space 4013: 4012: 3832: 3831: 3828: 3827: 3212:978-1-62410-002-4 3067:on June 28, 2010. 2923:Acta Astronautica 2844:on March 21, 2012 2536:Adamo, Daniel R. 2465:Kutter, Bernard. 2400:. ntrs.nasa.gov. 2220:978-1-60086-953-2 1656:978-1-60086-992-1 1573:. AIAA 2004-0799. 1260:Hydrogen Peroxide 1158:apogee-kick motor 1044:Other issues are 762:mission in 2007, 645:orbital maneuvers 455:History and plans 326:Propellant tanker 132:orbital maneuvers 97:propellant tanker 93:space exploration 59: 58: 4068: 4056:Industrial gases 4001: 4000: 3948:Horizon scanning 3864:Ephemeralization 3782:Helicon thruster 3767:Laser propulsion 3685: 3676: 3658: 3651: 3644: 3635: 3527: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3436: 3434: 3419: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3370: 3368: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3336: 3334: 3325:. Archived from 3314: 3308: 3307: 3301: 3299: 3290:. Archived from 3279: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3245: 3232: 3231: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3204: 3202:2060/20130010201 3180: 3174: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3140: 3133: 3125: 3119: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3108: 3101: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3040: 3025: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3005: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2956: 2947: 2946: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2867: 2858: 2857: 2851: 2849: 2840:. Archived from 2829: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2812: 2805: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2779: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2762: 2755: 2746: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2723:. July 6, 2016. 2713: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2687: 2678: 2677: 2671: 2669: 2664:on July 17, 2011 2663: 2652: 2643: 2637: 2636: 2630: 2628: 2617:NASA Spaceflight 2608: 2597: 2585:Davis, Stephan. 2583: 2574: 2554: 2548: 2534: 2528: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2489: 2483: 2463: 2452: 2432: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2406: 2399: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2373: 2362: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2306: 2295: 2286: 2277: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2266: 2255: 2246: 2240: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2229: 2188: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2148: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2110: 2101: 2100: 2098: 2096: 2080: 2071: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2052: 2046: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2035: 2024: 2016: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1995: 1987: 1985: 1967: 1961: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1905: 1899: 1898: 1886: 1884: 1879:on June 24, 2014 1878: 1871: 1860: 1849: 1844:, October 2009, 1832: 1821: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1800: 1794: 1793: 1791: 1789: 1783: 1776: 1768: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1748: 1741: 1732: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1714: 1707: 1698: 1692: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1630: 1624: 1623: 1622:on May 22, 2013. 1612: 1606: 1605: 1603: 1601: 1581: 1575: 1574: 1558: 1552: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1532: 1526: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1516:. March 14, 2024 1510: 1504: 1503: 1501: 1499: 1493: 1486: 1477: 1471: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1433: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1415: 1408: 1399: 1316: 1304: 1292: 1280: 1238:to and from the 1209:attitude control 992: 985: 890:nodal regression 832: 641:attitude control 599:Lagrangian point 443:Allows multiple 285: 124:space rendezvous 77:propellant depot 54: 51: 45: 35:factual accuracy 27: 26: 19: 4076: 4075: 4071: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4066: 4065: 4016: 4015: 4014: 4009: 3989: 3824: 3798: 3743: 3667: 3662: 3578: 3569:Wayback Machine 3540: 3535: 3530: 3520: 3518: 3509: 3508: 3504: 3494: 3492: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3463: 3461: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3432: 3430: 3421: 3420: 3413: 3403: 3401: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3366: 3364: 3363:on May 12, 2011 3351: 3350: 3346: 3332: 3330: 3329:on May 24, 2012 3316: 3315: 3311: 3297: 3295: 3281: 3280: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3254:Spaceflight Now 3247: 3246: 3235: 3230:. NASA CR-2163. 