1808:
are considered primary female sex hormones, while testosterone is the primary male sex hormone. Broadly speaking, estrogen is understood to be immune-activating, while testosterone is considered to be immune-suppressing. The ideal immune system response must be alert enough to recognize and destroy foreign antigens, while also being selective enough to avoid attacking the self. There exists a necessary trade-off between immune system hyperactivity (autoimmunity) versus hypoactivity (immune deficiency). Since men and women have different levels of these sex hormones, they necessarily incur unequal risk for developing these conditions. Very broadly speaking, men are more predisposed to infectious disease, but are less likely to develop autoimmune disease. Women conversely are at higher risk for developing autoimmune disease, but are more protected from infectious disease than men. Women have a greater number of circulating antibodies than do men, which has implications for their development of autoimmune disease, as well as their increased resistance to infectious disease.
1958:
immune system mistakenly forms specific antibodies to its own tissues, resulting in inflammation. The presence of autoantibodies alone is not sufficient for diagnosis, as autoantibodies may arise for a variety of other reasons, including malignancy, infection, or injury, and may be present even in persons who are completely healthy. However, it is possible for persons to have detectable autoantibody levels prior to clinical development autoimmune disease; this state may be characterized as pre-autoimmunity. Additionally, it is possible to display clinical signs of autoimmune disease before autoantibody levels are detectable. Most autoantibody assays are more
1661:, among others. Although the lifetime incidence of these diseases may be similar, they may still exist a difference in disease onset, course, complications, and prognosis which vary based on sex. For example, men are more likely to develop Crohn's disease in the upper GI tract compared to women. Males and females are equally as likely to be affected by Crohn's disease until around age 25, when women become overrepresented as Crohn's disease patients. Women and men are equally likely to develop ulcerative colitis until age 45, after which this shifts to a significant male predominance.
1784:(47,XXY). Like women, males with Klinefelter syndrome also have two copies of the X chromosome, which may predispose them to increased risk of autoimmune disease through the same mechanism. This risk is highest in autoimmune diseases which are female-predominant (e.g., Addison's disease, multiple sclerosis, Sjögren syndrome). With the exception of Type 1 diabetes, which affects both sexes at roughly equal rates, Klinefelter syndrome was not correlated with increased risk of autoimmune diseases which occur in males with greater or equal frequency (e.g.,
2045:. There are no robust randomized controlled studies in humans regarding the safety of corticosteroid use in pregnancy. Corticosteroid use may be associated with cleft palate formation in the 1st trimester, but the data on this is limited. There is little evidence to suggest that material corticosteroid use is associated with early delivery, low birth weight, or preeclampsia. Prednisone and methylprednisolone have been classed as pregnancy category C, in that they should only be used in the maternal benefits outweigh potential risks to the fetus.
49:
1799:(45,XO) are still twice as likely as the general female population to develop autoimmune diseases. Interestingly, the autoimmune diseases for which Turner syndrome patients are at greater risk include inflammatory bowel disease, type 1 diabetes, alopecia areata, and several other autoimmune disorders which tend to affect the sexes at roughly equal rates. This suggests that the development of autoimmune disease is not solely mediated by differential expression of genes on the X chromosome.
1969:, with higher titers (e.g., 1:160) indicating greater autoantibody concentration than lower titers (e.g., 1:8). Different autoantibody assays will have different criteria for determining whether a given test is positive, negative, or indeterminate. Other laboratories ordered in the workup of autoimmune disease may include a white blood cell count (WBC), CRP (C-reactive protein), ESR (erythrocyte sedimentation rate), and C3/C4 (complement levels), among others.
2074:
1750:
conditions. Posited reasons for this disparity include the differential effects of sex hormones (especially estrogen) on immune response, X-chromosome inactivation, changes associated with pregnancy, and evolutionary pressures that affect the sexes differently. Due to biological development, many of these elements are inextricably linked, and it can be difficult to isolate the individual effects of each factor.
2158:, may be effective in reducing stress, pain, and boost people's ability to cope with other effects of autoimmune diseases. Instructional materials can guide people in learning these activities. Some include self-help books, audio sources, tapes, or consulting with an instructor. Joining a support group or talking with a counselor might also help manage stress and cope with the disease.
2325:
1826:
demonstration of mate quality in spite of this handicap. Additional proof-of-concept can be demonstrated through testosterone supplementation. Men with
Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY) naturally make very little testosterone; androgen supplementation has been shown to decrease serum levels of all immunoglobulins in these men.
1642:). For men who may develop these conditions, epidemiological and symptomological differences may still exist. For example, when multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis do occur in men, they tend to develop later in life for men (around age 30–40) than for women, when incidence rises after puberty.
