338:(see figure). On the horizontal base line hypothetical species within this genus are labelled A – L and are spaced irregularly to indicate how distinct they are from each other, and are above broken lines at various angles suggesting that they have diverged from one or more common ancestors. On the vertical axis divisions labelled I – XIV each represent a thousand generations. From A, diverging lines show branching descent producing new varieties, some of which become extinct, so that after ten thousand generations descendants of A have become distinct new varieties or even sub-species a, f, and m. Similarly, the descendants of I have diversified to become the new varieties w and z. The process is extrapolated for a further four thousand generations so that the descendants of A and I become fourteen new species labelled a to z. While F has continued for fourteen thousand generations relatively unchanged, species B,C,D,E,G,H,K and L have gone extinct. In Darwin's own words: "Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the same species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences between species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera." Darwin's tree is not a tree of life, but rather a small portion created to show the principle of evolution. Because it shows relationships (phylogeny) and time (generations), it is a timetree. In contrast,
348:
species. At each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same manner as species and groups of species have tried to overmaster other species in the great battle for life. The limbs divided into great branches, and these into lesser and lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was small, budding twigs; and this connexion of the former and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent the classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush, only two or three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long-past geological periods, very few now have living and modified descendants. From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only from having been found in a fossil state. As we here and there see a thin straggling branch springing from a fork low down in a tree, and which by some chance has been favoured and is still alive on its summit, so we occasionally see an animal like the
416:
654:. Recombination, gene loss, duplication, and gene creation are a few of the processes by which genes can be transferred within and between bacterial and archaeal species, causing variation that is not due to vertical transfer. There is emerging evidence of horizontal gene transfer within the prokaryotes at the single and multicell level, so the tree of life does not explain the full complexity of the situation in the prokaryotes. This is a major problem for the tree of life because there is consensus that eukaryotes arose from a fusion between bacteria and archaea, meaning that the tree of life is not fully bifurcating and should not be represented as such for that important node. Secondly, unrooted
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360:. As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.
265:
381:
has written that Darwin did not use the tree of life to describe the relationship between groups of organisms, but to suggest that, as with branches in a living tree, lineages of species competed with and supplanted one another. Petter
Hellström has argued that Darwin consciously named his tree after
377:, for one, has argued that Darwin placed the famous passage quoted above "at a crucial spot in his text", where it marked the conclusion of his argument for natural selection, illustrating both the interconnectedness by descent of organisms as well as their success and failure in the history of life.
579:
The model of a tree is still considered valid for eukaryotic life forms. Trees have been proposed with either four or two supergroups. There does not yet appear to be a consensus; in a 2009 review article, Roger and
Simpson conclude that "with the current pace of change in our understanding of the
347:
The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may represent existing species; and those produced during each former year may represent the long succession of extinct
429:
It was the book's only illustration. The letters A–L represent distinct descents. Each horizontal line represents 1000 generations. Descent A has 3 existent species after 10000 generations. Descent I has 2. Descents E, F have 1 each. The other descents have gone
192:("depiction"). Lamarck believed in the transmutation of life forms, but he did not believe in common descent; instead he believed that life developed in parallel lineages (repeated, spontaneous generation) advancing from more simple to more complex.
228:
development where fish (F), reptiles (R), and birds (B) represent branches from a path leading to mammals (M). In the text this branching tree idea is tentatively applied to the history of life on earth: "there may be branching".
396:
706:
175:, his tree did not include any evolutionary or temporal aspect. Consistent with Augier's priestly vocation, the Botanical Tree showed rather the perfect order of nature as instituted by God at the moment of Creation.
878:
Essai d'une nouvelle classification des végétaux: conforme à l'ordre que la nature paroît avoir suivi dans le règne végétal; d'ou résulte une méthode qui conduit a la connoissance des plantes & de leurs rapports
342:
illustrated a phylogenetic tree (branching only) in 1866, not scaled to time, and of real species and higher taxa. In his summary to the section, Darwin put his concept in terms of the metaphor of the tree of life:
2543:: "presents an interactive tree of life that allows you to explore the relationships between many different kinds of organisms by allowing you to select an organism and visualize the clade to which it belongs."