3225: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3167:Wayback Machine 3158: 3154: 3144: 3142: 3138: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3122: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3090: 3077: 3076: 3072: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3023: 3018: 3017: 3013: 3003: 3001: 2989: 2988: 2984: 2974: 2972: 2958: 2957: 2950: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2869: 2868: 2861: 2847: 2845: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2803: 2799: 2798: 2794: 2789:on May 5, 2007. 2781: 2780: 2776: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2748: 2747: 2740: 2730: 2728: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2700: 2698: 2689: 2688: 2681: 2667: 2665: 2661: 2650: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2626: 2624: 2610: 2609: 2600: 2594:Wayback Machine 2584: 2577: 2565:Wayback Machine 2555: 2551: 2545:Wayback Machine 2535: 2531: 2525:Wayback Machine 2516: 2512: 2502: 2500: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2474:Wayback Machine 2464: 2455: 2449:Wayback Machine 2433: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2360: 2356: 2355: 2351: 2341: 2339: 2325: 2324: 2320: 2310: 2308: 2304: 2293: 2288: 2287: 2280: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2253: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2186: 2181: 2180: 2176: 2166: 2164: 2150: 2149: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2112: 2111: 2104: 2094: 2092: 2082: 2081: 2074: 2064: 2062: 2060:www.youtube.com 2054: 2053: 2049: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2013: 1996: 1983: 1981: 1969: 1968: 1964: 1954: 1952: 1938: 1937: 1933: 1923: 1921: 1914:Spaceflight Now 1907: 1906: 1902: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1869: 1862: 1861: 1852: 1842:Wayback Machine 1833: 1824: 1814: 1812: 1802: 1801: 1797: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1774: 1770: 1769: 1762: 1752: 1750: 1749:on July 4, 2014 1746: 1739: 1735:Wilhite, Alan. 1734: 1733: 1729: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1705: 1700: 1699: 1695: 1689:Wayback Machine 1680: 1676: 1666: 1664: 1657: 1632: 1631: 1627: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1599: 1597: 1583: 1582: 1578: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1545: 1543: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1519: 1517: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1484: 1479: 1478: 1474: 1464: 1462: 1448: 1447: 1443: 1426: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1406: 1401: 1400: 1393: 1389: 1346:Asteroid mining 1327: 1320: 1317: 1308: 1305: 1296: 1293: 1284: 1281: 1272: 1248: 1232:low Earth orbit 1221:Lockheed Martin 1184: 1142:MDA Corporation 1130: 1124: 1116:Orbital Express 1078: 1062: 1042: 1031: 991: 987: 984: 980: 947:cube-square law 923: 918: 874: 843:low Earth orbit 830: 800:Lagrange Points 788: 760:Orbital Express 758:As part of the 753: 736: 723: 711: 688:Lockheed Martin 623:environment of 619:storage in the 617:liquid hydrogen 605: 595:low Earth orbit 563:Instrumentation 513: 509: 462: 457: 411: 394:SpaceX Starship 386:low Earth orbit 330:airborne tanker 307:low Earth orbit 283: 279: 267: 254: 245: 186:liquid hydrogen 175: 173:LEO depot fuels 55: 49: 46: 43: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4074: 4072: 4064: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4018: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4007: 3994: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3966: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3914: 