1834:
Pregnancy has both short- and long-term effects on the immune system, and these changes may persist even after the completion of pregnancy. These effects on the course of autoimmune diseases vary widely, and are dependent on the specific disease, as well as the individual patient. Conditions such as
1825:
The immunocompetence handicap hypothesis proposes that testosterone may have utility as a secondary sexual characteristic which signals fitness to prospective mates. As males have higher levels of testosterone, which suppresses immune system activity, signaling fitness in spite of this handicap is a
1816:
Estrogen has significant effects on the response of the adaptive immune system. Higher levels of estrogen are correlated with higher levels of circulating antibodies, which are responsible for mounting an immune response. In addition to short-term changes, the immune system may also be influenced by
1957:
Diagnosis of autoimmune disease is based upon clinical and laboratory evidence. In order to diagnose autoimmune disease, typical symptoms of a given disorder must be present, along with laboratory evidence of autoantibodies. Autoantibodies develop throughout the course of autoimmune disease, as the
1842:
The mother's immune system tends to be suppressed during pregnancy, to prevent fetal rejection from foreign antibodies in the fetus. As stated before, pregnancy causes an increase of estrogen in the female body. The increase of this hormone weakens the functioning of immune cells, thus debilitating
2203:
Some women with autoimmune diseases may have problems getting pregnant. This can happen for many reasons such as medication types or even disease types. Tests can tell if fertility problems are caused by an autoimmune disease or an unrelated reason. Fertility treatments are able to help some women
2142:
Get enough rest. Rest allows body tissues and joints the time they need to repair. Sleeping is a great way to maintain health of the mind and body. Lack of sleep, along with elevated stress levels may cause symptoms to worsen. Without proper rest, the body's immune defense remains inadequate. Many
2053:
Optimal treatment of autoimmune disease addition to quelling the generalized inflammation which may occur with autoimmune disease, treatment is also focused on specifically targeting the adaptive immune system. The goal of direct immunosuppression is to treat flares as well as extend the period of
1807:
Sex hormones are instrumental in nearly every aspect of human biology, including the development and response of the adaptive immune system. Sex hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone are all present in healthy men and women, albeit at different levels. Estrogen and progesterone
1696:
Additionally, sex ratios of affected patients can vary widely between geographic regions. For instance, Crohn's disease is slightly more common in women in
Western countries, whereas it is slightly more common in men in Asian countries. Behçet's disease is more common in males in regions along the
2207:
Changes in the severity of the disease seem to vary depending on the type of disease. There is an observable trend in pregnant women with rheumatoid arthritis, where the condition seems to improve during pregnancy. Differently, expecting mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) may be more
1692:
remains unclear.) On closer inspection, some diseases initially thought to be overrepresented in men have trended towards sex neutrality over time. For example, early studies of ankylosing spondylitis reported a ratio of 10:1 male to female patients, but more recent reports have indicated this is
2126:
Eat healthy, well-balanced meals. A healthy diet limits saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, salt, and added sugars. People may alleviate symptoms of inflammation by following the
Autoimmune Protocol Diet, which focuses on eliminating food that may trigger inflammation. Those with autoimmune
2109:
Some autoimmune diseases with targeted effects on endocrine organs can result in an inability to produce hormones necessary to maintain normal physiology. Palliative treatment of autoimmune disease involves treating the secondary condition, by replacing vital hormones which are no longer being
2017:
which cause inflammation. They additionally may inhibit chemotaxis, stop neutrophil aggregation, and decrease levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. They are not considered immunosuppressive agents, as they do not directly target immune cells. Examples of NSAIDs include ibuprofen, naproxen, and
1972:
Additional circumstantial evidence to indicate likely autoimmune disease include family history and clustering of autoimmune diseases within a given family, presence of HLA haplotypes associated with a given disease, sex bias, and proof-of-concept through response to immunosuppressive therapy.
1838:
During pregnancy, the hormone estrogen spikes; additionally, hormonal fluctuations may continue long after childbirth. These changes could trigger, improve or even worsen an autoimmune disease. In addition to estrogen, other hormones like progesterone and prolactin may trigger these illnesses.
1749:
The causes of autoimmunity are still the subject of extensive research, and include genetic as well as environmental factors. However, the clear overrepresentation of women as persons with autoimmune disease suggests that sex-specific factors are highly instrumental in the development of these
2195:
Concerns about fertility and pregnancy are present in women with autoimmune diseases. Talking with a health care provider before becoming pregnant is recommended. They may suggest to wait until the disease is in remission or suggest a change in medication before becoming pregnant. There are
1740:
Both systemic and localized disease can present with symptoms which are exclusive to women. Women with Sjögren syndrome (an autoimmune disease characterized by destruction and inflammation of the salivary and lacrimal glands) are 2–3 times more likely to report vaginal dryness than other
2002:, and palliative – e.g., correcting a functional disturbance related to the condition. The overall goals of such treatment are to limit the severity of flare-ups of disease, as well as to limit the total number of flares – that is, to extend periods of disease remission.
2130:
Engage in regular physical activity without overdoing it. Patients should speak with a clinician about what types of physical activity is appropriate. A gradual and gentle exercise program often works well for people with long-lasting muscle and joint pain. For example,
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for the extra copy of these genes. Incomplete suppression of the extra copies of these genes may lead to overexpression of some genes involved in the immune response resulting in a more robust immune response and an increased risk of developing autoimmune diseases.
1993:
Currently, it is not possible to fully cure any autoimmune disease. However, treatments exist which can improve the course of a given disease and/or result in long periods of remission. Pharmacological treatment of autoimmune disease can be broadly classified into
1835:
rheumatoid arthritis often improve over the course of pregnancy, especially in the second and third trimesters; however, women often relapse within three months of giving birth. Other conditions, such as lupus, often become much worse over the course of pregnancy.
