428:
1858:. Cope did not go so far, seeing that evolution created a branching tree of forms, as Darwin had suggested. Each evolutionary step was however non-random: the direction was determined in advance and had a regular pattern (orthogenesis), and steps were not adaptive but part of a divine plan (theistic evolution). This left unanswered the question of why each step should occur, and Cope switched his theory to accommodate functional adaptation for each change. Still rejecting natural selection as the cause of adaptation, Cope turned to Lamarckism to provide the force guiding evolution. Finally, Cope supposed that Lamarckian use and disuse operated by causing a vitalist growth-force substance, "bathmism", to be concentrated in the areas of the body being most intensively used; in turn, it made these areas develop at the expense of the rest. Cope's complex set of beliefs thus assembled five evolutionary philosophies: recapitulationism, orthogenesis, theistic evolution, Lamarckism, and vitalism. Other palaeontologists and field naturalists continued to hold beliefs combining orthogenesis and Lamarckism until the modern synthesis in the 1930s.
218:
2155:
2241:
332:
2225:
49:
2010:
1817:
273:, to merely a general trend in development due to the natural constitutional restrictions of the germinal materials, or to the physical limitations imposed by a narrow environment. In most modern statements of the theory, the idea of continuous and progressive change in one or more characters, due according to some to internal factors, according to others to external causes-evolution in a "straight line" seems to be the central idea.
6329:
6339:
2047:'s 1863 illustration comparing the skeletons of apes and humans "has become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution." She calls its history extraordinary, saying that it is "one of the most intriguing, and most misleading, drawings in the modern history of science." Nobody, Tucker observes, supposes that the "monkey-to-man" sequence accurately depicts Darwinian evolution.
516:
2070:
33:
1931:
1872:
388:(1744â1829) himself accepted the idea, and it had a central role in his theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, the hypothesized mechanism of which resembled the "mysterious inner force" of orthogenesis. Orthogenesis was particularly accepted by paleontologists who saw in their fossils a directional change, and in
1901:, which were non-rectilinear (richly branching) with many complications. The hypothesis was abandoned by mainstream biologists when no mechanism could be found that would account for the process, and the theory of evolution by natural selection came to prevail. The historian of biology Edward J. Larson commented that
2151:, showing a sequence of 14 walking figures ending with modern man, fitted the palaeoanthropological discoveries "not into a branching Darwinian scheme, but into the framework of the original Huxley diagram." Howell ruefully commented that the "powerful and emotional" graphic had overwhelmed his Darwinian text.
489:
saw this as a serious challenge, replying that "There must be some efficient cause for each slight individual difference", but was unable to provide a specific answer without knowledge of genetics. Further, Darwin was himself somewhat progressionist, believing for example that "Man" was "higher" than
1845:
is a case in point. Cope, a religious man, began his career denying the possibility of evolution. In the 1860s, he accepted that evolution could occur, but, influenced by
Agassiz, rejected natural selection. Cope accepted instead the theory of recapitulation of evolutionary history during the growth
510:
As all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the
Silurian epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken, and that no cataclysm has desolated the whole world. Hence we may look with some confidence to a
294:
defined progress as "systematic change in a feature belonging to all the members of a sequence in such a way that posterior members of the sequence exhibit an improvement of that feature". He argued that there are two elements in this definition, directional change and improvement according to some
4513:
With the integration of
Mendelian genetics and population genetics into evolutionary theory in the 1930s a new generation of biologists applied mathematical techniques to investigate how changes in the frequency of genes in populations combined with natural selection could produce species change.
706:
For the columns for other philosophies of evolution (i.e., combined theories including any of
Lamarckism, Mutationism, Natural selection, and Vitalism), "yes" means that person definitely supports the theory; "no" means explicit opposition to the theory; a blank means the matter is apparently not
1905:
At theoretical and philosophical levels, Lamarckism and orthogenesis seemed to solve too many problems to be dismissed out of handâyet biologists could never reliably document them happening in nature or in the laboratory. Support for both concepts evaporated rapidly once a plausible alternative
285:
Orthogenesis meant literally "straight origins", or "straight line evolution". The term varied in meaning from the overtly vitalistic and theological to the mechanical. It ranged from theories of mystical forces to mere descriptions of a general trend in development due to natural limitations of
504:
The inhabitants of each successive period in the world's history have beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, insofar, higher in the scale of nature; and this may account for that vague yet ill-defined sentiment, felt by many palaeontologists, that organisation on the whole has
2051:
had only one illustration, a diagram showing that random events create a process of branching evolution, a view that Tucker notes is broadly acceptable to modern biologists. But Huxley's image recalled the great chain of being, implying with the force of a visual image a "logical, evenly paced
1989:
magazine could illustrate the history of life leading progressively from mammals to dinosaurs to primates and finally man. Ruse noted that at the popular level, progress and evolution are simply synonyms, as they were in the nineteenth century, though confidence in the value of cultural and
295:
standard. Whether a directional change constitutes an improvement is not a scientific question; therefore Ayala suggested that science should focus on the question of whether there is directional change, without regard to whether the change is "improvement". This may be compared to
1953:
taboo: "It might be well to abstain from use of the word 'orthogenesis' .. since so many of the geneticists seem to be of the opinion that the use of the term implies some supernatural force." For these and other reasons, belief in evolutionary progress has remained "a persistent
663:
Though evolution is not progressive, it does sometimes proceed in a linear way, reinforcing characteristics in certain lineages, but such examples are entirely consistent with the modern neo-Darwinian theory of evolution. These examples have sometimes been referred to as
600:
approach to orthogenesis, arguing that Eimer's criticism of natural selection was common amongst many evolutionists of his generation; they were searching for alternative mechanisms, as they had come to believe that natural selection could not create new
427:
400:
himself rarely used the term "evolution" now so commonly used to describe his theory, because the term was strongly associated with orthogenesis, as had been common usage since at least 1647. His grandfather, the physician and polymath
619:
Numerous versions of orthogenesis (see table) have been proposed. Debate centred on whether such theories were scientific, or whether orthogenesis was inherently vitalistic or essentially theological. For example, biologists such as
1970:
wrote that "some of the most significant of today's evolutionists are progressionists, and that because of this we find (absolute) progressionism alive and well in their work." He argued that progressionism has harmed the status of
1918:
mechanisms of evolution were incorporated, appeared to refute the hypothesis for good. As more was understood about these mechanisms it came to be held that there was no naturalistic way in which the newly discovered mechanism of
1823:
since the 19th century for how evolution took place, given that many scientists initially had objections to natural selection. Many of these theories led (solid blue arrows) to some form of orthogenesis, with or without invoking
310:
Literally, the term means evolution in a straight line, generally assumed to be evolution that is held to a regular course by forces internal to the organism. Orthogenesis assumes that variation is not random but is directed
2210:
of the 1930s and 1940s. That made biology a professional science, at the price of ejecting the notion of progress. That, Ruse argues, was a significant cost to "people still firmly committed to
Progress" as a philosophy.
1832:
believed in a combination of theistic evolution, Lamarckism, vitalism, and orthogenesis, represented by a sequence of arrows on the left of the diagram. The development of modern
Darwinism is indicated by dashed orange
4123:
L'idée s'imposa que les microorganismes avaient subi des pertes de fonction. Celles-ci apparurent comme la manifestation d'une évolution physiologique, definie comme une degradation, une orthogenese regressive.
485:" transmitted inherited characteristics, dissuaded Mendel from continuing to work on plant genetics. According to NĂ€geli many evolutionary developments were nonadaptive and variation was internally programmed.
2100:, mocked the idea of any evolutionary link between humans and animals, with a sequence from chaos to earthworm to apes, primitive men, a Victorian beau, and Darwin in a pose that according to Tucker recalls
257:
was the first to give the word a definition; he defined orthogenesis as "the general law according to which evolutionary development takes place in a noticeable direction, above all in specialized groups".
668:
but are not strictly orthogenetic, and simply appear as linear and constant changes because of environmental and molecular constraints on the direction of change. The term orthoselection was first used by
3845:
511:
secure future of equally inappreciable length. And as natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection.
286:
either the germinal material or the environment ... By 1910, however most who subscribed to orthogenesis hypothesized some physical rather than metaphysical determinant of orderly change.
1524:
a force "working upon some definite law that we do not yet comprehend", compromise between special creation and natural selection, driven by large mutations involving chromosome alterations
392:
thought there was a gradual and constant directional change. Those who accepted orthogenesis in this way, however, did not necessarily accept that the mechanism that drove orthogenesis was
2921:
6061:
4514:
This demonstrated that
Darwinian natural selection was the primary mechanism for evolution and that other models of evolution, such as neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis, were invalid.
2198:, meaning a progressionist philosophy, in evolutionary biology by stating that evolutionary thought came out of that philosophy. Before Darwin, Ruse argues, evolution was just a
453:
became essentially a nineteenth-century belief. It gave meaning to lifeâit offered inspirationâafter the collapse of the foundations of the past." The Baltic German biologist
4135:
Loison, Laurent; Gayon, Jean; Burian, Richard M. (2017). "The
Contributions â and Collapse â of Lamarckian Heredity in Pasteurian Molecular Biology: 1. Lysogeny, 1900â1960".
2202:; Darwin made it respectable, but "only as popular science". "There it remained frozen, for nearly another hundred years", until mathematicians such as Fisher provided "both
2001:. With its rise in the late 20th-early 21st centuries, ideas of constraint and preferred directions of morphological change have made a reappearance in evolutionary theory.
196:
by describing it as "the mysterious inner force". Despite this, many museum displays and textbook illustrations continue to give the impression that evolution is directed.
5053:
4619:
2621:
2191:
which remain in
Dawkins's words "by far the most satisfactory explanation for the existence of the advanced and complex machinery that animals and plants possess".
419:
presented a sweeping narrative account of cosmic transmutation, culminating in the evolution of humanity. Chambers included detailed analysis of the fossil record.