3913: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3840: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3806: 3804: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3796: 3791: 3790: 3789: 3784: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3753: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3727:Space fountain 3724: 3722:Space elevator 3719: 3714: 3709: 3699: 3693: 3691: 3682: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3663: 3661: 3660: 3653: 3646: 3638: 3632: 3631: 3621: 3611: 3601: 3591: 3585: 3577: 3574: 3573: 3572: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3533:External links 3531: 3529: 3528: 3502: 3471: 3456:. Space News. 3444: 3411: 3380: 3344: 3309: 3271: 3233: 3218: 3211: 3175: 3171:The Space Show 3152: 3120: 3088: 3070: 3052: 3011: 2982: 2965:The Space Show 2948: 2929:(1–5): 77–83. 2913: 2904: 2877: 2859: 2824: 2792: 2774: 2738: 2708: 2679: 2638: 2598: 2575: 2549: 2529: 2510: 2484: 2453: 2427: 2418: 2385: 2349: 2318: 2278: 2241: 2219: 2174: 2138: 2102: 2072: 2047: 2011: 1962: 1931: 1900: 1895:of propellant. 1850: 1822: 1795: 1760: 1727: 1693: 1674: 1655: 1625: 1607: 1576: 1553: 1527: 1505: 1472: 1441: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1359:option of the 1354: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1326: 1323: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1275: 1271: 1268: 1247: 1244: 1236:cargo carriers 1183: 1180: 1126:Main article: 1123: 1120: 1077: 1074: 1061: 1058: 1041: 1038: 1030: 1027: 1015:stoichiometric 922: 919: 917: 914: 906:interplanetary 873: 870: 839: 838: 834: 787: 784: 776:Ball Aerospace 752: 749: 735: 732: 722: 719: 710: 707: 703:Lunar Starship 692:Ball Aerospace 664:interplanetary 629:monopropellant 621:radiative heat 603: 571: 570: 567: 564: 561: 558: 511: 507: 461: 458: 456: 453: 452: 451: 448: 441: 438: 435: 410: 407: 403:Lunar Starship 369:interplanetary 354:Vulcan Centaur 338: 337: 333: 291:trajectories. 284:US$ 57 billion 278: 275: 266: 263: 253: 250: 244: 241: 217:liquid methane 182:cryogenic fuel 174: 171: 152:Lagrange point 108:space agencies 79:is a cache of 57: 56: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4073: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4006: 4005: 3996: 3995: 3992: 3986: 3985:Transhumanism 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3935: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3871: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3704: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3697:Fusion rocket 3695: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3680:Space science 3677: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3659: 3654: 3652: 3647: 3645: 3640: 3639: 3636: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3595: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3554: 3551: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3503: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3472: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3429: 3428:Aviation Week 3425: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3381: 3377: 3376: 3362: 3358: 3357:press release 3354: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3313: 3310: 3306: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3278: 3276: 3272: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3229: 3222: 3219: 3214: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3161: 3156: 3153: 3137: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3113:September 16, 3105: 3098: 3092: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3071: 3066: 3062: 3056: 3053: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3015: 3012: 2999: 2995: 2994: 2986: 2983: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2917: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2878: 2873: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2828: 2825: 2809: 2802: 2796: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2767:September 23, 2759: 2752: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2709: 2701:September 11, 2697: 