1260:
Common autoimmune symptoms experienced by both sexes include rashes, fevers, fatigue, and joint pain. Symptoms which are specific to women include irregular menses, pelvic pain, or vaginal dryness, depending on the given disease. Some diseases such as
1240:
is widely recognized to be significantly more common in women than in men, and often presents differently between the sexes. The reasons for these disparities are still under investigation, but may in part involve the presence of an additional
1065:
2616:
Chabre O, Goichot B, Zenaty D, Bertherat J (December 2017). "Group 1. Epidemiology of primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency: Prevalence and incidence, acute adrenal insufficiency, long-term morbidity and mortality".
1768:, of which most women have two copies, whereas men typically only have one. During cell division in embryological development, one of the two X chromosomes is inactivated at random, in a process called
1843:
the mother's immune system. In addition, it is possible that fetal cells continue to circulate in the mother's body for years after childbirth, making it a possible trigger for autoimmune disease.
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2211:
Medications have an influence on female fertility a well; furthermore, fertility has an impact on pregnancy. There are certain medications that can hinder women's ability to get pregnant, such as
2146:
Reduce stress. Stress and anxiety can trigger symptoms to flare up with some autoimmune diseases. Simplifying daily stressors will help alleviate symptoms and contribute to a sense of well-being.
2029:
also have both anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects, and are used widely in the treatment of autoimmune disease. They work through promoting the synthesis of multiple proteins such as
1701:, but is more common in women in the United States. This suggests that the risks of developing autoimmune disease are multifactorial, and may vary based on race and environment as well as sex.
3006:
Loftus EV, Schoenfeld P, Sandborn WJ (January 2002). "The epidemiology and natural history of Crohn's disease in population-based patient cohorts from North
America: a systematic review".
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1595:
There are over 100 autoimmune conditions described, of which the majority are more prevalent in women than in men. Approximately 80% of all patients with autoimmune disease are women.
1288:, and palliative – i.e., correcting a functional disturbance related to the condition. Some medications used to treat autoimmune diseases might not be safe to use during pregnancy.
1817:
longer-term changes, such as total lifetime exposure. The course of disease may also be related to hormonal fluctuations, especially those of puberty, pregnancy, and menopause.
1865:
2013:
are commonly used to reduce inflammation associated with flares of autoimmune illness. NSAIDs work by inhibiting COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes, which are responsible for generating
2885:
Davatchi F, Chams-Davatchi C, Shams H, Shahram F, Nadji A, Akhlaghi M, et al. (January 2017). "Behcet's disease: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis".
1220:
1192:
4174:
Seminog OO, Seminog AB, Yeates D, Goldacre MJ (March 2015). "Associations between
Klinefelter's syndrome and autoimmune diseases: English national record linkage studies".
2018:
diclofenac. These drugs are not recommended past the 20th week of pregnancy, as they may have adverse effects on development of the fetal circulatory system and kidneys.
1721:; these can be seen in diseases such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis. Other autoimmune diseases have localized effects on specific organ or tissue types. For instance,
3317:
Ragusa F, Fallahi P, Elia G, Gonnella D, Paparo SR, Giusti C, et al. (December 2019). "Hashimotos' thyroiditis: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinic and therapy".
2037:, which stop the downstream production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes which promote inflammation. Examples of corticosteroids used in autoimmune disease include
1645:
Some autoimmune diseases affect both sexes at roughly equal rates, or have only a slight female predominance. These conditions include inflammatory bowel disease (
1280:
Currently it is not possible to cure autoimmune disease, but many treatments are available. Treatment of autoimmune disease can be broadly classified into
4852:
Khizroeva J, Nalli C, Bitsadze V, Lojacono A, Zatti S, Andreoli L, et al. (December 2019). "Infertility in women with systemic autoimmune diseases".
1124:
3282:
Hemminki K, Li X, Sundquist J, Sundquist K (May 2010). "The epidemiology of Graves' disease: evidence of a genetic and an environmental contribution".
1213:
1107:
1635:
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1144:
1962:; that is, a negative autoantibody test is better at excluding a given disease, than a positive autoantibody test is at diagnosing a disease.
4013:
3620:
3513:"Sex bias in multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders: How it influences clinical course, MRI parameters and prognosis"
2751:
2465:
3411:"Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease (MOGAD): A Review of Clinical and MRI Features, Diagnosis, and Management"
2055:
2963:
Wagtmans MJ, Verspaget HW, Lamers CB, van
Hogezand RA (May 2001). "Gender-related differences in the clinical course of Crohn's disease".
2460:(1st ed.). Center for Autoimmune Diseases Research, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, El Rosario University. pp. 257–265.
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Finckh A, Gilbert B, Hodkinson B, Bae SC, Thomas R, Deane KD, et al. (October 2022). "Global epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis".
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in women (given that several genes on the X chromosome are associated with immune system development), as well as the higher presence of
2010:
1075:
2487:
3946:"Sex-Based Differences in Incidence of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases—Pooled Analysis of Population-Based Studies From Western Countries"
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1206:
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1709:
Autoimmune diseases can result in systemic or localized symptoms, depending on the given disease. Typical systemic symptoms include
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closer to 3:1. This may reflect a true increased incidence in women over time, or may be due to improvements in diagnostic testing.