3608:
Jacobs, Susan C.; Larson, Allan; Cheverud, James M. (1995). "Phylogenetic
Relationships and Orthogenetic Evolution of Coat Color Among Tamarins (Genus Saguinus)".
2314:
of each other, so natural selection is the driving force, but their wing patterns, which arose in separate evolutionary events, are controlled by the same genes.
1838:
1820:
701:
2187:
deny the "earlier prejudice" that there is anything "inherently progressive about evolution", but, Ruse argues, the feeling of progress comes from evolutionary
3849:
5110:
1975:
as a mature, professional science. Presentations of evolution remain characteristically progressionist, with humans at the top of the "Tower of Time" in the
415:
1893:
The stronger versions of the orthogenetic hypothesis began to lose popularity when it became clear that they were inconsistent with the patterns found by
6373:
6314:
5769:
806:
588:
to argue that evolution had proceeded in a regular single direction that was difficult to explain by random variation. Gould described Eimer as a
61:
2019:
4782:
Baxter, S.W.; Papa, R.; Chamberlain, N.; Humphray, S.J.; Joron, M.; Morrison, C.; ffrench-Constant, R.H.; McMillan, W.O.; Jiggins, C.D. (2008).
217:
5120:
4577:
979:
Cultural value of progress; "Spencer has no rivals when it comes to open, flagrant connections of social Progress with evolutionary progress."â
410:
2933:
315:. Selection is thus powerless, and the species is carried automatically in the direction marked out by internal factors controlling variation.
6077:
5837:
4945:
4919:
4898:
4872:
4846:
4595:
4506:
4481:
4456:
4407:
4300:
4187:
4074:
3960:
3815:
3531:
3308:
3274:
3240:
3200:
3133:
3103:
3073:
3045:
3020:
2983:
2873:
2809:
2779:
2751:
2688:
2660:
2458:
2411:
4316:
Gray, Russell (1989). "Oppositions in panbiogeography: can the conflicts between selection, constraint, ecology, and history be resolved?".
3988:
Luzzatto, Michele; Palestrini, Claudia; D'entrĂšves, Passerin Pietro (2000). "Hologenesis: The Last and Lost Theory of Evolutionary Change".
364:, from insects that produced only a grub, to fish that laid eggs, and on up to animals with blood and live birth. The medieval chain, as in
5434:
4442:
2646:
3548:
170:
were largely abandoned by biologists, but the notion that evolution represents progress is still widely shared; modern supporters include
6160:
5080:
6388:
5822:
5482:
4989:
4352:
2355:
2345:
2297:
1994:
1028:
790:
120:
5020:
4273:
1744:
656:, but that evolution occurs due to a periodic cycle of evolutionary processes dictated by factors internal to the organism. In 1964
116:
1336:
660:
argued that orthogenetic theories such as those promulgated by Du NoĂŒy and Sinnott were essentially theology rather than biology.
6368:
5894:
5492:
1847:
1339:
of evolution (which can be explained without orthogenesis as a statistical improbability that a path should be exactly reversed)
323:
defined orthogenesis as "the view that evolution has a kind of momentum of its own that carries organisms along certain tracks".
2859:
6139:
6129:
6053:
5328:
5000:
2360:
2207:
1911:
674:
652:
argued that variation tends to move in a predetermined direction. He believed this was purely mechanistic, denying any kind of
159:
5456:
6267:
6134:
5914:
5658:
5360:
5249:
4585:
1503:
96:
5402:
2495:
Ulett, Mark A. (2014). "Making the case for orthogenesis: The popularization of definitely directed evolution (1890â1926)".
2183:, that act much like genes. Dawkins can speak of "progressive rather than random ... trends in evolution". Dawkins and
6332:
5663:
2293:
2269:
1841:
by natural selection were not necessarily mutually exclusive. The evolutionary philosophy of the American palaeontologist
762:
2175:
Scientists, Ruse argues, continue to slide easily from one notion of progress to another: even committed Darwinians like
6272:
5774:
2288:
Biology has largely rejected the idea that evolution is guided in any way, but the evolution of some features is indeed
3549:"Basic Questions in Paleontology: Geologic Time, Organic Evolution, and Biological Systematics, by Otto H. Schindewolf"
3174:
On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection, or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
6342:
5936:
949:" transmitted inherited characteristics; many evolutionary developments nonadaptive; variation internally programmed.
578:
Organic Evolution as the Result of the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics According to the Laws of Organic Growth
203:
notes that in popular culture, evolution and progress are synonyms, while the unintentionally misleading image of the
3685:
Yampolsky, L. Y.; Stoltzfus, A. (2001). "Bias in the introduction of variation as an orienting factor in evolution".
528:, argued that aristogenes, not mutation or natural selection, created all novelty. Osborn supposed that the horns of
6038:
5212:
4980:
1677:
923:
564:
significance that would be difficult to explain by natural selection. To supporters of orthogenesis, in some cases
463:
that "Forces which are not directedâso-called blind forcesâcan never produce order." In 1864, the Swiss anatomist
270:
4530:
3636:
5832:
5629:
5439:
5207:
5100:
2037:
In popular culture, progressionist images of evolution are widespread. The historian Jennifer Tucker, writing in
1924:
1529:
1350:
1133:
389:
380:
The orthogenesis hypothesis had a significant following in the 19th century when evolutionary mechanisms such as
167:
60:, and 2) an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances (use and disuse,
6255:
6119:
6091:
6066:
6023:
5926:
5919:
5859:
5607:
5575:
5548:
5538:
1771:
459:
409:, seeing "the whole cosmos a living thing propelled by an internal vital force" towards "greater perfection".
6260:
6190:
6099:
5827:
5709:
5477:
5073:
4651:
3872:
2365:
2184:
2136:
2089:
2077:
1976:
1775:
1497:
2240:
6299:
5948:
5889:
5817:
5779:
5680:
5651:
5624:
5619:
5217:
5029:
4237:
3329:
2567:
2128:
1464:
845:
785:
657:
519:
464:
361:
189:
37:
6363:
6240:
6114:
6033:
6028:
6013:
5998:
5988:
5904:
5879:
5810:
5714:
5670:
5634:
5602:
5543:
5521:
5502:
5318:
5269:
5264:
5222:
2375:
2289:
2283:
2265:
2154:
2062:
1850:, which Agassiz believed showed a divine plan leading straight up to man, in a pattern revealed both in
1715:
1061:
756:
385:
124:
5365:
4114:
1344:
6214:
6109:
6043:
5844:
5759:
5675:
5587:
5570:
5497:
5487:
5197:
5105:
5089:
4663:
4246:
3651:
3434:
2334:
2328:
2311:
2247:
1972:
1243:
1171:
712:
670:
614:
357:
336:
312:
228:
1719:
posthumous; combined orthogenesis with non-material vitalist directive force aiming for a supposed "
473:, arguing for wholly separate lines of descent with no common ancestor. In 1884, the Swiss botanist
331:
6277:
6235:
6185:
6104:
5952:
5944:
5874:
5854:
5800:
5734:
5644:
5397:
5340:
5202:
5185:
5163:
2203:
2044:
2014:
1985:
1963:
1885:
1842:
1829:
1683:
1606:
1565:
1413:
883:
877:
820:
814:
454:
438:
175:
128:
6338:
2224:
6378:
6250:
6202:
6195:
5792:
5704:
5565:
5526:
5350:
5294:
5284:
5244:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5066:
4687:
4160:
4005:
3710:
3667:
3501:
3493:
3450:
3418:
3401:
3384:
3341:
2894:
2767:
2721:
2339:
2307:
2261:
1825:
1730:
1408:(in Beurlen's sense, repeating developmental pathway of ancestors) as mechanism for orthogenesis
629:
625:
621:
372:, 1305, added steps or levels above humans, with orders of angels reaching up to God at the top.
291:
278:
3172:
2023:
was intended to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but unintentionally created a durable
2009:
360:, with a linear sequence of forms from lowest to highest. The concept, indeed, had its roots in
299:'s suggestion of "replacing the idea of progress with an operational notion of directionality".
48:
1923:
could be far-sighted or have a memory of past trends. Orthogenesis was seen to lie outside the
457:(1792â1876) argued for an orthogenetic force in nature, reasoning in a review of Darwin's 1859
6383:
6292:
6018:
5966:
5560:
5461:
5424:
5419:
5375:
5370:
5323:
5289:
5016:
4985:
4941:
4915:
4894:
4868:
4842:
4813:
4679:
4591:
4502:
4477:
4452:
4438:
4403:
4348:
4296:
4290:
4269:
4183:
4152:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4056:
3956:
3811:
3805:
3786:
3745:
3702:
3590:
3527:
3458:
3304:
3300:
3294:
3290:
3270:
3236:
3196:
3129:
3123:
3099:
3069:
3041:
3016:
2979:
2973:
2869:
2855:
2805:
2795:
2775:
2747:
2684:
2656:
2652:
2642:
2579:
2512:
2454:
2407:
2399:
2323:
2273:
2140:
2057:
2032:
1998:
1020:
1015:
741:
633:
496:
433:
296:
205:
151:
123:. Prominent historical figures who have championed some form of evolutionary progress include
3266:
3260:
5884:
5451:
5429:
5237:
4803:
4795:
4671:
4325:
4212:
4144:
4036:
3997:
3910:
3776:
3737:
3694:
3659:
3617:
3563:
3485:
3442:
3376:
2713:
2504:
2231:
2039:
1786:
1670:
Basic Questions in Paleontology: Geologic Time, Organic Evolution and Biological Systematics
1642:
649:
262:
184:
4448:
2112:. This was followed by a flood of variations on the evolution-as-progress theme, including
1816:
188:
in 1948, by stating that it implied "some supernatural force". The American paleontologist
6245:
5696:
5685:
5639:
5582:
5531:
5311:
5115:
4961:
4882:
4856:
4834:
4784:"Convergent Evolution in the Genetic Basis of Mullerian Mimicry in Heliconius Butterflies"
4647:
3353:
2906:
2739:
2176:
2144:
2120:
1980:
1750:
954:
477:(1817â1891) proposed a version of orthogenesis involving an "inner perfecting principle".