286:
224:, published anonymously in 1844 in England, contained a tree-like diagram in the chapter "Hypothesis of the development of the vegetable and animal kingdoms". It shows a model of
688:
664:
594:
was published, in which information from nearly 500 previously published trees was combined into a single online database, free to browse and download. Another database,
356:, which in some small degree connects by its affinities two large branches of life, and which has apparently been saved from fatal competition by having inhabited a
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514:
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171:. Yet, although Augier discussed his tree in distinctly genealogical terms, and although his design clearly mimicked the visual conventions of a contemporary
167:, it appears that the earliest tree diagram of natural order was the 1801 "Arbre botanique" (Botanical Tree) of the French schoolteacher and Catholic priest
298:
220:
1987:
Kumar, Sudhir; Suleski, Michael; Craig, Jack M; Kasprowicz, Adrienne E; Sanderford, Maxwell; Li, Michael; Stecher, Glen; Hedges, S Blair (3 August 2022).
2152:
676:
479:
1824:
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was released, incorporating 4,185 published studies and 148,876 species, representing the largest timetree of life from actual data (non-imputed).
57:
The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth.
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findings that the branches were mainly composed of bacteria. The new study incorporated over a thousand newly discovered bacteria and archaea.
215:
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240:(1800–1862) published a hypothetical tree labelled with letters. Although not a creationist, Bronn did not propose a mechanism of change.
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are not true evolutionary trees (or trees of life) because there is no directionality, and therefore the tree of life needs a root.
373:
The meaning and importance of Darwin's use of the tree of life metaphor have been extensively discussed by scientists and scholars.
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for the three domains of life. It was the first tree founded on molecular phylogenetics and microbial evolution as its basis.
140:
2277:"Evolutionary relationship of archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes inferred from phylogenetic trees of duplicated genes"
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Investigations of the laws of the development of the organic world during the period of formation of our Earth's surface
188:. Unlike Augier, however, Lamarck did not discuss his diagram in terms of a genealogy or a tree, but instead named it a
837:
On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or, The preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life
455:
shows three kingdoms: Plantae, Protista and
Animalia. This has been described as "the earliest 'tree of life' model of
3093:
3065:
2399:
On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
182:(1744–1829), who was acquainted with Augier's "Botanical Tree", included a branching diagram of animal species in his
1886:
2423:
The Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
2376:
1914:
387:
1122:
Untersuchungen ĂĽber die
Entwicklungs-Gesetze der organischen Welt während der Bildungs-Zeit unserer Erd-Oberfläche
2769:
2741:
1550:
159:
Although tree-like diagrams have long been used to organise knowledge, and although branching diagrams known as
2814:
1919:
767:
651:
629:
423:
326:
49:
2191:
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was released, with 2,274 studies and 50,632 species, represented in a spiral tree of life, free to download.
544:
Universal phylogenetic tree in rooted form, showing the three domains (Woese, Kandler, Wheelis 1990, p. 4578)
2712:
2633:
383:
353:
145:
2045:
1944:
Hug, Laura A.; Baker, Brett J.; Anantharaman, Karthik; Brown, Christopher T.; et al. (11 April 2016).
1988:
1151:
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276:
184:
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proposed a novel "tree of life" consisting of three lines of descent for which they introduced the term
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1950:
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207:, with two separate trees for the plants and the animals. These are crowned (graphically) with the
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1766:
Hedges, S. Blair; Marin, Julie; Suleski, Michael; Paymer, Madeline; Kumar, Sudhir (April 2015).