1257:
may also be associated with female-specific physiological changes, such as hormonal shifts during menses, pregnancy, and menopause.
1080:
243:
2706:"Clinical manifestations of axial spondyloarthritis (ankylosing spondylitis and nonradiographic axial spondyloarthritis) in adults"
3844:
1561:
388:
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Non-pharmacological treatments are effective in treating autoimmune disease and contribute to a sense of well-being. Women can:
1772:. This ensures that the expression of X chromosome genes is randomly suppressed on one of the two copies in females in order to
3061:"Incidence of dermatomyositis and clinically amyopathic dermatomyositis: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota"
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63:
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21:
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Sechi E, Cacciaguerra L, Chen JJ, Mariotto S, Fadda G, Dinoto A, Lopez-Chiriboga AS, Pittock SJ, Flanagan EP (2022).
2219:. For this reason, it may be extremely helpful for women with autoimmune diseases to seek treatment when conceiving.
4923:
4482:"The effect of testosterone replacement treatment on immunological features of patients with Klinefelter's syndrome"
2114:. Though this does not cure the primary autoimmune disease, it effectively treats the lack of hormone caused by it.
2834:"Incidence, prevalence and mortality of autoimmune hepatitis in England 1997-2015. A population-based cohort study"
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Additional support for this hypothesis can be illustrated by the higher rates of autoimmune disease in men with
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Very few autoimmune diseases are thought to be more common in men than in women. Examples of these may include
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3564:"Bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris--incidence and mortality in the UK: population based cohort study"
3151:"Incidence and prevalence of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: A systematic literature review"
2775:"Relationship Between Gender Differences and Clinical Outcome in Patients With the Antiphospholipid Syndrome"
3200:"The lifetime risk of adult-onset rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic diseases"
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Bandoli, Gretchen; Palmsten, Kristin; Forbess Smith, Chelsey J.; Chambers, Christina D. (August 2017).
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Crowson CS, Matteson EL, Myasoedova E, Michet CJ, Ernste FC, Warrington KJ, et al. (March 2011).
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DMARDs can be further classified into conventional-synthetic, targeted-synthetic, and biologic agents.
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Autoimmune diseases which overwhelmingly affect women include those which affect the thyroid gland (
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Hirschfield GM, Karlsen TH, Lindor KD, Adams DH (November 2013). "Primary sclerosing cholangitis".
1619:
1541:
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351:
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Lungaro L, Costanzini A, Manza F, Barbalinardo M, Gentili D, Guarino M, et al. (2023-01-17).
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Shah SC, Khalili H, Gower-Rousseau C, Olen O, Benchimol EI, Lynge E, et al. (October 2018).
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Truglia S, Capozzi A, Mancuso S, Manganelli V, Rapino L, Riitano G, et al. (2022-07-04).
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1995:
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likely to have worsened symptoms through pregnancy; however, this is difficult to predict.
3892:"Pathogenesis of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis-Similarities and Differences"
3362:"The importance of studying sex differences in disease: The example of multiple sclerosis"
2197:
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506:
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4000:. Handbook of Systemic Autoimmune Diseases Vol. 4. Vol. 4. Elsevier. pp. 3–10.
2313:. Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1 February 2017
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2401:
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presents with patchy baldness due to autoimmune destruction of hair follicles, whereas
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857:
833:
769:
628:
616:
511:
456:
196:
139:
4005:
3813:
3757:
Mariette X, Criswell LA (March 2018). Solomon CG (ed.). "Primary Sjögren's
Syndrome".
3684:
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3843:
Hughes M, Pauling JD, Armstrong-James L, Denton CP, Galdas P, Flurey C (April 2020).
3800:
Lisnevskaia L, Murphy G, Isenberg D (November 2014). "Systemic lupus erythematosus".
3743:
3346:
3184:
3167:
3150:
3019:
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2151:
2014:
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refers to a pathological immune response of the body's immune system against itself.
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Koçar, I H; Yesilova, Z; Özata, M; Turan, M; Sengül, A; Özdemir, I ç (2001-12-24).
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produced. Examples of this include the treatment of type-1 diabetes with exogenous
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3110:"Gender Difference in Type 1 Diabetes: An Underevaluated Dimension of the Disease"
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remission between episodes. Immunosuppressive drugs are categorized into DMARDs (
4800:"Complementary and Alternative Therapy of Rare Inflammatory/Autoimmune Diseases"
2522:"Autoimmune disease during pregnancy and the microchimerism legacy of pregnancy"
1759:
1615:
1253:(which increases immune system response). The risk, incidence, and character of
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378:
336:
221:
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National
Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service, NIDDK, NIH, DHHS
4865:
4281:"Why women have more autoimmune diseases than men: An evolutionary perspective"
3907:
3727:
3330:
3295:
3247:
Burch HB, Cooper DS (December 2015). "Management of Graves
Disease: A Review".
3126:
3109:
2630:
2238:"Why women have more autoimmune diseases than men: An evolutionary perspective"
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people need at least seven to nine hours of sleep each day to feel well-rested.
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184:
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4415:
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4195:
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3135:
2800:
4242:
4034:"Impact of Female Gender in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Narrative Review"
3260:
2832:
Grønbaek L, Otete H, Ban L, Crooks C, Card T, Jepsen P, West J (July 2020).