303:
4839:
The Eclipse of Darwinism: anti-Darwinian evolutionary theories in the decades around 1900
3698:
1738:
1672:; evolution due to periodic cycle of processes dictated by factors internal to organism.
1237:
Hologenesis: a New Theory of Evolution and the Geographical Distribution of Living Beings
158:
for a rectilinear (straight-line) model of directed evolution. With the emergence of the
4667:
4250:
3655:
3438:
6085:
5957:
5259:
5254:
5192:
5170:
4975:
4934:
4861:
4808:
4783:
3233:
The Evolution of Darwinism: Selection, Adaptation, and Progress in Evolutionary Biology
3168:
3125:
Man's Selection: Charles Darwin's Theory of Creation, Evolution, And Intelligent Design
2109:
1997:, however, is open to an expanded concept of heredity that incorporates the physics of
1883:, showing a linear sequence of forms leading up to 'Man'. Illustration by G. Avery for
1177:
1036:
987:
917:
909:
809:, was a secondary aspect of this, an adaptive force creating species within a phylum.)
682:
486:
474:
402:
397:
250:
242:
234:
143:
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6287:
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5864:
5739:
5724:
5392:
5387:
4995:
4909:
4581:
3948:
3567:
3367:
Metcalf, Maynard M. (1913). "Adaptation Through Natural Selection and Orthogenesis".
3093:
2879:
2572:
2199:
2135:
on the State of Tennessee law limiting the teaching of evolution. Tucker noted that
1898:
1876:
1855:
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221:
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132:
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Evolution and BahĂĄ'Ă Belief: Ê»AbduÊŒl-BahĂĄ's Response to Nineteenth-century Darwinism
6282:
6230:
6008:
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4329:
2865:
2350:
2132:
2101:
1967:
1959:
1894:
1570:
1535:
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1310:
1209:
980:
597:
320:
200:
171:
3193:
Beasts of Eden: Walking Whales, Dawn Horses, And Other Enigmas of Mammal Evolution
2922:"The Botanic Universe: Generative Nature and Erasmus Darwin's Cosmic Transformism"
2770:(1988). "Can progress be defined as a biological concept?". In Nitecki, M. (ed.).
515:
269:
has meant many different things to many different people, ranging from a mystical
4119:
L'evolution physiologique. Etude des pertes de fonctions chez les microorganismes
3942:
3446:
52:
Lamarck's two-factor theory involves 1) a complexifying force that drives animal
6309:
6180:
5961:
5909:
5444:
5274:
5180:
5138:
4799:
3089:
2508:
2069:
1720:
1689:
1282:
1215:
840:"Forces which are not directedâso-called blind forcesâcan never produce order."
736:
589:
529:
115:
due to some internal mechanism or "driving force". According to the theory, the
2404:
The lying stones of Marrakech : penultimate reflections in natural history
32:
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6071:
5993:
5980:
5869:
5729:
5414:
5301:
5279:
5232:
5227:
5175:
5143:
5008:
4395:
4148:
4001:
3846:"The Persistence of Heresy: The Concepts of Directed Evolution (Orthogenesis)"
3621:
2799:
2550:
2446:
2302:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1851:
1578:
1444:
1147:
1024:
993:
905:
802:
798:
789:, inherent progressive tendency drives organisms continuously towards greater
731:
573:
569:
561:
537:
381:
365:
340:
179:
100:
3524:
Styles of Knowing: A New History of Science from Ancient Times to the Present
3038:
From Cosmology to Ecology: The Monist World-view in Germany from 1770 to 1930
2119:
s 1925 "The Rise and Fall of Man", the sequence running from a chimpanzee to
1828:(dotted blue arrows) directly or indirectly. For example, evolutionists like
1733:. Censured by Gaylord Simpson for nonscientific spiritualistic "doubletalk".
1100:
with no adaptive significance, claimed hard to explain by natural selection.
692:
adaptation, meaning that limited local orthogenesis is now seen as possible.
27:
Hypothesis that organisms have an innate tendency to evolve towards some goal
6304:
6155:
5899:
5719:
5382:
5130:
3952:
3914:
3781:
3765:"Climbing Mount Probable: Mutation as a Cause of Nonrandomness in Evolution"
3764:
3741:
2744:
Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of the Environmental Reform, 1917â1978
2370:
2188:
1871:
1725:
1697:
1456:
1097:
1094:
On Orthogenesis: And the Impotence of Natural Selection in Species Formation
946:
581:
557:
554:
On Orthogenesis: And the Impotence of Natural Selection in Species Formation
545:
482:
442:
393:
155:
112:
108:
72:. Popular views of Lamarckism only consider an aspect of the adaptive force.
53:
17:
4817:
4675:
4156:
3790:
3749:
3706:
3594:
3581:
Jepsen, Glenn L. (1949). "Selection. Orthogenesis, and the Fossil Record".
3462:
2516:
3728:
Stoltzfus, A. (2006). "Mutation-Biased Adaptation in a Protein NK Model".
2088:
Popular perception, however, had seized upon the idea of linear progress.
6207:
5555:
5409:
3256:
2124:
1920:
1915:
1276:
746:
653:
637:
593:
491:
406:
193:
163:
104:
4683:
150:
five years later. Proponents of orthogenesis had rejected the theory of
5849:
5749:
5597:
5592:
5306:
5058:
4400:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
3663:
3497:
3454:
3405:
3388:
2725:
2497:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
602:
565:
533:
65:
552:(1843â1898) introduced the term orthogenesis with a widely read book,
1955:
1612:
794:
57:
3422:
2704:
Guyer, Michael F. (1922). "Orthogenesis and Serological Phenomena".
1023:
Pangenesis theory of inheritance by gemmules from all over body was
1019:
is somewhat progressionist, e.g. man higher than animals, alongside
4965:
4216:
4180:
Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race, and the Search for the Origins of Man
4041:
4024:
3489:
3380:
2717:
2451:
Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist
2300:. An example is the development of wing pattern in some species of
2179:
embed the idea of cultural progress in a theory of cultural units,
5805:
5614:
5513:
2153:
2068:
2008:
1929:
1870:
1815:
645:
585:
514:
426:
330:
216:
69:
47:
31:
3918:
5764:
4235:
Koch, Leo Francis (1957). "Vitalistic-Mechanistic Controversy".
2180:
2159:
2105:
2024:
641:
5062:
4345:
Evolution Without Selection: Form and Function by Autoevolution
2206:
and status", enabling evolutionary biologists to construct the
1966:, although often denied or veiled. The philosopher of biology
4936:
Monad to man: the Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology
2622:"'Evolution on Rails': Mechanisms and Levels of Orthogenesis"
4366:
4364:
3013:
Biosemiotics: Information, Codes and Signs in Living Systems
4203:
Hubbs, Carl L. " The Course of Evolution by J. C. Willis".
3807:
Radiation Risk Estimates in Normal and Emergency Situations
2429:
2427:
2425:
2423:
56:
towards higher levels (orthogenesis) creating a ladder of
4972:(A.C. Seward ed.) Cambridge University Press. Chapter V.
2801:
Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin
2478:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2331:(contrastable with orthogenesis, not involving teleology)
1447:(inheriting acquired characteristics after heat shock as
872:
Wholly separate lines of descent with no common ancestor
688:
Recent work has supported the mechanism and existence of
356:
The possibility of progress is embedded in the mediaeval
4421:
4419:
2835:
2833:
2131:
who argued for the anti-evolutionist prosecution in the
209:, from apes to modern humans, has been widely imitated.
3476:
Lipman, Charles B. (1922). "Orthogenesis in Bacteria".
4717:
4715:
4713:
4620:"What our most famous evolutionary cartoon gets wrong"
3810:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 213.
339:
as a staircase, implying the possibility of progress:
166:
was integrated with evolution, orthogenesis and other
3873:"Edward Drinker Cope's Law of Acceleration of Growth"
2530:
2528:
2526:
5054:
What our most famous evolutionary cartoon gets wrong
2194:
Ruse concludes his detailed analysis of the idea of
1305:
Chemical forces direct evolution, leading to humans
908:
use and disuse. "On the Origin of Genera"; See also
6223:
6148:
6052:
5979:
5935:
5790:
5694:
5511:
5470:
5339:
5129:
3406:
A Suggested Explanation of 'Orthogenesis' in Plants
481:
died that same year; NĂ€geli, who proposed that an "
4933:
4886:
4860:
4497:Montgomery, Georgina M.; Largent, Mark A. (2015).
3915:"Nonsense in schoolbooks: 'The Imaginary Lamarck'"
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2571:
1937:considered orthogenesis effectively taboo in 1948.
4654:(1979). "Arms races between and within species".
3583:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
2746:. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 81â82.
2681:The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age
2607:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2574:Life of the Past: An Introduction to Paleontology
413:, in his popular anonymously published 1844 book
3336:. Harcourt, Brace & World. pp. 213â233.
1810:Natural selection is immaterial so cannot work.
3804:Cigna, Arrigo A.; Durante, Marco, eds. (2007).
3526:. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 237.
3226:
3224:
3068:. University of California Press. p. 137.
3059:
3057:
2774:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 75â96.
2629:Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology
1903:
508:
502:
467:(1817â1905) presented his orthogenetic theory,
308:
283:
267:
182:made the term effectively taboo in the journal
5034:Life Of The Past: Introduction to Paleontology
4499:A Companion to the History of American Science
4476:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14â16.
4402:. Harvard University Press. pp. 530â531.
3324:
3322:
3320:
3195:. University of California Press. p. 96.