1462:"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya"
540:
324:(1809–1882) used the metaphor of a "tree of life" to conceptualise his theory of evolution. In
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2016:
2000:
1959:
1915:"Branching Out: Researchers create a new tree of life, largely comprisedof mystery bacteria"
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895:"Life and works of Augustin Augier de Favas (1758–1825), author of "Arbre botanique" (1801)"
800:
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561:
357:
196:
149:
32:
1223:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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926:"Augustin Augier's Botanical Tree. Transcripts and translations of two unknown sources"
828:
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365:
321:
316:
95:
44:
2319:
2276:
2179:
1140:
Archibald, J. David (2009). "Edward
Hitchcock's Pre-Darwinian (1840) 'Tree of Life'".
1033:
Archibald, J. David (2009). "Edward
Hitchcock's Pre-Darwinian (1840) 'Tree of Life'".
443:(1834–1919) constructed several trees of life. His first sketch, in the 1860s, shows "
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as the highest rank of classification. They suggested and formally defined the terms
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440:
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99:
91:
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3000:
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1825:"First comprehensive tree of life shows how related you are to millions of species"
1457:
1453:
1338:
713:
694:
557:
553:
456:
409:) with his first sketch of an evolutionary tree, and the words "I think" at the top
200:
1578:"Phylogenomics reveals a new 'megagroup' including most photosynthetic eukaryotes"
1409:
2498:
1681:
1523:
1288:
2980:
2854:
2707:
1882:
1272:"Darwin's Theory of Descent with Modification, versus the Biblical Tree of Life"
752:
635:
378:
172:
106:
refers to the compilation of comprehensive phylogenetic databases rooted at the
72:
68:
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1964:
1945:
3005:
2970:
2829:
2819:
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2697:
2665:
1732:
1715:
1449:
1323:"Ascent, Descent, and Divergence: Darwin and Haeckel on the Human Family Tree"
1165:
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737:
606:
549:
225:
2362:
2310:
2243:
2234:
2012:
2004:
1791:
1657:"EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata"
2736:
2674:
2648:
2621:
2467:
2301:
1836:
1783:
1486:
1129:] (in German). Stuttgart, (Germany): F. Schweizerbart. pp. 481–482.
1012:(Third ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 90–91.
805:
788:
602:
573:
312:
83:
79:
diagrams in the evolutionary sense date back to the mid-nineteenth century.
36:
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2104:
2085:
2030:
1973:
1809:
1741:
1700:
1611:
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1401:
1307:
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839:(First Edition, First Thousand ed.). London: John Murray. p. 129.
814:
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2342:
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991:
910:
855:"Trees of Knowledge. Science and the Shape of Genealogy (doctoral thesis)"
2729:
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2494:
1519:
762:
639:
617:
584:
565:
349:
331:
116:
40:
28:
2566:
2347:. S. Blair Hedges, Sudhir Kumar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
2546:
960:
Linda Hall
Library, University of Missouri (Kansas City, Missouri, USA)
643:
569:
87:
2443:"Inaugural Article: Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis"
1576:
Burki, Fabien; Shalchian-Tabrizi, Kamran & Pawlowski, Jan (2008).
1347:
280:
with branching evolutionary paths, not considered an evolutionary tree
2275:
Iwabe, N; Kuma, K; Hasegawa, M; Osawa, S; Miyata, T (December 1989).
698:
464:
208:
2530:
2524:
1392:
1375:
925:
894:
854:
2061:"Horizontal gene transfer among genomes: the complexity hypothesis"
975:
1552:
In Search of Cell
History: The Evolution of Life's Building Blocks
539:
335:
144:
111:
330:(1859) he presented an abstract diagram of a portion of a larger
1768:"Tree of Life Reveals Clock-Like Speciation and Diversification"
697:'s 2008 plot of the tree of life, based on completely sequenced
610:
2570:
1989:"TimeTree 5: An Expanded Resource for Species Divergence Times"
670:
Hedges and Kumar's circular timetree of life, of 1,610 families
650:
freely pass genetic information between unrelated organisms by
598:, helps biologists to evaluate phylogeny and divergence times.