2127:
diseases should focus on consuming foods that are very fresh and nutritious.
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3925:
3868:
3821:
3778:
3735:
3692:
3657:
3615:. A LANGE medical book (Eighth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
3597:
3548:
3497:
3446:
3395:
3338:
3303:
3268:
3233:
3176:
3094:
3037:
2984:
2949:
2906:
2860:
2818:
2690:
2638:
2555:
2437:
2386:
2279:
3770:
3562:
Langan SM, Smeeth L, Hubbard R, Fleming KM, Smith CJ, West J (July 2008).
3478:
2941:
2928:
Fasano A, Catassi C (December 2012). "Clinical practice. Celiac disease".
2367:
1066:
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
4751:"Efficacy of the Autoimmune Protocol Diet for Inflammatory Bowel Disease"
3649:
3028:
1250:
1085:
875:
781:
759:
638:
501:
436:
405:
341:
282:
100:
4558:
4050:
2418:
4437:
Braude, Stanton; Tang-Martinez, Zuleyma; Taylor, George T. (May 1999).
2657:"Gender Differences in Axial Spondyloarthritis: Women Are Not So Lucky"
2136:
2111:
1000:
964:
940:
911:
683:
516:
466:
4903:
4304:
3636:
Kaplan MM, Gershwin ME (September 2005). "Primary biliary cirrhosis".
3377:
3215:
2852:
2456:
Anaya JM, Shoenfeld Y, Rojas-Villarraga A, Levy RA, Cervera R (2013).
2261:
4854:
Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
4542:"The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review"
3890:
Watanabe R, Berry GJ, Liang DH, Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM (August 2020).
3579:
3319:
Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
2402:"The Prevalence of Autoimmune Disorders in Women: A Narrative Review"
648:
134:
129:
124:
3460:
Jayam Trouth A, Dabi A, Solieman N, Kurukumbi M, Kalyanam J (2012).
2655:
Rusman T, van Vollenhoven RF, van der Horst-Bruinsma IE (May 2018).
2590:
Pisetsky DS (October 11, 2023). Schur PH, Rigby WF, Case SM (eds.).
4407:
1966:
1710:
1607:
1551:
1274:
144:
3998:
Reproductive and Hormonal Aspects of Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
2328:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
3613:
Pathophysiology of disease: an introduction to clinical medicine
2132:
1718:
774:
4439:"Stress, testosterone, and the immunoredistribution hypothesis"
2200:
that specialize in treating women with high-risk pregnancies.
2068:
581:
1795:
Despite having only one copy of the X chromosome, women with
4540:
Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A (May 2020).
4392:"Parasites, Bright Males, and the Immunocompetence Handicap"
2400:
Angum F, Khan T, Kaler J, Siddiqui L, Hussain A (May 2020).
2180:
Imagining confronting the pain and watching it be destroyed.
2167:
Some complementary treatments may be effective and include:
1965:
Generally, autoantibody results are reported in the form of
1852:
Autoantibodies with commonly-associated autoimmune diseases
4898:
4341:"Sex Hormones in Acquired Immunity and Autoimmune Disease"
2488:"Why Nearly 80 Percent of Autoimmune Sufferers Are Female"
1916:
SS-A/Ro Ab ("anti-Sjögren syndrome A"/"anti-Ro" antibody)
1764:
Many genes involved in the immune response reside on the
1688:(though whether this represents an autoimmune disease vs
3059:
Bendewald MJ, Wetter DA, Li X, Davis MD (January 2010).
1071:
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
2085:
1729:
presents with neurological symptoms due to autoimmune
4804:
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
4227:"Autoimmune diseases in Turner syndrome: an overview"
1273:
may improve during pregnancy, whereas others such as
2515:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2507:
1887:
Systemic lupus erythematosus with renal involvement
3845:"Gender-related differences in systemic sclerosis"
3149:Sharma A, Mohammad AJ, Turesson C (October 2020).
4847:
4845:
4390:Folstad, Ivar; Karter, Andrew John (March 1992).
4744:
4742:
3991:
3989:
2880:
2878:
2585:
4334:
4332:
4279:Kronzer VL, Bridges SL, Davis JM (March 2021).
4274:
4272:
4270:
4169:
4167:
4165:
4163:
4027:
4025:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2236:Kronzer VL, Bridges SL, Davis JM (March 2021).
2062:DMARDs (Disease-Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Drugs)
1636:neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD)
4118:Xing E, Billi AC, Gudjonsson JE (March 2022).
2650:
2648:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2174:Taking time to relax in a comfortable position
1948:anti-Scl-70 ("anti-topoisomerase I antibody")
4535:
4533:
1884:ds-DNA ("anti-double stranded DNA antibody")
1214:
8:
4668:
4666:
4664:
4638:
4636:
4113:
4111:
3939:
3937:
3935:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2011:Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
4856:. Autoimmune endocrine disorders: Part I.
4703:Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America
4610:
4608:
4606:
4591:Turner L (May 1, 2019). "Women's Health".
3321:. Autoimmune endocrine disorders: Part I.