3186:
3184:
3117:
3115:
702:Alternatives to evolution by natural selection
192:(1953) attacked orthogenesis, linking it with
5074:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4449:Chapter 7, section "Synthesis as Restriction"
4025:"Review of Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons"
3163:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3095:Gregor Mendel: planting the seeds of genetics
1371:Directed loss of functions in microorganisms
8:
4292:Marxist Writings on History & Philosophy
3839:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3827:
2972:Brown, Keven; Von Kitzing, Eberhard (2001).
2967:
2965:
2963:
2850:
2848:
2674:
2672:
2394:
2392:
2390:
636:(1922) claimed evidence for orthogenesis in
494:he studied. Darwin indeed wrote in his 1859
249:, "origin") was first used by the biologist
4230:
4228:
4226:
3235:. Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
2683:. Mercer University Press. pp. 60â64.
2158:One of many versions of the progressionist
1958:", among evolutionary biologists including
416:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
5081:
5067:
5059:
4474:Genetics, Paleontology, and Macroevolution
3517:
3515:
2861:Darwin's Dilemma: The Odyssey of Evolution
2620:Levit, Georgy S.; Olsson, Lennart (2006).
2545:
2543:
2108:in his fresco adorning the ceiling of the
709:
384:were being proposed. The French zoologist
4807:
4040:
3780:
3637:"Karyotypic orthoselection in Drosophila"
2453:. Harvard University Press. p. 499.
6315:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
3763:Stoltzfus, A.; Yampolsky, L. Y. (2009).
3408:Science, Vol. 42, No. 1094. pp. 859â863.
3334:Evolutionary Theology: The New Mysticism
2310:similar patterns. These butterflies are
370:Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind
345:Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind
4966:Heredity and variation in modern lights
4745:
4733:
2386:
1881:The modern theory of the descent of man
1821:Multiple explanations have been offered
992:(concept of higher and lower species),
904:Combined orthogenetic constraints with
807:inheritance of acquired characteristics
62:inheritance of acquired characteristics
5036:. Yale University Press, p. 119.
4769:
4425:
4382:
4370:
4101:
3975:
3349:
3339:
3015:. Nova Science Publishers. p. 7.
2954:
2902:
2892:
2433:
1065:, a tendency to increasing perfection
6078:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
4268:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 65.
4264:Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de (2003) .
3871:Barnes, M. Elizabeth (24 July 2014).
3556:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
3299:. Harvard University Press. pp.
3122:Watson, Marc; Angle, Barbara (2017).
2651:. Harvard University Press. pp.
2027:of supposed "monkey-to-man" progress.
1990:technological progress has declined.
1914:of the 1930s and 1940s, in which the
912:(linear increase in size of species)
648:. In 1950, the German paleontologist
556:. Eimer claimed there were trends in
7:
4757:
4721:
4704:
4618:Tucker, Jennifer (28 October 2012).
4563:
4551:
4444:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
4089:
4065:. Harvard University Press. p.
4062:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
3897:
3885:
3699:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2001.003002073.x
3635:Ranganath, H. A.; HĂ€gel, K. (1981).
3296:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
3265:. Oxford University Press. pp.
3215:
3148:
2998:
2839:
2824:
2648:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
2534:
2482:
2166:artwork by Giuseppe Donatiello, 2016
2020:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature
1941:By 1948, the evolutionary biologist
441:argued for a directed force guiding
233:The term orthogenesis (from Ancient
4533:. The Chronicle of Higher Education
1839:alternatives to Darwinian evolution
707:discussed, not part of the theory.
5483:Evolutionary developmental biology
4867:. University of California Press.
4841:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
4656:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4531:"Edward O. Wilson on Sociobiology"
4121:. Paris: Hermann. pp. 1â308.
2356:Evolution of biological complexity
2346:Directed evolution (transhumanism)
2298:evolutionary developmental biology
2264:similar patterns, apparently both
1995:evolutionary developmental biology
1723:" with creation of consciousness.
609:Nineteenth and twentieth centuries
522:'s 1934 version of orthogenesis,
25:
5004:, London: George Allen and Unwin.
4863:Evolution: The History of an Idea
4295:. Resistance Books. p. 207.
4211:(762 (Jan. Feb., 1942)): 96â101.
4137:Journal of the History of Biology
3262:Genesis: The Evolution of Biology
2578:. Yale University Press. p.
1269:Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons
117:largest-scale trends in evolution
6337:
6328:
6327:
2239:
2223:
1848:ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
673:, and was incorporated into the
241:orthĂłs, "straight", and Ancient
121:increasing biological complexity
6374:History of evolutionary biology
6140:Extended evolutionary synthesis
5329:Gene-centered view of evolution
5001:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis
3730:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2361:History of evolutionary thought
580:. He used examples such as the
572:. Eimer linked orthogenesis to
568:could be led by such trends to
154:as the organizing mechanism in
6268:Hologenome theory of evolution
6135:History of molecular evolution
5361:Evolutionarily stable strategy
5250:Last universal common ancestor
4587:Origination of Organismal Form
4330:10.1080/03014223.1989.10422935
4318:New Zealand Journal of Zoology
3944:A History of the Life Sciences
3547:Dimichele, William A. (1995).
3128:. BookBaby. pp. 146â150.
2978:. Kalimat Press. p. 159.
1504:Differentiation (orthogenesis)
1337:Dollo's law of irreversibility
405:, was both progressionist and
119:have an absolute goal such as
1:
6062:Renaissance and Enlightenment
4472:Levinton, Jeffrey S. (2001).
4182:. Ashgate. pp. 184â192.
3191:Wallace, David Rains (2005).
2406:. Vintage. pp. 119â121.
2294:developmental-genetic toolkit
2270:developmental-genetic toolkit
763:Inherent progressive tendency
449:Ruse observed that "Progress
178:. The evolutionary biologist
113:towards some goal (teleology)
6273:Missing heritability problem
5900:Gamete differentiation/sexes
4940:. Harvard University Press.
3844:Popov, Igor (7 April 2005).
3568:10.1016/0034-6667(95)90007-1
3447:10.1126/science.52.1331.13-a
3064:Vucinich, Alexander (1988).
3036:Jacobsen, Eric Paul (2005).
2920:Daly, J. P. (4 March 2018).
961:'The Development Hypothesis'
711:Theories of orthogenesis in
5015:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
4800:10.1534/genetics.107.082982
3687:Evolution & Development
3423:"Orthogenesis among Fishes"
3040:. Peter Lang. p. 100.
3011:Barbieri, Marcello (2013).
2509:10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.11.009
2266:facilitated and constrained
2143:" fold-out illustration in
2052:progression" leading up to
1949:, made the use of the term
1945:, as editor of the journal
1443:Combined orthogenesis with
1404:, generating variety; then
199:The philosopher of biology
146:in 1893 and popularized by
107:have an innate tendency to
64:), creating a diversity of
36:Evolutionary progress as a
6405:
5905:Life cycles/nuclear phases
5457:TriversâWillard hypothesis
4908:Larson, Edward J. (2004).
4343:Lima-de-Faria, A. (1988).
3990:Italian Journal of Zoology
3913:(SeptemberâOctober 1994).
3231:Shanahan, Timothy (2004).
2281:
2030:
924:Inner perfecting principle
699:
612:
271:inner perfecting principle
226:
129:Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
6389:Obsolete biology theories
6323:
5403:Parentâoffspring conflict
5208:Earliest known life forms
5096:
5041:"What is macroevolution?"
4984:. Simon & Schuster.
4970:Darwin and Modern Science
4149:10.1007/s10739-015-9434-3
4002:10.1080/11250000009356303
3066:Darwin in Russian Thought
2127:, and finally the lawyer
1925:methodological naturalism
1772:developmental constraints
1351:Physiological degradation
451:(sic, his capitalisation)
390:invertebrate paleontology
306:defined orthogenesis as:
246:
238:
168:alternatives to Darwinism
6256:Cultural group selection
6120:The eclipse of Darwinism
6092:On the Origin of Species
6067:Transmutation of species
3941:Magner, Lois N. (2002).
3151:, pp. 154â155, 162.
2342:(in protein engineering)
2171:Sliding between meanings
2141:The Road to Homo Sapiens
1776:phylogenetic constraints
1637:, essentially religious
1560:, essentially religious
793:, in separate lineages (
544:In 1898, after studying
460:On the Origin of Species
111:in a definite direction
6369:Non-Darwinian evolution
6261:Dual inheritance theory
6100:History of paleontology
4981:Darwin's Dangerous Idea
4289:Novack, George (2002).
4205:The American Naturalist
4029:The American Naturalist
3622:10.1093/sysbio/44.4.515
3478:The American Naturalist
3369:The American Naturalist
3330:Simpson, George Gaylord
2706:The American Naturalist
2679:Lane, David H. (1996).
2568:Simpson, George Gaylord
2557:papers, 23 January 1948
2272:genes controlling wing
2137:Rudolph Franz Zallinger
2090:Edward Linley Sambourne
2078:Edward Linley Sambourne
1977:Smithsonian Institution
1875:A satirical opinion of
1770:mechanistic, caused by
1029:pass on traits acquired
805:", use and disuse, and
396:(had a definite goal).
261:In 1922, the zoologist
5949:Punctuated equilibrium
5270:Non-adaptive radiation
5218:Evolutionary arms race
5039:Wilkins, John (1997).
4676:10.1098/rspb.1979.0081
4501:. Wiley. p. 218.
4238:The Scientific Monthly
3522:Kwa, Chunglin (2011).
2932:: 1â57. Archived from
2306:butterfly, which have
2167:
2129:William Jennings Bryan
2085:
2056:, a view denounced by
2028:
1938:
1908:
1906:appeared on the scene.
