335:
25:
1126:
During the processing of the ACE text, all anaphoric references are replaced by the most recent and most specific accessible noun phrase that agrees in gender and number. As an example of "most recent and most specific", suppose an ACE parser is given the sentence:
1158:
sentences, universally quantified sentences, negations, modality, and subordinated sentences cannot be referred to anaphorically from subsequent sentences, i.e. such noun phrases are not "accessible" from the following text. Thus for each of the sentences:
872:
These forms of negation are logical negations, i.e. they state that something is provably not the case. Negation as failure states that a state of affairs cannot be proved, i.e. there is no information whether the state of affairs is the case or not.
791:
This sentence means that each customer inserts a card that may, or may not, be the same as the one inserted by another customer. To specify that all customers insert the same card—however unrealistic that situation seems—we can write:
159:, and is intended for professionals who want to use formal notations and formal methods, but may not be familiar with them. Though ACE appears perfectly natural—it can be read and understood by any speaker of English—it is in fact a
1052:
Not all ambiguities can be safely removed from ACE without rendering it artificial. To deterministically interpret otherwise syntactically correct ACE sentences we use a small set of interpretation rules. For example, if we write:
780:). The textual occurrence of a universal or existential quantifier opens its scope that extends to the end of the sentence, or in coordinations to the end of the respective coordinated sentence.
984:
A command always consists of a noun phrase (the addressee), followed by a comma, followed by an uncoordinated verb phrase. Furthermore, a command has to end with an exclamation mark.
1449:
356:
42:
1805:
1118:
To express that all occurrences of card and code should mean the same card and the same code, ACE provides anaphoric references via the definite article:
1081:
we can employ the interpretation rule that a relative sentence always modifies the immediately preceding noun phrase, and rephrase the input as:
1458:
456:
An ACE text is a sequence of declarative sentences that can be anaphorically interrelated. Furthermore, ACE supports questions and commands.
1795:
89:
137:
61:
436:
The grammar of ACE defines and constrains the form and the meaning of ACE sentences and texts. ACE's grammar is expressed as a set of
1790:
1785:
1726:
382:
108:
68:
541:
which are described below since they make a sentence composite. We can also detail the insertion event, e.g. by adding an adverb:
497:
All elements of a simple sentence can be elaborated upon to describe the situation in more detail. To further specify the nouns
1314:"Attempto Controlled English Meets the Challenges of Knowledge Representation, Reasoning, Interoperability and User Interfaces"
286:
1716:
360:
183:
75:
46:
954:
Queries can also be constructed by a sequence of declarative sentences followed by one interrogative sentence, for example:
923:-queries, i.e. queries with query words, we can interrogate a text for details of the specified situation. If we specified:
999:
All remaining ambiguous constructs are interpreted deterministically on the basis of a small number of interpretation rules
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1435:
1270:
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Every sentence has a subject and a verb. Complements (direct and indirect objects) are necessary for transitive verbs (
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In ACE the sentence has the unequivocal meaning that the customer opens an account, as reflected by the paraphrase:
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1027:
To express the alternative—though not very realistic—meaning that the card opens an account, the relative pronoun
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35:
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594:. Note that ACE composite sentences overlap with what linguists call compound sentences and complex sentences.
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Some ambiguous constructs are not part of the language; unambiguous alternatives are available in their place
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Users can either accept the assigned interpretation, or they must rephrase the input to obtain another one.
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243:, ...). Regarding the list of examples above, ACE interpretation rules decide that (1) is interpreted as
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described by a small set of construction and interpretation rules. It has been under development at the
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means that the customer inserts a VisaCard and a code, or alternatively a MasterCard and a code.
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of the first sentence. Thus an ACE text is a coherent entity of anaphorically linked sentences.
958:
There is a customer and there is a card that the customer enters. Does a customer enter a card?
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In natural language, relative sentences combined with coordinations can introduce ambiguity:
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to get a positive answer. Note that interrogative sentences always end with a question mark.