3008:Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
1924:CCP ("anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide")
1295:
1221:
1207:
1125:International Center for Research on Women
1094:
1052:
921:
809:
796:
733:
659:
567:
556:
81:
68:
25:
4825:
4815:
4774:
4722:
4567:
4557:
4513:
4456:
4366:
4356:
4312:
4250:
4135:
4067:
4049:
3961:
3915:
3587:
3538:
3528:
3487:
3477:
3436:
3426:
3385:
3223:
3166:
3125:
3084:
3027:
2808:
2790:
2680:
2545:
2427:
2417:
2376:
2366:
2269:
2204:with autoimmune disease become pregnant.
4124:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
2965:The American Journal of Gastroenterology
2704:van Tubergen A. Sieper J, Seo P (eds.).
2351:"Sex differences in autoimmune diseases"
1850:
1193:Reproductive health in the United States
2736:Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences
2228:
1682:anti-GBM disease (Goodpasture syndrome)
1331:anti-GBM disease (Goodpasture syndrome)
1097:
1055:
924:
812:
799:
736:
662:
570:
559:
490:
421:
367:
158:
84:
71:
39:
2056:disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs
4225:De Sanctis V, Khater D (2019-09-06).
3360:Golden LC, Voskuhl R (January 2017).
1655:immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)
7:
4486:Clinical and Experimental Immunology
3155:Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism
2887:Expert Review of Clinical Immunology
2520:Adams Waldorf KM, Nelson JL (2008).
1900:AMA ("anti-mitochondrial antibody")
1892:SMA ("anti-smooth muscle antibody")
1108:Office of Research on Women's Health
3759:The New England Journal of Medicine
3638:The New England Journal of Medicine
3611:Hammer GD, McPhee SJ, eds. (2019).
2930:The New England Journal of Medicine
2458:Autoimmunity: From Bench to Bedside
1983:Autoimmune disease § Treatment
1458:Antibody-Associated Disease (MOGAD)
1454:Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein
1145:Society for Women's Health Research
1076:International Day of the Girl Child
4120:"Sex Bias and Autoimmune Diseases"
3108:Tatti P, Pavandeep S (June 2022).
2744:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.05046-7
1188:Birth control in the United States
14:
4674:"Prednisone Use During Pregnancy"
4231:Acta Bio Medica: Atenei Parmensis
2183:Journaling and daily affirmations
1908:ACA ("anti-centromere antibody")
1081:Commission on the Status of Women
1049:Politics, research & advocacy
237:Excessive gestational weight gain
4498:10.1046/j.1365-2249.2000.01329.x
4038:Journal of Personalized Medicine
3366:Journal of Neuroscience Research
3168:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2020.07.005
3020:10.1046/j.1365-2036.2002.01140.x
2977:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03755.x
2323:
2177:Using imagery throughout the day
2072:
1960:sensitive than they are specific
1562:Systemic sclerosis (scleroderma)
1297:Autoimmune Disease Cases by Sex
389:Assisted reproductive technology
47:
572:Sexually transmitted infections
4096:Johns Hopkins Sjögren’s Center
1876:AHA ("anti-histone antibody")
1670:primary sclerosing cholangitis
1630:), and neurological diseases (
1522:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
64:Reproductive and sexual health
1:
4006:10.1016/s1571-5078(05)04002-x
3814:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60128-8
3685:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60096-3
3511:Nytrova P, Dolezal O (2022).
3462:"Myasthenia gravis: a review"
3077:10.1001/archdermatol.2009.328
2899:10.1080/1744666X.2016.1205486
1026:Social determinants of health
4899:American Thyroid Association
4767:10.1097/MIB.0000000000001221
4188:10.3109/08916934.2014.968918
3963:10.1053/j.gastro.2018.06.043
3896:Current Rheumatology Reports
3861:10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102494
3716:Nature Reviews. Rheumatology
2661:Current Rheumatology Reports
2526:Immunological Investigations
1608:systemic lupus erythematosus
1588:(though M>F after age 45)
1552:Systemic lupus erythematosus
1482:Neuromyelitis Optica (NMOSD)
1387:(though F>M after age 25)
1021:Gender disparities in health
347:Mother-to-child transmission
4755:Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
2486:Moyer MW (September 2021).
2186:Traditional herbal medicine
1624:primary biliary cholangitis
1622:), hepatobiliary diseases (
1512:Primary biliary cholangitis
1305:Ratio of female:male cases
1255:autoimmune disease in women
599:Pelvic inflammatory disease
549:Hormone replacement therapy
150:Reproductive system disease
22:Sex differences in medicine
4940:
4866:10.1016/j.beem.2019.101369
3908:10.1007/s11926-020-00948-x
3728:10.1038/s41584-022-00827-y
3331:10.1016/j.beem.2019.101367
3296:10.1016/j.jaut.2009.11.019
3127:10.3390/diabetology3020027
2631:10.1016/j.ando.2017.10.010
2592:"Overview of autoimmunity"
2355:Biology of Sex Differences
2349:Voskuhl R (January 2011).
