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arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from
Eastern, Central and Western
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for trade purposes. The merchants were usually offered very high commissions and permitted to use official relay stations as long as they did not interfere with military actions. The
Mongols also offered low-interest loans to merchants if they belonged to an ortogh. In 1268,
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The
Mongols adopted and developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. The contractual features of a
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Ortogh merchants had a low reputation among
Chinese for their special treatment and their moneylending at high interest rates.
44:, meaning "partner." The institution allowed merchants to pool their resources and thereby reduce the risk of failed
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290:
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Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships".
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created the
General Administration for the Supervision of Ortogh to lend them money at low interest.
45:
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was critical of the special privileges of the ortogh, in particular the right to bear arms. By the
232:"The Mongols' Mark on Global History: Merchant Associations Alleviate the Perils of Caravan Trade"
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48:, allowing for the expansion of long-distance trade and a substantial reduction in its costs.
30:斡脱; Persian: urtak) was a merchant partnered with the state and individual aristocrats in the
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263:. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 449.
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179:
52:
31:
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100:, the word ortogh no longer had a special meaning and simply meant merchant.
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Endicott-West, Elizabeth (1989). "Merchant
Associations in Yüan China: The
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had his family members and military commanders select
Muslims, mainly
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200:"Islam and empire from the Seljuks through the Mongols"
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257:Franke, Herbert; Twitchett, Denis C. (1994).
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26:(Turkic: ortaq; Mongolian: ортог; Chinese:
260:Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368
206:. Oxford University Press. p. 84.
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76:partnership closely resembled that of
51:The institution of ortogh began when
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198:Findley, Carter Vaughn (2005).
16:Business partner of the Mongols
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172:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799
85:Asia, and Europe, including
34:. The term derived from the
296:Shipping trade associations
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204:The Turks in World History
230:Rossabi, Morris (2001).
238:. Columbia University
160:Central Asian Survey
236:Asia for Educators
270:978-0-521-24331-5
213:978-0-19-517726-8
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240:. Retrieved
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89:’s family.
66:Kublai Khan
285:Categories
128:Asia Major
87:Marco Polo
242:April 29,
180:203044817
140:41645438
94:Wang Yun
82:commenda
46:caravans
72:Mongol-
57:Uyghurs
22:, also
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178:
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61:ingots
36:Turkic
20:Ortogh
176:S2CID
136:JSTOR
124:Ortoγ
104:Notes
78:qirad
74:ortoq
41:ortak
38:word
28:wotuo
24:ortoq
265:ISBN
244:2019
208:ISBN
80:and
168:doi
126:".
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222:^
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