43:, both living and extinct, as described in a famous passage in
976:"Darwin and the Tree of Life: The Roots the Evolutionary Tree"
682:
Hedges et al.'s 2015 spiral timetree of life of 50,632 species
459:". His 1879 "Pedigree of Man" was published in his 1879 book
2533:
Links species on Earth through a shared evolutionary history
1555:. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press. p. 35.
956:(in French). Vol. 2. Paris, France: Dentu. p. 463.
2561:
1857:
924:
Hellström, Petter; Gilles, André; Philippe, Marc (2017).
893:
Hellström, Petter; Gilles, André; Philippe, Marc (2017).
833:"Four: Natural Selection; or the Survival of the Fittest"
789:"The Tree of Life: Metaphor, Model, and Heuristic Device"
580:
eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution."
274:'s 1809 depiction of the origins of animal groups in his
601:
In 2016, a new tree of life (unrooted), summarising the
390:, thus relating his theory to the religious tradition.
1716:"Evolution: Revisiting the Root of the Eukaryote Tree"
716:) representation of the tree of life (unrooted) using
3037:
2500:
The new foundations of evolution: on the tree of life
1525:
The new foundations of evolution: on the tree of life
624:
Horizontal gene transfer and rooting the tree of life
1374:
Hossfeld, Uwe; Levit, Georgy S. (30 November 2016).
3014:
2908:
2760:
2673:
2604:
2527:- explore complete phylogenetic tree interactively
1241:
1761:
1759:
969:
967:
848:
846:
163:("keys") were omnipresent in eighteenth-century
114:. Two public databases for the tree of life are
2447:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2281:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2214:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1108:. London, England: John Churchill. p. 191.
345:
55:
39:of life and describe the relationships between
1939:
1937:
152:'s fold-out paleontological chart in his 1840
120:, for phylogeny and divergence times, and the
2582:
2123:"Why Darwin was wrong about the tree of life"
2059:Jain, R.; Rivera, M. C.; Lake, J. A. (1999).
1714:Roger, A. J. & Simpson, A. G. B. (2009).
1626:"Apollon: The Tree of Life Has Lost a Branch"
1444:
1442:
8:
468:
1105:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
299:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
221:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
2589:
2575:
2567:
861:. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsalienses.
199:(1793–1864) published the first tree-like
102:histories of life. In contemporary usage,
2476:
2466:
2318:
2300:
2251:
2233:
2116:
2114:
2094:
2084:
2020:
1963:
1799:
1731:
1690:
1680:
1601:
1495:
1485:
1391:
1346:
1297:
1287:
1155:
1046:
804:
609:, was published, illustrating the latest
178:In 1809, Augier's more famous compatriot
2553:University of California/Jepson Herbaria
1823:Pennisi, Elizabeth (21 September 2015).
1376:"'Tree of life' took root 150 years ago"
1085:
35:, and research tool used to explore the
3044:
2441:Doolittle, W. F.; Bapteste, E. (2007).
2208:Doolittle, W. Ford (25 November 1997).
859:Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsalienses
779:
660:
520:The tree of life as seen by Haeckel in
475:
392:
242:
2368:
1887:"Scientists Unveil New 'Tree of Life'"
1210:
1194:
86:for the evolutionary relationships of
2503:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2426:(6th ed.). London: John Murray.
2402:(1st ed.). London: John Murray.
2046:"Bdelloids Surviving on Borrowed DNA"
1528:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1427:. Memorial University of Newfoundland
7:
2557:NCBI's taxonomy database common tree
506:Generelle Morphologie der Organismen
453:Generelle Morphologie der Organismen
2688:Alternatives to Darwinian evolution
1913:Taylor, Ashley P. (11 April 2016).
2541:The Wolfram Demonstrations Project
2121:Lawton, Graham (21 January 2009).
2044:Watson, Traci (15 November 2012).
463:. It traces all life forms to the
16:Model for the evolution of species
14:
2180:10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90
1143:Journal of the History of Biology
1035:Journal of the History of Biology
1010:Evolution. The History of an Idea
787:Mindell, D. P. (3 January 2013).