1986:
1980:
1903:Primary Biliary Cirrhosis
1868:("anti-nuclear antibody")
1757:
1169:Women's health in Ethiopia
1135:Black Women's Health Study
207:Complications of pregnancy
190:Obstetrics and gynaecology
15:
4715:10.1016/j.rdc.2017.04.013
4285:Evolutionary Applications
4137:10.1016/j.jid.2021.06.008
3530:10.3389/fimmu.2022.933415
3428:10.3389/fneur.2022.885218
2792:10.3389/fimmu.2022.932181
2732:"Goodpasture's Syndrome☆"
2673:10.1007/s11926-018-0744-2
2538:10.1080/08820130802205886
2242:Evolutionary Applications
1754:X chromosome inactivation
1713:, fatigue, muscle aches,
1341:Antiphospholipid syndrome
1158:Women's health by country
1113:Women's Health Initiative
951:Major depressive disorder
802:Non-communicable diseases
755:Intimate partner violence
96:External female genitalia
4649:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
4621:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
4358:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02279
3204:Arthritis and Rheumatism
2619:Annales d'Endocrinologie
1940:Jo ("anti-Jo antibody")
1690:autoinflammatory disease
694:Gynaecological disorders
472:Contraceptive prevalence
357:Compulsory sterilization
54:Symbol of women's health
4458:10.1093/beheco/10.3.345
4396:The American Naturalist
4345:Frontiers in Immunology
4243:10.23750/abm.v90i3.8737
3517:Frontiers in Immunology
3284:Journal of Autoimmunity
3261:10.1001/jama.2015.16535
3065:Archives of Dermatology
2779:Frontiers in Immunology
1932:RF (rheumatoid factor)
1606:), rheumatic diseases (
1600:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
1475:(below 40 years of age)
1434:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
1174:Women's health in India
1164:Women's health in China
970:Urinary tract infection
730:Non-reproductive health
4092:"Gynecologic Problems"
3415:Frontiers in Neurology
1786:ankylosing spondylitis
1741:postmenopausal women.
1735:central nervous system
1666:ankylosing spondylitis
1321:Ankylosing spondylitis
871:Cardiovascular disease
739:Violence against women
612:Female genital cutting
477:Contraceptive security
452:Hormonal contraception
394:In vitro fertilization
369:Reproductive life plan
212:Hyperemesis gravidarum
3771:10.1056/NEJMcp1702514
2942:10.1056/NEJMcp1113994
2368:10.1186/2042-6410-2-1
2311:"Autoimmune Diseases"
1951:Systemic Scleroderma
1935:Rheumatoid Arthritis
1927:Rheumatoid Arthritis
1895:Autoimmune Hepatitis
1016:Healthcare inequality
994:Sociocultural factors
787:Gender discrimination
587:Human papilloma virus
308:Vesicovaginal fistula
4817:10.1155/2018/2140521
3849:Autoimmunity Reviews
3650:10.1056/NEJMra043898
1911:Scleroderma (CREST)
1782:Klinefelter syndrome
1659:MOG antibody disease
1628:autoimmune hepatitis
1612:rheumatoid arthritis
1572:Takayasu's arteritis
1532:Rheumatoid arthritis
1414:Giant cell arteritis
1351:Autoimmune hepatitis
1267:rheumatoid arthritis
1130:Nurses' Health Study
1031:Reproductive justice
975:Urinary incontinence
442:Intrauterine devices
313:Rectovaginal fistula
303:Obstetrical fistulae
232:Gestational diabetes
227:Obstetrical bleeding
202:Adolescent pregnancy
180:Gravidity and parity
175:Unintended pregnancy
4919:Autoimmune diseases
4559:10.7759/cureus.8094
4339:Moulton VR (2018).
4297:2021EvApp..14..629K
4130:(3 Pt B): 857–866.
4051:10.3390/jpm13020165
3956:(4): 1079–1089.e3.
3808:(9957): 1878–1888.
3679:(9904): 1587–1599.
3479:10.1155/2012/874680
3466:Autoimmune Diseases
2841:Liver International
2492:Scientific American
2419:10.7759/cureus.8094
2254:2021EvApp..14..629K
2118:Non-pharmacological
1879:Drug-induced lupus
1853:
1298:
1247:female sex hormones
1036:Women's empowerment
881:Alzheimer's disease
447:Oral contraceptives
332:Perinatal mortality
74:Reproductive health
4444:Behavioral Ecology
2171:Listening to music
2084:. You can help by
2043:methylprednisolone
1989:Pregnancy category
1851:
1727:multiple sclerosis
1705:Signs and symptoms
1647:ulcerative colitis
1640:multiple sclerosis
1582:Ulcerative colitis
1492:Pemphigus vulgaris
1444:Multiple sclerosis
1296:
1271:multiple sclerosis
1238:Autoimmune disease
1140:Cartwright Inquiry
907:Autoimmune disease
839:Endometrial cancer
814:Gynecologic cancer
644:Sexual intercourse
482:Planned parenthood
462:Male contraceptive
86:Reproductive tract
18:Autoimmune disease
4761:(11): 2054–2060.
4305:10.1111/eva.13167
4015:978-0-444-51801-9
3644:(12): 1261–1273.
3622:978-1-260-02650-4
3378:10.1002/jnr.23955
3255:(23): 2544–2554.
3216:10.1002/art.30155
2936:(25): 2419–2426.