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251:. Sentences like "Women are human" do not follow ACE syntax and are consequently not valid.
900:-queries ask for the existence or non-existence of a specified situation. If we specified:
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A customer enters a card and a code. If the code is valid then SimpleMat accepts the card.
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A customer enters a card and a code. If a code is valid then SimpleMat accepts a card.
1774:
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A customer enters a card and a code. If it is valid then SimpleMat accepts the card.
992:
To constrain the ambiguity of full natural language ACE employs three simple means:
569:
John's customer who is trusted inserts a valid card of Mary manually into a slot A.
305:. Translating an ACE text into (a fragment of) first-order logic allows users to
1584:
668:. Commas can be used to override the standard binding order. Thus the sentence:
464:
A simple sentence asserts that something is the case—a fact, an event, a state.
334:
24:
1357:
Technical Report ifi-2010.0010, Department of
Informatics, University of Zurich
776:), or to denote explicitly the existence of at least one object of this class (
606:
is possible between sentences and between phrases of the same syntactic type.
223:
ACE construction rules require that each noun be introduced by a determiner (
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1023:
A card is valid. A customer inserts the card. The customer opens an account.
931:
we can ask for each element of the sentence with the exception of the verb.
306:
424:
Predefined phrases (e.g. "it is false that ...", "it is possible that ...")
217:
A man tries-on a new tie. If the tie pleases his wife then the man buys it.
1379:
First
International Conference on Web Reasoning and Rule Systems (RR 2007)
1223:
Anaphoric references via definite articles and variables can be combined:
927:
A trusted customer inserts a valid card manually in the morning in a bank.
672:
A customer inserts a VisaCard or inserts a MasterCard, and inserts a code.
285:
The
Attempto Parsing Engine (APE) translates ACE texts unambiguously into
1286:
591:
578:
Composite sentences are recursively built from simpler sentences through
191:
1334:
1043:
A card is valid. The card opens an account. A customer inserts the card.
1039:
This sentence is unambiguously equivalent in meaning to the paraphrase:
772:
Quantification allows us to speak about all objects of a certain class (
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1612:
1260:
1073:. However, this is probably not what we meant to say. To express that
1031:
must be repeated, thus yielding a coordination of relative sentences:
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Other modifications of nouns are possible through relative sentences:
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is possible between sentences, verb phrases, and relative clauses.
494:), whereas adjuncts (adverbs, prepositional phrases) are optional.
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A customer inserts a card that is valid and that opens an account.
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To express that all involved customers insert cards we can write
715:
sentences we can specify conditional or hypothetical situations:
1607:
840:
To negate something for all objects of a certain class one uses
749:
It is possible/necessary that a trusted customer inserts a card.
684:
There are four constructs of subordination: relative sentences,
1431:
395:
As an overview of the current version 6.6 of ACE this section:
1191:
Anaphoric references are also possible via personal pronouns:
1097:
or—to specify that the customer inserts a card and a code—as:
829:
Negation allows us to express that something is not the case:
328:
18:
1419:
1312:
Norbert E. Fuchs; Kaarel
Kaljurand; Gerold Schneider (2006).
1015:
A customer inserts a card that is valid and opens an account.
808:
To state that every card is inserted by a customer we write:
613:
There is a customer who inserts a card and who enters a code.
1283:, another machine-readable knowledge representation language
864:
To negate a complete statement one uses sentence negation:
478:
Simple ACE sentences have the following general structure:
1372:"AceRules: Executing Rules in Controlled Natural Language"
648:
A customer owns a card that is invalid or that is damaged.
610:
A customer inserts a card and the machine checks the code.
440:. The meaning of sentences is described as a small set of
421:
Predefined function words (e.g. determiners, conjunctions)
166:
ACE and its related tools have been used in the fields of
742:
Modality allows us to express possibility and necessity:
660:
is governed by the standard binding order of logic, i.e.
642:
A customer inserts a card or the machine checks the code.
1348:
Norbert E. Fuchs; Kaarel
Kaljurand; Tobias Kuhn (2010).