3071:
3059:
3047:
2664:
1946:"A new view of the tree of life"
1218:
705:
687:
675:
663:
590:In 2015, the first draft of the
513:
497:
478:
414:
395:
334:for species of an unnamed large
285:
264:
245:
232:In 1858, a year before Darwin's
195:In 1840, the American geologist
67:Tree diagrams originated in the
1993:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1772:Molecular Biology and Evolution
141:History of evolutionary thought
882:. Lyons: Bruyset Ainé et Comp.
646:) and certain animals such as
616:In 2022, the fifth version of
583:In 2015, the third version of
402:Page from Darwin's notebooks (
108:last universal common ancestor
1:
2562:OneZoom Tree of Life Explorer
451:. His 1866 tree of life from
403:
2153:"Uprooting the tree of life"
1682:10.1371/journal.pone.0002621
1549:Harold, Franklin M. (2014).
1339:10.5399/uo/konturen.7.0.3523
1289:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001096
467:, and places Man (labelled "
135:Early natural classification
2151:Doolittle, W. Ford (2000).
980:Archives of Natural History
899:Archives of Natural History
473:") at the top of the tree.
90:through time was coined by
3117:
1965:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.48
974:Hellström, Petter (2012).
853:Hellström, Petter (2019).
627:
533:
504:Haeckel's tree of life in
310:
138:
73:genealogical relationships
2742:Evolutionary epistemology
2662:
1733:10.1016/j.cub.2008.12.032
1653:Redfield, Rosemary Jeanne
1248:. London: Jonathan Cape.
1166:10.1007/s10739-008-9163-y
1102:Chambers, Robert (1844).
1057:10.1007/s10739-008-9163-y
2525:Tree of Life Web Project
2235:10.1073/pnas.94.24.12751
1655:(2008). Redfield (ed.).
1651:Kim, E.; Graham, L. E.;
1425:"Haeckel's Tree of Life"
1423:Carr, Steven M. (2005).
1321:Gliboff, Sander (2014).
768:Tree of Life Web Project
652:horizontal gene transfer
630:Horizontal gene transfer
424:On the Origin of Species
327:On the Origin of Species
94:, who went further than
50:On the Origin of Species
2762:Philosophers of biology
2468:10.1073/pnas.0610699104
2302:10.1073/pnas.86.23.9355
1837:10.1126/science.aad4597
1487:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576
530:Developments since 1990
3099:Tree of life (biology)
2547:The Green Tree of Life
2531:Tree of Life Evolution
2375:: CS1 maint: others (
2086:10.1073/pnas.96.7.3801
2005:10.1093/molbev/msac174
1594:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0224
954:Philosophie zoologique
950:Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste
545:
490:Stammbaum der Primaten
469:
445:Pithecanthropus alalus
371:
277:Philosophie zoologique
185:Philosophie zoologique
156:
65:
25:universal tree of life
2656:Evolutionary taxonomy
2598:Philosophy of biology
1784:10.1093/molbev/msv037
1119:Bronn, H. G. (1858).
992:10.3366/anh.2012.0092
911:10.3366/anh.2017.0413
806:10.1093/sysbio/sys115
656:phylogenetic networks
628:Further information:
543:
534:Further information:
447:" as the ancestor of
311:Further information:
272:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
236:, the paleontologist
214:The first edition of
180:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
148:
139:Further information:
3066:Evolutionary biology
2344:The timetree of life
2210:"Fun with genealogy"
2197:on 7 September 2006.
2048:. Science/AAAS News.
1244:Eight Little Piggies
638:(the two domains of
522:The Evolution of Man
461:The Evolution of Man
421:Diagram in Darwin's
238:Heinrich Georg Bronn
2800:Peter Godfrey-Smith
2459:2007PNAS..104.2043D
2293:1989PNAS...86.9355I
2226:1997PNAS...9412751D
2220:(24): 12751–12753.