2853:10.1111/liv.14480
2753:978-0-12-801238-3
2467:978-958-738-376-8
2262:10.1111/eva.13167
2102:
2101:
2049:Immunosuppressive
2006:Anti-inflammatory
2000:immunosuppressive
1996:anti-inflammatory
1955:
1954:
1919:Sjögren syndrome
1632:myasthenia gravis
1593:
1592:
1589:
1476:
1469:Myasthenia gravis
1388:
1311:Addison's disease
1286:immunosuppressive
1282:anti-inflammatory
1231:
1230:
1120:
1119:
1093:
1092:
985:
984:
920:
919:
866:
865:
849:Papanicolaou test
795:
794:
765:Sexual harassment
750:Domestic violence
721:
720:
717:
716:
713:
712:
709:
708:
607:
606:
298:Retained placenta
217:Ectopic pregnancy
4931:
4886:
4885:
4849:
4840:
4839:
4829:
4819:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4778:
4746:
4737:
4736:
4726:
4694:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4670:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4655:
4640:
4631:
4630:
4628:
4627:
4612:
4601:
4600:
4593:Better Nutrition
4588:
4582:
4581:
4571:
4561:
4537:
4528:
4527:
4517:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4460:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4370:
4360:
4336:
4327:
4326:
4316:
4276:
4265:
4264:
4254:
4222:
4216:
4215:
4171:
4158:
4157:
4139:
4115:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4071:
4053:
4029:
4020:
4019:
3993:
3984:
3983:
3965:
3950:Gastroenterology
3941:
3930:
3929:
3919:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3711:
3705:
3704:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3591:
3580:10.1136/bmj.a180
3559:
3553:
3552:
3542:
3532:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3491:
3481:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3440:
3430:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3389:
3372:(1–2): 633–643.
3357:
3351:
3350:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3290:(3): J307–J313.
3279:
3273:
3272:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3170:
3161:(5): 1040–1048.
3146:
3140:
3139:
3129:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3088:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3031:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2971:(5): 1541–1546.
2960:
2954:
2953:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2882:
2873:
2872:
2847:(7): 1634–1644.
2838:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2812:
2794:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2760:
2730:Raval P (2015).
2727:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2684:
2652:
2643:
2642:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2587:
2560:
2559:
2549:
2517:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2483:
2472:
2471:
2453:
2442:
2441:
2431:
2421:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2380:
2370:
2346:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2307:
2284:
2283:
2273:
2233:
2213:cyclophosphamide
2198:endocrinologists
2191:During pregnancy
2097:
2094:
2076:
2069:
1867:
1854:
1686:Behçet's disease
1620:Sjögren syndrome
1587:
1542:Sjögren syndrome
1474:
1386:
1361:Behçet's disease
1299:
1223:
1216:
1209:
1095:
1053:
922:
810:
797:
734:
660:
568:
557:
293:Cesarian section
288:Obstructed labor
82:
69:
51:
26:
4939:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4929:
4928:
4909:
4908:
4895:
4890:
4889:
4851:
4850:
4843:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4748:
4747:
4740:
4696:
4695:
4691:
4682:
4680:
4672:
4671:
4662:
4653:
4651:
4642:
4641:
4634:
4625:
4623:
4614:
4613:
4604:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4539:
4538:
4531:
4479:
4478:
4474:
4436:
4435:
4431:
4389:
4388:
4384:
4338:
4337:
4330:
4278:
4277:
4268:
4224:
4223:
4219:
4173:
4172:
4161:
4117:
4116:
4109:
4100:
4098:
4090:
4089:
4085:
4031:
4030:
4023:
4016:
3995:
3994:
3987:
3943:
3942:
3933:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3842:
3841:
3837:
3799:
3798:
3794:
3765:(10): 931–939.
3756:
3755:
3751:
3722:(10): 591–602.
3713:
3712:
3708:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3610:
3609:
3605:
3561:
3560:
3556:
3510:
3509:
3505:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3408:
3407:
3403:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3316:
3315:
3311:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3148:
3147:
3143:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2927:
2926:
2922:
2884:
2883:
2876:
2836:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2729:
2728:
2724:
2714:
2712:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2654:
2653:
2646:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2589:
2588:
2563:
2519:
2518:
2505:
2496:
2494:
2485:
2484:
2475:
2468:
2455:
2454:
2445:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2348:
2347:
2336:
2324:
2316:
2314:
2309:
2308:
2287:
2235:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2217:corticosteroids
2193:
2165:
2139:may be helpful.
2120:
2107:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2082:needs expansion
2064:
2051:
2027:Corticosteroids
2024:
2022:Corticosteroids
2008:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1849:
1832:
1823:
1814:
1805:
1797:Turner syndrome
1762:
1756:
1747:
1723:alopecia areata
1707:
1674:type 1 diabetes
1651:Crohn's disease
1604:Graves' disease
1424:Graves' disease
1404:Diabetes type 1
1394:Dermatomyositis
1381:Crohn's disease
1294:
1292:Common diseases
1263:Graves' disease
1227:
1198:
1197:
1180:Family planning
1159:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1050:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1011:Gender equality
995:
987:
986:
981:
916:
862:
844:Cervical cancer
791:
731:
723:
722:
705:
674:Sex differences
658:
634:Forced marriage
603:
555:
507:Menstrual cycle
486:
427:Family planning
417:
363:
327:Maternal deaths
320:Postpartum care
278:Multiple births
160:Maternal health
154:
66:
56:
24:
12:
11:
5:
4937:
4935:
4927:
4926:
4924:