565:
We can combine all of these elaborations to arrive at:
427:
Content words (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs).
707:
A customer who is trusted inserts a card that he owns.
537:
A customer who is trusted inserts a card that he owns.
1110:
Usually ACE texts consist of more than one sentence:
619:
An old and trusted customer enters a card and a code.
448:
describes how to use ACE and how to avoid pitfalls.
144:
since 1995. In 2013, ACE version 6.7 was announced.
1725:
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1636:
1593:
1550:
1517:
1093:
A card carries a code. A customer inserts the card.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
877:It is not provable that a customer inserts a card.
820:For every card there is a customer who inserts it.
760:It is not provable that a customer inserts a card.
297:, for instance AceRules with various semantics,
1350:"Discourse Representation Structures for ACE 6.6"
688:sentences, modality, and sentence subordination.
1394:"Verbalizing OWL in Attempto Controlled English"
763:A clerk believes that a customer inserts a card.
757:It is true/false that a customer inserts a card.
408:Explains the processing of anaphoric references.
1175:A clerk believes that a customer enters a card.
753:Sentence subordination comes in various forms:
623:Note that the coordination of the noun phrases
1085:A customer inserts a card that carries a code.
719:If a card is valid then a customer inserts it.
1443:
1307:
1305:
1131:A customer enters a red card and a blue card.
723:Note the anaphoric reference via the pronoun
293:. A DRS can be further translated into other
215:
208:
201:
8:
1401:OWL: Experiences and Directions (OWLED 2007)
1289:, a programming language with English syntax
1163:If a customer owns a card then he enters it.
804:There is a card that every customer inserts.
616:A customer inserts a card and enters a code.
289:(DRS) that use a variant of the language of
1392:Kaarel Kaljurand; Norbert E. Fuchs (2007).
967:ACE also supports commands. Some examples:
868:It is false that a customer inserts a card.
645:A customer inserts a card or enters a code.
509:A trusted customer inserts two valid cards.
363:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1450:
1436:
1428:
746:A trusted customer can/must insert a card.
561:A customer inserts some cards into a slot.
1239:is valid then SimpleMat accepts the card
383:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
860:There is no customer who inserts a card.
136:with a restricted syntax and restricted
1301:
980:A brother of John, give a book to Mary!
553:A customer manually inserts some cards.
545:A customer inserts some cards manually.
521:John's customer inserts a card of Mary.
482:subject + verb + complements + adjuncts
1057:A customer inserts a card with a code.
848:No customer inserts more than 2 cards.
1101:A customer inserts a card and a code.
812:Every card is inserted by a customer.
796:A card is inserted by every customer.
557:or, by adding prepositional phrases:
7:
405:Summarises the handling of ambiguity
361:adding citations to reliable sources
47:adding citations to reliable sources
950:Where does a customer enter a card?
886:ACE supports two forms of queries:
287:discourse representation structures
1806:Knowledge representation languages
1143:refers to the second card, while:
947:When does a customer enter a card?
944:How does a customer insert a card?
833:A customer does not insert a card.
14:
1251:always refer to the same object.
1169:A customer does not enter a card.
691:Relative sentences starting with
417:The vocabulary of ACE comprises:
254:Interpretation rules resolve the
1215:is valid then SimpleMat accepts
399:Briefly describes the vocabulary
333:
309:about the text, for instance to
278:of the second sentence refer to
266:of the second sentence refer to
216:
209:
202:
23:
197:Here are some simple examples:
34:needs additional citations for
938:Which customer inserts a card?
912:Does a customer insert a card?
787:Every customer inserts a card.
703:allow to add detail to nouns:
402:Gives an account of the syntax
247:, while (2) is interpreted as
1:
1166:Every customer enters a card.
525:or variables as appositions:
270:of the first sentence, while
58:"Attempto Controlled English"
1707:Constraint logic programming
1623:Knowledge Interchange Format
1580:Procedural reasoning systems
1537:Expert systems for mortgages
1532:Connectionist expert systems
1271:Natural language programming
1247:Note that proper names like
1172:A customer can enter a card.