1890:
1834:
1600:L'Homme et L'Evolution
786:Philosophie Zoologique
658:George Gaylord Simpson
541:
520:Henry Fairfield Osborn
513:
507:
446:
348:
317:
288:
275:
224:
190:George Gaylord Simpson
81:orthogenetic evolution
73:
45:
6241:Evolutionary medicine
6115:Mendelian inheritance
5823:Biological complexity
5811:Programmed cell death
5503:Phenotypic plasticity
5223:Evolutionary pressure
5213:Evidence of evolution
5111:Timeline of evolution
4178:Regal, Brian (2002).
4023:Castle, W.E. (1920).
3923:. The Textbook League
3782:10.1093/jhered/esp048
3742:10.1093/molbev/msl064
2772:Evolutionary Progress
2376:Teleological argument
2308:independently evolved
2284:Facilitated variation
2262:independently evolved
2256:Different species of
2215:Facilitated variation
2164:Astronomy Evolution 2
2157:
2072:
2049:The Origin of Species
2031:Further information:
2012:
1933:
1874:
1846:of the embryo - that
1819:
1716:The Phenomenon of Man
1453:plasmatic inheritance
1428:Protozoology, Zoology
700:Further information:
613:Further information:
536:form, way beyond the
518:
430:
386:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
334:
227:Further information:
220:
125:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
89:evolutionary progress
85:progressive evolution
51:
35:
6215:Teleology in biology
6110:Blending inheritance
5488:Genetic assimilation
5351:Artificial selection
5090:Evolutionary biology
4889:The Blind Watchmaker
4266:The Human Phenomenon
3911:Ghiselin, Michael T.
2926:Republics of Letters
2329:Convergent evolution
2292:by the genes of the
2248:Heliconius melpomene
2013:The frontispiece to
1973:evolutionary biology
1745:Biological synthesis
1318:(the law of inertia)
713:evolutionary biology
671:Ludwig Hermann Plate
615:Eclipse of Darwinism
358:great chain of being
337:great chain of being
229:Teleology in biology
6278:Molecular evolution
6236:Ecological genetics
6105:Transitional fossil
5895:Sexual reproduction
5735:endomembrane system
5664:pollinator-mediated
5620:dolphins and whales
5398:Parental investment
4760:, pp. 292â295.
4668:1979RSPSB.205..489D
4373:, pp. 261â262.
4251:1957SciMo..85..245K
3978:, pp. 116â117.
3920:The Textbook Letter
3900:, pp. 181â191.
3769:Journal of Heredity
3656:1981NW.....68..527R
3644:Naturwissenschaften
3439:1920Sci....52...13S
3419:Starr, Jordan David
3218:, pp. 266â267.
3098:. Harry N. Abrams.
2768:Ayala, Francisco J.
2740:Schrepfer, Susan R.
2485:, pp. 526â539.
2436:, pp. 268â270.
2045:Thomas Henry Huxley
2015:Thomas Henry Huxley
1986:Scientific American
1964:Simon Conway Morris
1886:Scientific American
1843:Edward Drinker Cope
1830:Edward Drinker Cope
1684:Directed additivity
1678:Teilhard de Chardin
884:Law of acceleration
821:Purposeful creation
715:
465:Albert von Kölliker
455:Karl Ernst von Baer
439:Karl Ernst von Baer
431:Reviewing Darwin's
362:Aristotle's biology
313:towards fixed goals
176:Simon Conway Morris
6251:Cultural evolution
5366:Fisher's principle
5295:Handicap principle
5285:Parallel evolution
5149:Adaptive radiation
5030:Simpson, George G.
4914:. Modern Library.
4575:see, for example,
4439:Gould, Stephen Jay
4057:Gould, Stephen Jay
3947:(Third ed.).
3664:10.1007/bf00365385
3610:Systematic Biology
3402:John Merle Coulter
3291:Gould, Stephen Jay
3177:. Chapters 10, 14.
2856:Gould, Stephen Jay
2796:Gould, Stephen Jay
2643:Gould, Stephen Jay
2340:Directed evolution
2168:
2086:
2029:
2005:In popular culture
1993:The discipline of
1939:
1891:
1835:
1792:Physics, Chemistry
1731:Vladimir Vernadsky
1449:dauermodifications
1134:Creative Evolution
710:
630:David Starr Jordan
626:John Merle Coulter
622:Maynard M. Metcalf
542:
447:
349:
292:Francisco J. Ayala
279:Susan R. Schrepfer
225:
142:was introduced by
74:
46:
6351:
6350:
5967:Uniformitarianism
5920:Sex-determination
5425:Sexual dimorphism
5420:Natural selection
5324:Unit of selection
5290:Signalling theory
5013:What Evolution Is
4947:978-0-674-03248-4
4921:978-0-679-64288-6
4900:978-0-393-31570-7
4874:978-0-520-06385-3
4848:978-0-8018-4391-4
4662:(1161): 489â511.
4597:978-0-262-13419-4
4582:Newman, Stuart A.
4529:(31 March 2010).
4508:978-1-4051-5625-7
4483:978-0-521-80317-5
4458:978-0-674-00613-3
4409:978-0-674-36446-2
4302:978-1-876646-23-3
4189:978-0-7546-0587-4
4076:978-0-674-00613-3
3962:978-0-203-91100-6
3817:978-1-4020-4956-9
3736:(10): 1852â1862.
3533:978-0-8229-6151-2
3310:978-0-674-00613-3
3276:978-0-19-515619-5
3242:978-0-521-54198-5
3202:978-0-520-24684-3
3135:978-1-936883-14-1
3105:978-0-8109-5748-0
3075:978-0-520-06283-2
3047:978-0-8204-7231-7
3022:978-1-60021-612-1
2985:978-1-890688-08-0
2875:978-0-393-06425-4
2842:, pp. 21â23.
2811:978-0-609-80140-6
2781:978-0-226-58693-9
2753:978-0-299-08854-5
2690:978-0-86554-498-7
2662:978-0-674-00613-3
2553:to R. H. Flower,
2460:978-0-674-89666-6
2413:978-0-09-928583-0
2400:Gould, Stephen J.
2324:Adaptive mutation
2274:pattern formation
2268:by the available
2094:Man is But a Worm
2074:Man is But a Worm
2058:Stephen Jay Gould
2033:March of Progress
1999:self-organization
1927:of the sciences.
1814:
1813:
1425:Directed mutation
1021:natural selection
1016:Origin of Species
634:Charles B. Lipman
592:who rejected any
576:in his 1890 book
497:Origin of Species
434:Origin of Species
297:Stephen Jay Gould
206:March of Progress
152:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
6396:
6341:
6331:
6330:
6130:Modern synthesis
5890:Multicellularity
5885:Mosaic evolution
5770:auditory ossicle
5452:Social selection
5435:Flowering plants
5430:Sexual selection
5083:
5076:
5069:
5060:
5043:13 October 2004.
5026:
4962:Bateson, William
4951:
4939:
4925:
4904:
4892:
4883:Dawkins, Richard
4878:
4866:
4857:Bowler, Peter J.
4852:
4835:Bowler, Peter J.
4822:
4821:
4811:
4794:(3): 1567â1577.
4779:
4773:
4767:
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4731:
4725:
4719:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4695:
4648:Dawkins, Richard
4644:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4633:
4615:
4602:
4601:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4435:
4429:
4423:
4414:
4413:
4392:
4386:
4380:
4374:
4368:
4359:
4358:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4286:
4280:
4279:
4261:
4255:
4254:
4232:
4221:
4220:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4132:
4126:
4125:
4111:
4105:
4099:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4035:(631): 188â192.
4020:
4014:
4013:
3985:
3979:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3907:
3901:
3895:
3889:
3883:
3877:
3876:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3852:on 15 April 2017
3848:. Archived from
3841:
3822:
3821:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3784:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3682:
3676:
3675:
3641:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3605:
3599:
3598:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3562:(3â4): 481â483.
3553:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3519:
3510:
3509:
3484:(643): 105â115.
3473:
3467:
3466:
3415:
3409:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3351:
3347:
3345:
3337:
3326:
3315:
3314:
3287:
3281:
3280:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3228:
3219:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3188:
3179:
3178:
3165:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3119:
3110:
3109:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3061:
3052:
3051:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2969:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2890:
2888:
2887:
2878:. Archived from
2852:
2843:
2837:
2828:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2712:(643): 116â133.
2701:
2695:
2694:
2676:
2667:
2666:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2626:
2617:
2584:
2583:
2577:
2564:
2558:
2547:
2538:
2532:
2521:
2520:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2465:
2464:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2418:
2417:
2396:
2312:MĂŒllerian mimics
2243:
2232:Heliconius erato
2227:
2208:modern synthesis
2118:
2098:Punch's Almanack
2082:Punch's Almanack
2040:The Boston Globe
1912:modern synthesis
1787:Autoevolutionism
1574:
1422:
1400:Start is random
1204:Combined theory
1027:: parents could
716:
675:modern synthesis
650:Otto Schindewolf
644:populations and
263:Michael F. Guyer
248:
240:
160:modern synthesis
79:, also known as
21:
6404:
6403:
6399:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6394:
6393:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6347:
6319:
6246:Group selection
6219:
6144:
6048:
5975:
5937:Tempo and modes
5931:
5786:
5690:
5507:
5466:
5342:
5335:
5312:Species complex
5125:
5116:History of life
5092:
5087:
5050:
5023:
5007:
4976:Dennett, Daniel
4958:
4956:Further reading
4948:
4928:
4922:
4907:
4901:
4881:
4875:
4855:
4849:
4833:
4830:
4825:
4781:
4780:
4776:
4768:
4764:
4756:
4752:
4744:
4740:
4732:
4728:
4720:
4711:
4703:
4699:
4646:
4645:
4641:
4631:
4629:
4617:
4616:
4605:
4598:
4584:, eds. (2003).
4578:MĂŒller, Gerd B.