2172:2000SciAm.282b..90D
2160:Scientific American
2077:1999PNAS...96.3801J
1951:Nature Microbiology
1673:2008PLoSO...3.2621K
1478:1990PNAS...87.4576W
1355:on 20 November 2022
3094:History of biology
3027:History of biology
3022:Philosophy of mind
2996:John Maynard Smith
2916:Francisco J. Ayala
2900:William C. Wimsatt
2895:Gerard Verschuuren
2805:James R. Griesemer
2539:by Garrett Neske,
1858:"TimeTree of Life"
1632:on 28 October 2011
1270:Penny, D. (2011).
1238:Gould, Stephen Jay
793:Systematic Biology
546:
386:, as described in
259:("Botanical Tree")
205:Elementary Geology
157:
154:Elementary Geology
3035:
3034:
2966:Humberto Maturana
2951:Stephen Jay Gould
2845:Roberta Millstein
2810:Paul E. Griffiths
2510:978-0-199-73438-2
2433:978-1-4353-9386-8
2409:978-1-4353-9386-8
2354:978-0-19-156015-6
2287:(23): 9355–9359.
1885:(11 April 2016).
1562:978-0-226-17428-0
1535:978-0-199-73438-2
1472:(12): 4576–4579.
1255:978-0-224-03716-7
718:ribosomal protein
648:bdelloid rotifers
592:Open Tree of Life
536:Kingdom (biology)
375:Stephen Jay Gould
358:protected station
126:, for phylogeny.
123:Open Tree of Life
77:Phylogenetic tree
3106:
3076:
3075:
3064:
3063:
3052:
3051:
3043:
2986:Joan Roughgarden
2956:Richard Lewontin
2941:Michael Ghiselin
2890:Francisco Varela
2885:Alfred I. Tauber
2840:Jane Maienschein
2668:
2591:
2584:
2577:
2568:
2537:The Tree of Life
2514:
2490:
2480:
2470:
2453:(7): 2043–2049.
2437:
2413:
2381:
2380:
2374:
2366:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2322:
2304:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2237:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2190:. Archived from
2157:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2118:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2088:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2024:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1967:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1803:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1735:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1694:
1684:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1628:. Archived from
1622:
1616:
1615:
1605:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1499:
1489:
1458:Wheelis, Mark L.
1446:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1395:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1351:. Archived from
1350:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1301:
1291:
1267:
1261:
1259:
1247:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1208:
1202:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1159:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1099:
1093:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1050:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1006:Bowler, Peter J.
1002:
996:
995:
971:
962:
957:
946:
940:
939:
921:
915:
914:
890:
884:
883:
873:Augier, Augustin
869:
863:
862:
850:
841:
840:
825:
819:
818:
808:
784:
709:
691:
679:
667:
517:
501:
482:
472:
418:
408:
407: July 1837
405:
399:
369:
289:
268:
249:
197:Edward Hitchcock
150:Edward Hitchcock
63:
33:conceptual model
3116:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3070:
3058:
3046:
3038:
3036:
3031:
3010:
2931:Richard Dawkins
2921:Patrick Bateson
2904:
2850:Sandra Mitchell
2756:
2669:
2660:
2600:
2595:
2551:Hyperbolic tree
2521:
2511:
2493:
2440:
2434:
2418:Darwin, Charles
2416:
2410:
2394:Darwin, Charles
2392:
2389:
2387:Further reading
2384:
2367:
2355:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2194:
2155:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2133:
2132:. No. 2692
2120:
2119:
2112:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2043:
2042:
2038:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1943:
1942:
1935:
1925:
1923:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1897:
1895:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1864:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1841:
1839:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1765:
1764:
1757:
1720:Current Biology
1713:
1712:
1708:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1635:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1582:Biology Letters
1575:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1448:
1447:
1440:
1430:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1393:10.1038/540038a
1373:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1282:(7): e1001096.