941:What does a customer insert?
631:represents a plural object.
474:A card and a code are valid.
132:, i.e. a subset of standard
1796:Natural language processing
1603:Attempto Controlled English
1266:Natural language processing
505:, we could add adjectives:
471:A customer inserts 2 cards.
130:controlled natural language
122:Attempto Controlled English
1822:
1151:refers to the first card.
904:A customer inserts a card.
778:existential quantification
492:give something to somebody
490:) and ditransitive verbs (
1750:Preference-based planning
1469:
1227:A customer enters a card
1203:A customer enters a card
1089:yielding the paraphrase:
816:or, somewhat indirectly:
731:-part to the noun phrase
468:The temperature is −2 °C.
1791:Natural language parsing
1786:Knowledge representation
1459:Knowledge representation
1147:The red card is correct.
774:universal quantification
517:-prepositional phrases:
249:existentially quantified
149:knowledge representation
1694:Constraint satisfaction
203:Every woman is a human.
168:software specifications
1745:Partial-order planning
1702:Constraint programming
1007:Avoidance of ambiguity
988:Constraining ambiguity
529:John inserts a card A.
245:universally quantified
1628:Web Ontology Language
1570:Deductive classifiers
1509:Knowledge engineering
1494:Model-based reasoning
1484:Commonsense reasoning
1065:attaches to the verb
971:John, go to the bank!
513:possessive nouns and
446:Troubleshooting Guide
188:medical documentation
1760:State space planning
1740:Multi-agent planning
1542:Legal expert systems
1479:Case-based reasoning
1370:Tobias Kuhn (2007).
1187:The card is correct.
1154:Noun phrases within
1139:The card is correct.
1106:Anaphoric references
1048:Interpretation rules
974:John and Mary, wait!
836:A card is not valid.
664:binds stronger than
442:interpretation rules
357:improve this section
142:University of Zurich
43:improve this article
1179:we cannot refer to
1077:is associated with
935:Who inserts a card?
574:Composite sentences
258:references in (3):
210:A woman is a human.
186:, rules, querying,
16:Controlled language
1781:Controlled English
1727:Automated planning
1595:Ontology languages
1565:Constraint solvers
1424:, Project Attempto
1276:Structured English
1199:or via variables:
800:or, equivalently:
549:or, equivalently:
438:construction rules
1768:
1767:
1755:Reactive planning
1712:Local consistency
1552:Reasoning systems
1499:Inference engines
1474:Backward chaining
919:With the help of
908:then we can ask:
711:With the help of
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392:
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291:first-order logic
147:ACE can serve as
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93:
1813:
1801:Proof assistants
1504:Proof assistants
1489:Forward chaining
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1420:Official website
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977:Every dog, bark!