4576:
4574:
4570:
4562:
4558:
4550:
4546:
4536:
4534:
4525:
4524:
4520:
4509:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4484:
4471:
4470:
4466:
4459:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4424:
4417:
4410:
4394:
4393:
4389:
4381:
4377:
4369:
4362:
4355:
4342:
4341:
4337:
4315:
4314:
4310:
4303:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4263:
4262:
4258:
4234:
4233:
4224:
4202:
4201:
4197:
4190:
4177:
4176:
4172:
4134:
4133:
4129:
4113:
4112:
4108:
4100:
4096:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4055:
4054:
4050:
4022:
4021:
4017:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3974:
3970:
3963:
3940:
3939:
3935:
3926:
3924:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3896:
3892:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3869:
3865:
3855:
3853:
3843:
3842:
3825:
3818:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3762:
3761:
3757:
3727:
3726:
3722:
3684:
3683:
3679:
3650:(10): 527â528.
3639:
3634:
3633:
3629:
3607:
3606:
3602:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3551:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3534:
3521:
3520:
3513:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3433:(1331): 13â14.
3417:
3416:
3412:
3400:
3396:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3348:
3338:
3328:
3327:
3318:
3311:
3289:
3288:
3284:
3277:
3255:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3230:
3229:
3222:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3190:
3189:
3182:
3169:Darwin, Charles
3167:
3166:
3155:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3121:
3120:
3113:
3106:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3063:
3062:
3055:
3048:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3010:
3009:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2986:
2971:
2970:
2961:
2953:
2949:
2939:
2937:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2901:
2891:
2885:
2883:
2876:
2854:
2853:
2846:
2838:
2831:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2794:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2691:
2678:
2677:
2670:
2663:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2624:
2619:
2618:
2587:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2548:
2541:
2533:
2524:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2481:
2468:
2461:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2432:
2421:
2414:
2398:
2397:
2388:
2384:
2320:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2260:butterfly have
2253:
2252:
2251:
2244:
2236:
2235:
2228:
2217:
2177:Richard Dawkins
2173:
2145:F. Clark Howell
2121:Neanderthal man
2116:
2035:
2007:
1981:Washington D.C.
1895:paleontologists
1889:, 11 March 1876
1869:
1864:
1751:Panbiogeography
1748:
1696:
1687:
1635:Cell and Psyche
1568:
1451:, passed on by
1416:
1316:TrÀgheitsgesetz
1059:Accompanied by
960:
704:
698:
690:mutation biased
617:
611:
532:evolved into a
425:
411:Robert Chambers
378:
354:
329:
304:Peter J. Bowler
247:ÎłÎΜΔÏÎčÏ gĂ©nesis
231:
215:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6402:
6400:
6392:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6356:
6355:
6349:
6348:
6346:
6345:
6335:
6324:
6321:
6320:
6318:
6317:
6312:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6296:
6295:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6264:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6227:
6225:
6221:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6205:
6200:
6199:
6198:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6158:
6152:
6150:
6146:
6145:
6143:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6096:
6095:
6086:Charles Darwin
6083:
6082:
6081:
6069:
6064:
6058:
6056:
6050:
6049:
6047:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6026:
6024:Non-ecological
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5985:
5983:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5973:
5964:
5955:
5941:
5939:
5933:
5932:
5930:
5929:
5924:
5923:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5841:
5840:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5814:
5813:
5808:
5797:
5795:
5788:
5787:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5782:
5777:
5775:nervous system
5772:
5767:
5762:
5754:
5753:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5701:
5699:
5692:
5691:
5689:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5667:
5666:
5656:
5655:
5654:
5649:
5648:
5647:
5642:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5605:
5595:
5585:
5580:
5579:
5578:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5552:
5551:
5541:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5524:
5518:
5516:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5474:
5472:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5406:
5405:
5400:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5347:
5345:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5333:
5332:
5331:
5321:
5316:
5315:
5314:
5309:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5275:Origin of life
5272:
5267:
5262:
5260:Microevolution
5257:
5255:Macroevolution
5252:
5247:
5242:
5241:
5240:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5193:Common descent
5190:
5189:
5188:
5178:
5173:
5171:Baldwin effect
5168:
5167:
5166:
5161:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5135:
5133:
5127:
5126:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5097:
5094:
5093:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5078:
5071:
5063:
5057:
5056:
5049:
5048:External links
5046:
5045:
5044:
5037:
5027:
5021:
5005:
4996:Huxley, Julian
4993:
4990:978-0140167344
4973:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4946:
4926:
4920:
4905:
4899:
4879:
4873:
4853:
4847:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4823:
4774:
4772:, p. 270.
4762:
4750:
4748:, p. 181.
4738:
4736:, p. 178.
4726:
4724:, p. 468.
4709:
4707:, p. 466.
4697:
4639:
4603:
4596:
4568:
4566:, p. 530.
4556:
4554:, p. 536.
4544:
4518:
4507:
4489:
4482:
4464:
4457:
4430:
4428:, p. 127.
4415:
4408:
4387:
4385:, p. 264.
4375:
4360:
4354:978-0444809636
4353:
4335:
4324:(4): 787â806.
4308:
4301:
4281:
4274:
4256:
4245:(5): 245â255.
4222:
4217:10.1086/281018
4195:
4188:
4170:
4127:
4106:
4104:, p. 157.
4094:
4092:, p. 395.
4082:
4075:
4048:
4042:10.1086/279751
4015:
3980:
3968:
3961:
3933:
3902:
3890:
3888:, p. 189.
3878:
3863:
3823:
3816:
3796:
3775:(5): 637â647.
3755:
3720:
3677:
3627:
3616:(4): 515â532.
3600:
3589:(6): 479â500.
3573:
3539:
3532:
3511:
3490:10.1086/279851
3468:
3410:
3394:
3381:10.1086/279329
3375:(554): 65â71.
3359:
3316:
3309:
3282:
3275:
3248:
3241:
3220:
3208:
3201:
3180:
3153:
3141:
3134:
3111:
3104:
3081:
3074:
3053:
3046:
3028:
3021:
3003:
2991:
2984:
2959:
2957:, p. 134.
2947:
2936:on 1 July 2022
2912:
2874:
2844:
2829:
2827:, p. 261.
2817:
2810:
2787:
2780:
2759:
2752:
2731:
2718:10.1086/279852
2696:
2689:
2668:
2661:
2634:
2585:
2559:
2539:
2537:, p. 447.
2522:
2487:
2466:
2459:
2438:
2419:
2412:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2282:Main article:
2255:
2254:
2245:
2238:
2237:
2229:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2172:
2169:
2114:The New Yorker
2110:Sistine Chapel
2063:Wonderful Life
2006:
2003:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1826:divine control
1812:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1693:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1575:
1562:
1561:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1410:
1409:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1178:Orthoselection
1174:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
990:
984:
983:
977:
975:
973:
971:
968:
965:
962:
959:Progressionism
957:
951:
950:
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
930:
927:
920:
914:
913:
902:
900:
898:
896:
893:
890:
887:
880:
874:
873:
870:
868:
866:
864:
861:
858:
855:
848:
842:
841:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
827:
824:
817:
811:
810:
781:
779:
777:
775:
772:
769:
766:
759:
753:
752:
749:
744:
742:Nat. Sel.
739:
734:
729:
726:
723:
720:
697:
694:
683:Bernard Rensch
666:orthoselection
610:
607:
574:neo-Lamarckism
487:Charles Darwin
424:
421:
403:Erasmus Darwin
398:Charles Darwin
377:
374:
353:
350:
335:The mediaeval
328:
325:
251:Wilhelm Haacke
214:
211:
144:Wilhelm Haacke
93:progressionism
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6401:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6361:
6359:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6334:
6326:
6325:
6322:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6294:
6291:
6290:
6289:
6288:Phylogenetics
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6228:
6226:
6222:
6216:
6213:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6197:
6194:
6193:
6192:
6191:Structuralism
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6166:Catastrophism
6164:
6163:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6153:
6151:
6147:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6125:Neo-Darwinism
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6094:
6093:
6089:
6088:
6087:
6084:
6080:
6079:
6075:
6074:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6051:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6039:Reinforcement
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5986:
5984:
5982:
5978:
5972:
5971:Catastrophism
5968:
5965:
5963:
5962:Macromutation
5959:
5958:Micromutation
5956:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5943:
5942:
5940:
5938:
5934:
5928:
5925:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5897:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5865:Immune system
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5839:
5836:
5835:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5803:
5802:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5794:
5789:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5755:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5725:symbiogenesis
5723:
5722:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5700:
5698:
5693:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5665:
5662:
5661:
5660:
5657:
5653:
5650:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5590:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5577:
5574:
5573:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5550:
5547:
5546:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5533:
5530:
5529:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5519:
5517:
5515:
5510:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5475:
5473:
5469:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5393:Kin selection
5391:
5389:
5388:Genetic drift
5386:
5384:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5344:
5338:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5300:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5187:
5184:
5183:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5132:
5128:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5095:
5091:
5084:
5079:
5077:
5072:
5070:
5065:
5064:
5061:
5055:
5052:
5051:
5047:
5042:
5038:
5035:
5031:
5028:
5024:
5022:9780297607410
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4994:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4960:
4959:
4955:
4949:
4943:
4938:
4937:
4931:
4930:Ruse, Michael
4927:
4923:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4906:
4902:
4896:
4891:
4890:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4870:
4865:
4864:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4831:
4827:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4766:
4763:
4759:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4727:
4723:
4718:
4716:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4701:
4698:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4643:
4640:
4628:
4627:
4621:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4608:
4604:
4599:
4593:
4589:
4588:
4583:
4579:
4572:
4569:
4565:
4560:
4557:
4553:
4548:
4545:
4532:
4528:
4527:Ruse, Michael
4522:
4519:
4515:
4510:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4490:
4485:
4479:
4475:
4468:
4465:
4460:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4422:
4420:
4416:
4411:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4384:
4379:
4376:
4372:
4367:
4365:
4361:
4356:
4350:
4346:
4339:
4336:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4309:
4304:
4298:
4294:
4293:
4285:
4282:
4277:
4275:1-902210-30-1
4271:
4267:
4260:
4257:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4239:
4231:
4229:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4199:
4196:
4191:
4185:
4181:
4174:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4110:
4107:
4103:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4086:
4083:
4078:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4049:
4043:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4016:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3984:
3981:
3977:
3972:
3969:
3964:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3949:Marcel Dekker
3946:
3945:
3937:
3934:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3903:
3899:
3894:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3879:
3874:
3867:
3864:
3851:
3847:
3840:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3819:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3800:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3759:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3681:
3678:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3638:
3631:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3604:
3601:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3469:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3414:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3360:
3355:
3343:
3335:
3331:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3286:
3283:
3278:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3249:
3244:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3142:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3085:
3082:
3077:
3071:
3067:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3004:
3001:, p. 29.