2696:Aviation Week 2693: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2660: 2656: 2649: 2642: 2639: 2635: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2588: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2571: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2519: 2514: 2511: 2503:September 11, 2499: 2498:Aviation Week 2495: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2480: 2475: 2471: 2468: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2428: 2422: 2419: 2403: 2396: 2389: 2386: 2370: 2366: 2359: 2353: 2350: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2322: 2319: 2303: 2299: 2292: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2245: 2242: 2226: 2222: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2185: 2178: 2175: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2126: 2122: 2121: 2116: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2090: 2086: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2061: 2057: 2051: 2048: 2032: 2028: 2021: 2015: 2012: 2007: 2001: 2000:cite AV media 1994: 1993: 1979: 1975: 1974: 1966: 1963: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1935: 1932: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1875: 1868: 1867: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1836: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1810: 1806: 1799: 1796: 1780: 1773: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1745: 1738: 1731: 1728: 1719:September 23, 1711: 1704: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1678: 1675: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1629: 1626: 1621: 1617: 1611: 1608: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1580: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1557: 1554: 1542: 1538: 1531: 1528: 1515: 1509: 1506: 1498:September 23, 1490: 1483: 1476: 1473: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1445: 1442: 1437: 1431: 1412: 1405: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1357:Flexible path 1355: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1324: 1315: 1310: 1303: 1298: 1291: 1286: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1223:proposed the 1222: 1217: 1215: 1214:geostationary 1210: 1206: 1203: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1181: 1179: 1177: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1129: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1083: 1075: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1039: 1037: 1035: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 998: 994: 978: 974: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 950: 948: 942: 940: 936: 932: 928: 920: 915: 913: 911: 907: 903: 897: 895: 891: 886: 883: 879: 871: 869: 866: 864: 858: 856: 852: 848: 844: 835: 828: 824: 820: 816: 815:geostationary 812: 811: 810: 807: 805: 801: 796: 793: 785: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 756: 750: 748: 746: 741: 733: 731: 728: 720: 718: 716: 709:Rest of world 708: 706: 704: 699: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 675: 673: 669: 665: 661: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 600: 596: 592: 587: 584: 580: 576: 568: 565: 562: 559: 556: 555: 554: 551: 547: 543: 541: 536: 532: 528: 523: 521: 517: 505: 501: 497: 493: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 469: 467: 459: 454: 449: 446: 442: 439: 436: 433: 432: 431: 428: 426: 421: 417: 408: 406: 404: 399: 395: 391: 387: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 357: 355: 351: 347: 342: 334: 331: 327: 324: 323: 322: 320: 316: 312: 308: 303: 301: 297: 292: 290: 276: 274: 271: 264: 262: 258: 251: 249: 242: 240: 238: 234: 230: 226: 225:ion thrusters 222: 221:liquid oxygen 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 193: 191: 190:liquid oxygen 187: 183: 178: 172: 170: 168: 164: 160: 155: 153: 147: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 119: 117: 113: 109: 104: 102: 101:space station 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 70: 65: 61: 53: 41: 37: 36: 30: 21: 20: 4002: 3889:Robot ethics 3819: 3762:Ion thruster 3732:Space tether 3712:Orbital ring 