1269:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1219:
1209:
1205:
1193:
1189:
1157:10.1.1.688.7842
1139:
1138:
1134:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1086:Chambers (1844)
1084:
1080:
1048:10.1.1.688.7842
1032:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1004:
1003:
999:
973:
972:
965:
948:
947:
943:
923:
922:
918:
892:
891:
887:
871:
870:
866:
852:
851:
844:
829:Darwin, Charles
827:
826:
822:
786:
785:
781:
777:
772:
733:Bacterial phyla
728:
721:
710:
701:
692:
683:
680:
671:
668:
632:
626:
538:
532:
525:
518:
509:
502:
493:
483:
438:
431:
428:
419:
410:
406:
400:
370:
364:
350:Ornithorhynchus
319:
309:
302:
294:Robert Chambers
290:
281:
269:
260:
257:Arbre botanique
253:Augustin Augier
250:
216:Robert Chambers
169:Augustin Augier
165:natural history
143:
137:
132:
64:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3068:
3056:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2946:François Jacob
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2926:Charles Darwin
2923:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2870:Sahotra Sarkar
2867:
2862:
2860:Alex Rosenberg
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2825:Philip Kitcher
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2795:Marjorie Grene
2792:
2787:
2782:
2780:Daniel Dennett
2777:
2775:Lindley Darden
2772:
2766:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2685:
2679:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2586:
2579:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2544:
2534:
2528:
2520:
2519:External links
2517:
2516:
2515:
2509:
2491:
2438:
2432:
2414:
2408:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2353:
2334:
2267:
2200:
2143:
2110:
2051:
2036:
1999:(8): msac174.
1979:
1933:
1905:
1892:New York Times
1874:
1849:
1815:
1778:(4): 835–845.
1755:
1706:
1643:
1617:
1588:(4): 366–369.
1568:
1561:
1541:
1534:
1511:
1450:Woese, Carl R.
1438:
1415:
1366:
1313:
1262:
1254:
1229:
1203:
1187:
1132:
1111:
1094:
1078:
1041:(3): 561–592.
1025:
1019:978-0520236936
1018:
997:
986:(2): 234–252.
963:
958:Available at:
941:
916:
885:
864:
842:
820:
799:(3): 479–489.
778:
776:
773:
771:
770:
765:
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755:
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745:
743:Common descent
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322:Charles Darwin
317:Common descent
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62:Charles Darwin
59:
45:Charles Darwin
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13:
10:
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4:
3:
2:
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3111:
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3097:
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3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
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2989:
2987:
2984:
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2979:
2977:
2976:Jacques Monod
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2961:Konrad Lorenz
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2936:Jared Diamond
2934:
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2875:Elliott Sober
2873:
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2838:
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2835:Helen Longino
2833:
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2740:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2713:Structuralism
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2693:Catastrophism
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2683:Adaptationism
2681:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2627:Kin selection
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2614:
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2592:
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2154:
2147:
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2131:
2129:
2128:New Scientist
2124:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2071:(7): 3801–6.
2070:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1952:
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1940:
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1934:
1922:
1921:
1920:The Scientist
1916:
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1773:
1769:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1726:(4): R165–7.
1725:
1721:
1717:
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1707:
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1479:
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1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:Kandler, Otto
1451:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1426:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1394:
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1328:
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1300:
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1273:
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1246:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1225:public domain
1216:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1195:Darwin (1859)
1191:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1144:
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1133:
1128:
1124:
1123:
1115:
1112:
1107:
1106:
1098:
1095:
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1079:
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985:
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933:
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904:
900:
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868:
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843:
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834:
830:
824:
821:
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807:
802:
798:
794:
790:
783:
780:
774:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
758:Symbiogenesis
756:
754:
751:
749:
748:Coral of life
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
730:
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719:
715:
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657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
631:
623:
621:
619:
614:
612:
608:
605:of all known
604:
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442:
441:Ernst Haeckel
435:
426:
425:
417:
412:
398:
393:
391:
389:
385:
382:the biblical
380:
376:
367:
361:
359:
355:
351:
344:
341:
340:Ernst Haeckel
337:
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279:
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226:embryological
223:
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217:
212:
210:
206:
203:chart in his
202:
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