3000:
2995:
2992:
2987:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2948:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2913:
2908:
2896:
2882:on 2019-12-16
2881:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2818:
2813:
2807:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2788:
2783:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2763:
2760:
2755:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2700:
2697:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2638:
2635:
2631:(11): 99â138.
2630:
2623:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2366:Structuralism
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2233:
2226:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2200:pseudoscience
2197:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2104:'s figure of
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2043:, notes that
2042:
2041:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1902:
1900:
1899:fossil record
1896:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1877:Ernst Haeckel
1873:
1866:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1856:palaeontology
1853:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1782:Lima-de-Faria
1781:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1729:concept from
1728:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1695:Palaeontology
1694:
1692:
1691:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:Palaeontology
1653:
1651:
1650:
1649:Typostrophism
1646:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1558:Human Destiny
1555:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1476:Palaeontology
1475:
1473:
1472:
1471:Aristogenesis
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1414:Victor Jollos
1412:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1384:Palaeontology
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:Palaeontology
1320:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1183:Old-Darwinism
1180:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1031:in lifetime.
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
995:
991:
989:
986:
985:
982:
978:
976:
974:
972:
969:
966:
964:Social theory
963:
958:
956:
953:
952:
948:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
931:
928:
926:
925:
921:
919:
916:
915:
911:
907:
903:
901:
899:
897:
894:
891:
889:Palaeontology
888:
886:
885:
881:
879:
876:
875:
871:
869:
867:
865:
862:
859:
856:
854:
853:
852:Heterogenesis
849:
847:
844:
843:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
828:
825:
823:
822:
818:
816:
813:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
787:
782:
780:
778:
776:
773:
770:
767:
765:
764:
760:
758:
755:
754:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
727:
724:
721:
718:
717:
714:
708:
703:
695:
693:
691:
686:
684:
680:
679:Julian Huxley
676:
672:
667:
661:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
616:
608:
606:
604:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
550:Theodor Eimer
547:
539:
535:
531:
527:
526:
525:aristogenesis
521:
517:
512:
506:
501:
499:
498:
493:
488:
484:
480:
479:Gregor Mendel
476:
472:
471:
470:heterogenesis
466:
462:
461:
456:
452:
444:
440:
436:
435:
429:
422:
420:
418:
417:
412:
408:
404:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
376:Pre-Darwinian
375:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
351:
346:
342:
338:
333:
326:
324:
322:
316:
314:
307:
305:
300:
298:
293:
287:
282:
280:
277:According to
274:
272:
266:
264:
259:
256:
255:Theodor Eimer
252:
244:
236:
230:
223:
222:Theodor Eimer
219:
212:
210:
208:
207:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
186:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
148:Theodor Eimer
145:
141:
136:
134:
133:Henri Bergson
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
50:
43:
42:Ernst Haeckel
39:
34:
30:
19:
6364:Orthogenesis
6300:Polymorphism
6283:Astrobiology
6231:Biogeography
6186:Saltationism
6176:Orthogenesis
6175:
6161:Alternatives
6090:
6076:
6009:Cospeciation
6004:Cladogenesis
5953:Saltationism
5910:Mating types
5833:Color vision
5818:Avian flight
5740:mitochondria
5478:Canalisation
5356:Biodiversity
5101:Introduction
5033:
5012:
4999:
4979:
4969:
4935:
4910:
4888:
4862:
4838:
4791:
4787:
4777:
4765:
4753:
4746:Dawkins 1986
4741:
4734:Dawkins 1986
4729:
4700:
4659:
4655:
4652:Krebs, J. R.
4642:
4630:. Retrieved
4626:Boston Globe
4623:
4590:. Bradford.
4586:
4571:
4559:
4547:
4535:. Retrieved
4521:
4512:
4498:
4492:
4473:
4467:
4443:
4433:
4399:
4390:
4378:
4347:. Elsevier.
4344:
4338:
4321:
4317:
4311:
4291:
4284:
4265:
4259:
4242:
4236:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4179:
4173:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4122:
4118:
4109:
4097:
4085:
4061:
4051:
4032:
4028:
4018:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3971:
3943:
3936:
3925:. Retrieved
3919:
3905:
3893:
3881:
3866:
3854:. Retrieved
3850:the original
3806:
3799:
3772:
3768:
3758:
3733:
3729:
3723:
3693:(2): 73â83.
3690:
3686:
3680:
3647:
3643:
3630:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3559:
3555:
3542:
3523:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3430:
3426:
3413:
3397:
3372:
3368:
3362:
3333:
3295:
3285:
3261:
3251:
3232:
3211:
3192:
3173:
3144:
3124:
3094:
3090:Mawer, Simon
3084:
3065:
3037:
3031:
3012:
3006:
2994:
2974:
2950:
2938:. Retrieved
2934:the original
2929:
2925:
2915:
2884:. Retrieved
2880:the original
2866:W. W. Norton
2860:
2820:
2800:
2790:
2771:
2762:
2743:
2734:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2680:
2647:
2637:
2628:
2573:
2562:
2554:
2549:Letter from
2500:
2496:
2490:
2450:
2441:
2403:
2351:Evolutionism
2301:
2287:
2257:
2246:
2230:
2195:
2193:
2174:
2163:
2148:
2133:Scopes Trial
2113:
2102:Michelangelo
2097:
2096:, drawn for
2093:
2087:
2081:
2073:
2061:
2054:Homo sapiens
2053:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2018:
1992:
1984:
1968:Michael Ruse
1960:E. O. Wilson
1951:orthogenesis
1950:
1946:
1940:
1909:
1904:
1892:
1884:
1880:
1837:The various
1836:
1785:
1749:
1743:
1724:
1714:
1688:
1682:
1669:
1647:
1634:
1611:
1599:
1577:
1557:
1536:Telefinalism
1534:
1502:
1469:
1452:
1448:
1406:palingenesis
1405:
1401:
1381:Orthogenesis
1349:
1315:
1281:
1268:
1248:Orthogenesis
1236:
1214:
1182:
1176:
1146:
1132:
1110:
1096:: trends in
1093:
1075:Orthogenesis
1060:
1041:Orthogenesis
1014:
981:Michael Ruse
922:
882:
850:
819:
784:
761:
705:
687:
665:
662:
618:
598:teleological
577:
553:
548:coloration,
543:
530:Titanotheres
523:
509:
505:progressed.
503:
495:
468:
458:
450:
448:
432:
414:
394:teleological
379:
369:
355:
344:
321:Michael Ruse
318:
309:
301:
289:
284:
276:
268:
260:
232:
204:
201:Michael Ruse
198:
183:
172:E. O. Wilson
140:orthogenesis
139:
137:
92:
88:
84:
80:
77:Orthogenesis
76:
75:
38:tree of life
29:
18:Orthogenetic
6310:Systematics
6181:Mutationism
5999:Catagenesis
5927:Snake venom
5860:Eusociality
5838:in primates
5828:Cooperation
5756:In animals
5576:butterflies
5549:Cephalopods
5539:Brachiopods
5471:Development
5445:Mate choice
5198:Convergence
5181:Coevolution
5139:Abiogenesis
5009:Mayr, Ernst
4893:. Longman.
4770:Bowler 1989
4632:29 December
4447:. pp.
4426:Larson 2004
4396:Mayr, Ernst
4383:Bowler 1989
4371:Bowler 1989
4143:(5): 5â52.
4102:Bowler 1983
3996:: 129â138.
3976:Bowler 1989
3350:|work=
2955:Bowler 1989
2903:|work=
2804:. Harmony.
2503:: 124â132.
2447:Mayr, Ernst
2434:Bowler 1989
2296:studied in
2290:facilitated
1721:Omega Point
1690:Omega Point
1643:Schindewolf
1569: [
1417: [
1402:metakinesis
1359:1930sâ1940s
1283:Nomogenesis
1271:posthumous
1216:Hologenesis
1062:epimorphism
910:Cope's rule
632:(1920) and
590:materialist
475:Carl NĂ€geli
423:With Darwin
162:, in which
99:biological
6358:Categories
6171:Lamarckism
6149:Philosophy
6072:David Hume
6034:Peripatric
6029:Parapatric
6014:Ecological
5994:Anagenesis
5989:Allopatric
5981:Speciation
5945:Gradualism
5870:Metabolism
5730:chromosome
5720:Eukaryotes
5498:Modularity
5415:Population
5341:Population
5302:Speciation
5280:Panspermia
5233:Extinction
5228:Exaptation
5203:Divergence
5176:Cladistics
5164:Reciprocal
5144:Adaptation
3927:2008-01-23
3404:. (1915).