3608:Jeff Greason 3598:Jeff Greason 3546:, March 2011 3519:. Retrieved 3515: 3505: 3493:. Retrieved 3484: 3474: 3462:. Retrieved 3447: 3438: 3431:. Retrieved 3427: 3402:. Retrieved 3393: 3383: 3373: 3372: 3365:. Retrieved 3361:the original 3356: 3347: 3338: 3331:. Retrieved 3327:the original 3322: 3312: 3303: 3296:. Retrieved 3292:the original 3287: 3262:. Retrieved 3253: 3227: 3221: 3184: 3178: 3170: 3155: 3143:. Retrieved 3123: 3111:. Retrieved 3091: 3083:the original 3073: 3065:the original 3055: 3043:. Retrieved 3027: 3014: 3002:. Retrieved 2992: 2985: 2973:. Retrieved 2964: 2926: 2922: 2916: 2907: 2890: 2886: 2880: 2871: 2853: 2846:. Retrieved 2842:the original 2837: 2827: 2815:. Retrieved 2795: 2787:the original 2777: 2765:. Retrieved 2729:. Retrieved 2721:StrategyPage 2720: 2711: 2699:. Retrieved 2695: 2673: 2666:. Retrieved 2659:the original 2654: 2641: 2632: 2625:. Retrieved 2616: 2568: 2552: 2532: 2513: 2501:. Retrieved 2497: 2487: 2477: 2438: 2430: 2421: 2409:. Retrieved 2388: 2376:. Retrieved 2364: 2352: 2342:November 10, 2340:. Retrieved 2331: 2321: 2311:November 10, 2309:. Retrieved 2298:SpaceRef.com 2297: 2269:. Retrieved 2257: 2244: 2234:November 10, 2232:. Retrieved 2194: 2190: 2177: 2167:November 10, 2165:. Retrieved 2156: 2129:. Retrieved 2118: 2093:. Retrieved 2063:. Retrieved 2059: 2050: 2038:. Retrieved 2031:the original 2014: 1990: 1989: 1982:. Retrieved 1972: 1965: 1953:. Retrieved 1944: 1934: 1922:. Retrieved 1913: 1903: 1889: 1888: 1881:. Retrieved 1874:the original 1865: 1848:, pp. 65–66. 1845: 1813:. Retrieved 1798: 1786:. Retrieved 1753:February 21, 1751:. Retrieved 1744:the original 1730: 1717:. Retrieved 1696: 1677: 1665:. Retrieved 1638: 1628: 1620:the original 1616:"Technology" 1610: 1598:. Retrieved 1589: 1579: 1562: 1556: 1544:. Retrieved 1540: 1530: 1518:. Retrieved 1508: 1496:. Retrieved 1475: 1463:. Retrieved 1454: 1444: 1418:. Retrieved 1249: 1218: 1199: 1195:transferring 1185: 1173: 1162: 1147: 1131: 1093: 1079: 1063: 1043: 1040:Other issues 1032: 1007:just in time 999: 995: 966: 951: 943: 925:Boil-off of 924: 898: 887: 882:plane change 875: 867: 859: 840: 808: 806:(SEP) tugs. 797: 789: 757: 754: 740:microgravity 737: 724: 712: 700: 676: 672:space debris 590: 588: 579:Simple Depot 578: 572: 552: 548: 544: 524: 520:deorbit burn 510:and liquid H 470: 463: 429: 412: 390:second stage 358: 343: 339: 325: 304: 296:Ares V heavy 293: 280: 272: 268: 259: 255: 246: 194: 179: 176: 167:Starship HLS 156: 148: 127: 120: 105: 96: 76: 74: 60: 50:January 2023 47: 39: 33: 3953:Moore's law 3884:Neuroethics 3879:Cyberethics 3707:Mass driver 3618:Paul Spudis 3264:January 26, 2975:February 5, 2893:(10): 392. 2668:January 25, 2095:October 18, 1984:October 18, 1955:October 31, 1924:October 31, 1883:October 31, 1815:October 19, 1788:January 30, 1465:January 24, 1420:October 14, 1381:Quicklaunch 1187:Competitive 1112:robotic arm 1070:development 1029:Sun shields 668:high-energy 657:upper stage 575:Atlas V 551 445:competitors 365:development 134:. In 2011, 118:companies. 75:An orbital 4020:Categories 3844:Automation 3794:Solar sail 3749:Propulsion 3521:August 30, 3323:Space News 3288:Space News 3045:August 13, 3004:August 13, 2838:Space News 2627:August 11, 2040:October 9, 1571:2014/37950 1387:References 1234:shuttling 894:precession 827:rendezvous 649:rendezvous 647:to better 409:Advantages 319:spacecraft 199:including 128:vice versa 116:commercial 89:spacecraft 81:propellant 3874:Bioethics 3495:March 28, 3485:SpaceNews 3464:March 21, 3433:March 21, 3394:SpaceNews 3367:March 15, 3333:March 15, 3298:March 14, 2848:March 20, 2817:March 19, 2271:March 14, 2131:April 18, 2120:SpaceNews 1520:April 13, 1455:Space.com 1256:Orbit Fab 1252:Orbit Fab 1228:space tug 1219:In 2015, 1108:prototype 1080:The NASA 1003:liquid H2 935:cryogenic 927:cryogenic 786:Refilling 764:hydrazine 542:in 2015. 473:Air Force 209:hydrazine 169:vehicle. 163:Artemis 3 114:or other 3565:Archived 3516:Futurism 3489:Archived 3458:Archived 3404:July 15, 3398:Archived 3258:Archived 3163:Archived 3136:Archived 3104:Archived 3036:Archived 2998:Archived 2969:Archived 2808:Archived 2758:Archived 2731:July 10, 2725:Archived 2675:demands. 