652:Coordination by
634:Coordination by
602:Coordination by
488:insert something
460:Simple sentences
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1344:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1327:
1322:
1315:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1242:
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1234:
1230:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1218:
1214:
1210:
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1200:
1194:
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1186:
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1174:
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1120:
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1100:
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1090:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1069:, but not to
1068:
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1056:
1055:
1054:
1047:
1042:
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1006:
1001:
998:
995:
994:
993:
987:
985:
979:
976:
973:
970:
969:
968:
962:
957:
956:
955:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
934:
933:
932:
926:
925:
924:
922:
917:
911:
910:
909:
903:
902:
901:
899:
895:
893:
890:-queries and
889:
881:
876:
875:
874:
867:
866:
865:
859:
858:
857:
855:
847:
846:
845:
843:
835:
832:
831:
830:
824:
819:
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811:
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795:
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730:
726:
718:
717:
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698:
694:
689:
687:
680:Subordination
679:
677:
671:
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669:
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641:
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632:
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589:
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584:subordination
581:
573:
568:
567:
566:
560:
559:
558:
552:
551:
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544:
543:
542:
536:
535:
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518:
516:
508:
507:
506:
504:
500:
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473:
470:
467:
466:
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459:
457:
451:
449:
447:
443:
439:
431:
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423:
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419:
418:
412:
407:
404:
401:
398:
397:
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387:
384:
376:
366:
362:
358:
352:
351:
347:
342:This section
340:
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288:
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214:
207:
200:
199:
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195:
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185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
153:specification
150:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1602:
1585:Rule engines
1400:
1387:
1378:
1365:
1356:
1343:
1329:
1320:
1248:
1246:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1198:
1190:
1180:
1178:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1142:
1134:
1125:
1117:
1109:
1096:
1088:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1051:
1038:
1028:
1026:
1018:
1010:
991:
983:
966:
953:
930:
920:
918:
915:
907:
897:
896:
891:
887:
885:
871:
863:
853:
851:
841:
839:
828:
815:
807:
799:
790:
782:
771:
752:
741:
736:
732:
728:
724:
722:
712:
710:
700:
696:
692:
690:
685:
683:
675:
665:
661:
657:
653:
651:
635:
633:
628:
624:
622:
603:
601:
598:Coordination
580:coordination
577:
564:
556:
548:
540:
532:
524:
514:
512:
502:
498:
496:
491:
487:
485:
477:
463:
455:
435:
416:
394:
379:
370:
355:Please help
343:
284:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
253:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
222:
196:
165:
146:
125:
121:
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1717:SMT solvers
1321:FLAIRS 2006
1231:and a code
1207:and a code
1063:with a code
854:there is no
1775:Categories
1296:References
894:-queries.
413:Vocabulary
241:at least 5
184:ontologies
99:April 2016
69:newspapers
1463:reasoning
1281:ClearTalk
1249:SimpleMat
452:ACE texts
344:does not
317:, and to
268:a new tie
256:anaphoric
138:semantics
1287:Inform 7
1255:See also
1079:the card
1075:the code
963:Commands
825:Negation
592:negation
499:customer
373:May 2013
325:Overview
315:validate
192:planning
1669:Prover9
1664:Paradox
1613:F-logic
1261:Gellish
1156:if-then
1067:inserts
882:Queries
739:-part.
735:in the
727:in the
713:if-then
686:if-then
432:Grammar
365:removed
350:sources
276:the man
260:the tie
134:English
128:) is a
83:scholar
1644:CARINE
1183:with:
1181:a card
1135:Then:
1071:a card
898:Yes/no
888:yes/no
733:a card
699:, and
629:a code
625:a card
590:, and
311:verify
307:reason
301:, and
155:, and
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1674:SPASS
1659:Otter
1654:Nqthm
1618:FO(.)
1527:CLIPS
1397:(PDF)
1375:(PDF)
1353:(PDF)
1317:(PDF)
1211:. If
1061:then
697:which
319:query
313:, to
280:a man
229:every
90:JSTOR
76:books
1608:CycL
1461:and
1029:that
852:or,
729:then
701:that
656:and
627:and
503:card
501:and
444:. A
348:any
346:cite
321:it.
303:SWRL
274:and
262:and
237:some
190:and
62:news
1679:TPS
693:who
662:and
654:and
604:and
359:by
299:OWL
272:his
126:ACE
45:by
1777::
1684:Z3
1399:.
1377:.
1355:.
1319:.
1304:^
921:wh
892:wh
856::
844::
842:no
737:if
725:it
695:,
666:or
658:or
636:or
586:,
582:,
515:of
264:it
239:,
235:,
233:no
231:,
227:,
194:.
182:,
178:,
174:,
170:,
163:.
151:,
1649:E
1451:e
1444:t
1437:v
1403:.
1381:.
1359:.
1337:.
1323:.
1243:.
1241:X
1237:Y
1233:Y
1229:X
1219:.
1217:X
1213:Y
1209:Y
1205:X
386:)
380:(
375:)
371:(
367:.
353:.
225:a
124:(
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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