2940:7 December
2886:2019-08-01
2551:Ernst Mayr
2382:References
2335:Devolution
2303:Heliconius
2258:Heliconius
2189:arms races
2185:John Krebs
1943:Ernst Mayr
1935:Ernst Mayr
1867:In science
1852:embryology
1579:Organicism
1541:Biophysics
1445:Lamarckism
1356:Physiology
1153:Embryology
1148:Apogenesis
1117:Philosophy
1112:Elan vital
1025:Lamarckian
994:Pangenesis
906:Lamarckian
826:Embryology
803:Lamarckism
799:extinction
791:complexity
570:extinction
382:Lamarckism
366:Ramon Lull
341:Ramon Lull
213:Definition
180:Ernst Mayr
101:hypothesis
54:body plans
6379:Teleology
6305:Protocell
6156:Darwinism
6044:Sympatric
5793:processes
5681:Tetrapods
5630:Kangaroos
5556:Dinosaurs
5493:Inversion
5462:Variation
5383:Gene flow
5376:Inclusive
5186:Mutualism
5131:Evolution
4964:(1909). "
4911:Evolution
4758:Ruse 1996
4722:Ruse 1996
4705:Ruse 1996
4564:Ruse 1996
4552:Ruse 1996
4115:Lwoff, A.
4090:Ruse 1996
3953:CRC Press
3898:Ruse 1996
3886:Ruse 1996
3352:ignored (
3342:cite book
3257:Sapp, Jan
3216:Ruse 1996
3149:Ruse 1996
2999:Ruse 1996
2905:ignored (
2895:cite book
2840:Ruse 1996
2825:Ruse 1996
2555:Evolution
2535:Ruse 1996
2483:Ruse 1996
2371:Teleonomy
2149:Early Man
2139:'s 1965 "
1947:Evolution
1726:Noosphere
1698:Mysticism
1457:cytoplasm
1335:based on
1098:evolution
998:Evolution
947:idioplasm
751:Features
582:evolution
558:evolution
546:butterfly
492:barnacles
483:idioplasm
443:evolution
319:In 1996,
302:In 1989,
290:In 1988,
281:in 1983:
253:in 1893.
156:evolution
138:The term
105:organisms
6384:Vitalism
6333:Category
6208:Vitalism
6203:Theistic
6196:Spandrel
5880:Morality
5875:Monogamy
5750:plastids
5715:Flagella
5671:Reptiles
5652:sea cows
5635:primates
5544:Molluscs
5522:Bacteria
5410:Mutation
5343:genetics
5319:Taxonomy
5265:Mismatch
5245:Homology
5159:Cheating
5154:Altruism
5032:(1957).
5011:(2002).
4998:(1942).
4978:(1995).
4932:(1996).
4885:(1986).
4859:(1989).
4837:(1983).
4818:18791259
4788:Genetics
4441:(2002).
4398:(1982).
4165:30286465
4157:26732271
4117:(1944).
4059:(2002).
4010:85796293
3856:15 April
3791:19625453
3750:16857856
3715:26956345
3707:11341676
3672:29736048
3595:15408469
3506:85365933
3463:17793787
3421:(1920).
3332:(1964).
3293:(2002).
3259:(2003).
3171:(1859).
3092:(2006).
2858:(1977).
2798:(1997).
2742:(1983).
2645:(2002).
2570:(1953).
2517:24368232
2449:(1988).
2402:(2001).
2318:See also
2196:Progress
2125:Socrates
2084:for 1882
2017:'s 1863
1983:, while
1921:heredity
1879:'s 1874
1633:In book
1556:In book
1142:Przibram
846:Kölliker
732:Lamarck.
696:Theories
654:vitalism
638:bacteria
628:(1915),
624:(1914),
594:vitalist
562:adaptive
560:with no
540:optimum.
538:adaptive
407:vitalist
352:Medieval
194:vitalism
164:genetics
97:obsolete
95:, is an
6224:Related
6054:History
5915:Meiosis
5850:Empathy
5845:Emotion
5745:nucleus
5686:Viruses
5676:Spiders
5588:Mammals
5571:Insects
5371:Fitness
5307:Species
5106:Outline
4828:Sources
4809:2581958
4692:9695900
4664:Bibcode
4537:4 April
4247:Bibcode
3652:Bibcode
3498:2456503
3455:1646251
3435:Bibcode
3427:Science
3389:2455865
3301:355â364
2726:2456504
2653:351â352
1916:genetic
1897:in the
1833:arrows.
1739:Croizat
1607:Sinnott
1584:Zoology
1455:in the
1377:Beurlen
1288:Zoology
1251:Zoology
1244:Whitman
1221:Zoology
1187:Zoology
1106:Bergson
1078:Zoology
1044:Zoology
955:Spencer
857:Anatomy
783:In his
768:Zoology
757:Lamarck
603:species
584:of the
566:species
534:baroque
327:History
265:wrote:
66:species
6343:Portal
6019:Hybrid
5855:Ethics
5697:organs
5659:Plants
5645:lemurs
5640:humans
5625:horses
5615:hyenas
5603:wolves
5598:canids
5532:origin
5019:
4988:
4968:", in
4944:
4918:
4897:
4871:
4845:
4816:
4806:
4690:
4682:
4594:
4505:
4480:
4455:
4406:
4351:
4299:
4272:
4186:
4163:
4155:
4073:
4008:
3959:
3814:
3789:
3748:
3713:
3705:
3670:
3593:
3530:
3504:
3496:
3461:
3453:
3387:
3307:
3273:
3239:
3199:
3132:
3102:
3072:
3044:
3019:
2982:
2872:
2808:
2778:
2750:
2724:
2687:
2659:
2515:
2457:
2410:
2204:models
1956:heresy
1862:Status
1756:Botany
1618:Botany
1613:Telism
1566:Vandel
1509:Botany
1498:Willis
1465:Osborn
1037:Haacke
988:Darwin
929:Botany
918:NĂ€geli
797:), no
747:Vital.
737:Mutat.
719:Author
646:plants
347:, 1305
185:Nature
131:, and
109:evolve
70:genera
44:, 1866
5806:Death
5801:Aging
5780:brain
5566:Fungi
5527:Birds
5440:Fungi
5238:Event
5121:Index
4688:S2CID
4684:42057
4161:S2CID
4006:S2CID
3711:S2CID
3668:S2CID
3640:(PDF)
3552:(PDF)
3502:S2CID
3494:JSTOR
3451:JSTOR
3385:JSTOR
3267:69â70
2722:JSTOR
2625:(PDF)
2181:memes
2117:'
1573:]
1421:]
1345:Lwoff
1172:Plate
1156:1910s
1071:Eimer
967:1852
795:phyla
725:Field
722:Title
586:horse
243:Greek
239:áœÏΞÏÏ
235:Greek
103:that
91:, or
58:phyla
6293:Tree
5765:hair
5705:Cell
5608:dogs
5593:cats
5583:Life
5561:Fish
5514:taxa
5017:ISBN
4986:ISBN
4942:ISBN
4916:ISBN
4895:ISBN
4869:ISBN
4843:ISBN
4814:PMID
4680:PMID
4634:2017
4624:The
4592:ISBN
4539:2017
4503:ISBN
4478:ISBN
4453:ISBN
4404:ISBN
4349:ISBN
4297:ISBN
4270:ISBN
4184:ISBN
4153:PMID
4071:ISBN
3957:ISBN
3858:2017
3812:ISBN
3787:PMID
3746:PMID
3703:PMID
3591:PMID
3528:ISBN
3459:PMID
3354:help
3305:ISBN
3271:ISBN
3237:ISBN
3197:ISBN
3130:ISBN
3100:ISBN
3070:ISBN
3042:ISBN
3017:ISBN
2980:ISBN
2942:2021
2907:help
2870:ISBN
2806:ISBN
2776:ISBN
2748:ISBN
2685:ISBN
2657:ISBN
2513:PMID
2455:ISBN
2408:ISBN
2160:meme
2106:Adam
2025:meme
1962:and
1910:The
1854:and
1795:1988
1759:1964
1702:1959
1657:1950
1621:1950
1587:1949
1544:1947
1530:NoĂŒy
1512:1942
1479:1934
1431:1931
1387:1930
1324:1928
1311:Abel
1291:1926
1277:Berg
1254:1919
1224:1918
1210:Rosa
1190:1913
1120:1907
1081:1898
1047:1893
1001:1859
945:An "
932:1884
892:1868
878:Cope
860:1864
829:1859
815:Baer
801:. ("
771:1809
728:Date
681:and
642:fish
490:the
174:and
68:and
5791:Of
5760:eye
5710:DNA
5695:Of
5512:Of
4804:PMC
4796:doi
4792:180
4672:doi
4660:205
4326:doi
4213:doi
4145:doi
4067:283
4037:doi
3998:doi
3777:doi
3773:100
3738:doi
3695:doi
3660:doi
3618:doi
3564:doi
3486:doi
3443:doi
3377:doi
2714:doi
2580:125
2505:doi
2147:'s
2092:'s
2076:by
2060:in
1979:in
1774:or
1711:yes
1662:yes
1630:yes
1553:yes
1521:yes
1482:yes
1434:yes
1362:yes
1297:yes
1227:yes
1199:yes
1196:yes
1193:yes
1181:or
1129:yes
1050:yes
1009:yes
1004:yes
970:Yes
935:yes
895:yes
863:yes
774:yes
677:by
596:or
368:'s
343:'s
6360::
4812:.
4802:.
4790:.
4786:.
4712:^
4686:.
4678:.
4670:.
4658:.
4650:;
4622:.
4606:^
4580:;
4511:.
4451:.
4418:^
4363:^
4322:16
4320:.
4243:85
4241:.
4225:^
4209:76
4207:.
4159:.
4151:.
4141:50
4139:.
4069:.
4033:54
4031:.
4027:.
4004:.
3994:67
3992:.
3955:.
3951:,
3917:.
3826:^
3785:.
3771:.
3767:.
3744:.
3734:23
3732:.
3709:.
3701:.
3689:.
3666:.
3658:.
3648:68
3646:.
3642:.
3614:44
3612:.
3587:93
3585:.
3560:84
3558:.
3554:.
3514:^
3500:.
3492:.
3482:56
3480:.
3457:.
3449:.
3441:.
3431:52
3429:.
3425:.
3383:.
3373:47
3371:.
3346::
3344:}}
3340:{{
3319:^
3303:.
3269:.
3223:^
3183:^
3156:^
3114:^
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