2621:Archived 2590:Archived 2561:Archived 2541:Archived 2521:Archived 2470:Archived 2445:Archived 2402:Archived 2378:April 1, 2369:Archived 2336:Archived 2302:Archived 2262:Archived 2225:Archived 2161:Archived 2125:Archived 2089:Archived 1978:Archived 1949:Archived 1918:Archived 1838:Archived 1809:Archived 1779:Archived 1710:Archived 1685:Archived 1682:NASA.gov 1661:Archived 1600:July 12, 1594:Archived 1590:NASA.gov 1546:June 13, 1541:Hackaday 1489:Archived 1459:Archived 1430:cite web 1411:Archived 1325:See also 1176:SES S.A. 1165:Intelsat 1150:maneuver 1054:titanium 1011:refinery 910:smallsat 613:hydrogen 516:on-orbit 481:on-orbit 356:rocket. 344:In 2010 321:in LEO: 300:hydrolox 227:include 205:kerosene 136:Intelsat 3717:Skyhook 3145:July 7, 2931:Bibcode 2895:Bibcode 2411:July 7, 2199:Bibcode 2065:May 15, 1725:page 10 1667:May 12, 1270:Gallery 1225:Jupiter 1202:ViviSat 1140:-based 1100:nozzles 878:delta-v 831:2000 kg 780:NEXTSat 655:(ACES) 583:Centaur 525:NASA's 489:DMSP-18 487:on the 392:of the 237:bismuth 4051:Oxygen 3869:Ethics 3837:Topics 3787:VASIMR 3689:Launch 3672:Fields 3616:, Dr. 3552:, 2007 3209: 2570:Boeing 2217: 2197:: 80. 2027:SpaceX 1653: 1138:Canada 1096:valves 975:, and 768:Boeing 684:Boeing 660:rocket 492:launch 398:energy 367:of an 361:SpaceX 336:orbit. 235:, and 3803:Other 3576:Video 3139:(PDF) 3132:(PDF) 3107:(PDF) 3100:(PDF) 3039:(PDF) 3024:(PDF) 2811:(PDF) 2804:(PDF) 2761:(PDF) 2754:(PDF) 2662:(PDF) 2651:(PDF) 2405:(PDF) 2398:(PDF) 2372:(PDF) 2361:(PDF) 2305:(PDF) 2294:(PDF) 2265:(PDF) 2254:(PDF) 2228:(PDF) 2187:(PDF) 2034:(PDF) 2023:(PDF) 1877:(PDF) 1870:(PDF) 1782:(PDF) 1775:(PDF) 1747:(PDF) 1740:(PDF) 1713:(PDF) 1706:(PDF) 1492:(PDF) 1485:(PDF) 1414:(PDF) 1407:(PDF) 1104:seals 939:solar 772:ASTRO 631:in a 625:space 500:slosh 420:water 233:argon 229:xenon 184:like 85:orbit 4004:List 3538:Text 3523:2022 3497:2019 3466:2015 3435:2011 3406:2019 3369:2011 3335:2011 3300:2011 3266:2013 3207:ISBN 3147:2017 3115:2020 3047:2019 3006:2019 2977:2018 2850:2011 2819:2010 2769:2009 2733:2016 2703:2011 2670:2011 2634:LEO. 2629:2011 2505:2011 2413:2017 2380:2012 2344:2011 2313:2011 2273:2012 2236:2011 2215:ISBN 2195:1646 2169:2011 2133:2021 2097:2016 2067:2024 2042:2016 2006:link 1986:2016 1957:2016 1926:2016 1885:2016 1817:2016 1790:2012 1755:2013 1721:2009 1669:2020 1651:ISBN 1602:2017 1548:2024 1522:2024 1500:2009 1467:2017 1436:link 1422:2014 1200:The 1102:and 1052:and 1050:iron 851:drag 745:DMSP 713:The 696:US$ 690:and 639:and 609:AIAA 504:RL10 498:and 475:and 315:NASA 219:and 211:and 201:RP-1 188:and 32:The 3197:hdl 3189:doi 3028:AAS 2939:doi 2207:doi 1945:NBC 1643:doi 1567:hdl 1262:in 1191:RCS 1022:LH2 1018:LOX 902:ISS 825:to 460:USA 425:SLS 313:to 207:), 4022:: 3606:, 3596:, 3514:. 3487:. 3483:. 3437:. 3426:. 3414:^ 3396:. 3392:. 3371:. 3355:. 3337:. 3321:. 3302:. 3286:. 3274:^ 3256:. 3252:. 3236:^ 3205:. 3195:. 3034:. 3030:. 3026:. 2967:. 2963:. 2951:^ 2937:. 2927:59 2925:. 2891:18 2889:. 2862:^ 2852:. 2836:. 2741:^ 2719:. 2694:. 2682:^ 2672:. 2653:. 2631:. 2619:. 2615:. 2601:^ 2578:^ 2567:, 2496:. 2476:, 2456:^ 2437:, 2363:. 2334:. 2330:. 2300:. 2296:. 2281:^ 2260:. 2256:. 2223:. 2213:. 2205:. 2193:. 2189:. 2159:. 2155:. 2141:^ 2123:. 2117:. 2105:^ 2075:^ 2058:. 2025:. 2002:}} 1998:{{ 1988:. 1947:. 1943:. 1916:. 1912:. 1887:. 1853:^ 1825:^ 1807:. 1763:^ 1649:. 1637:. 1592:. 1588:. 1539:. 1457:. 1453:. 1432:}} 1428:{{ 1394:^ 1266:. 1098:, 971:, 686:, 682:, 674:. 577:. 522:. 418:, 239:. 231:, 103:. 3657:e 3650:t 3643:v 3525:. 3499:. 3468:. 3408:. 3268:. 3215:. 3199:: 3191:: 3149:. 3117:. 3049:. 3008:. 2979:. 2945:. 2941:: 2933:: 2901:. 2897:: 2874:. 2821:. 2771:. 2735:. 2705:. 2507:. 2451:. 2415:. 2382:. 2346:. 2315:. 2275:. 2238:. 2209:: 2201:: 2171:. 2135:. 2099:. 2069:. 2044:. 2008:) 1959:. 1928:. 1893:t 1819:. 1792:. 1757:. 1723:. 1671:. 1645:: 1604:. 1569:: 1550:. 1524:. 1502:. 1469:. 1438:) 1424:. 1020:/ 990:2 988:H 983:2 981:H 604:2 602:L 512:2 508:2 203:( 52:) 48:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index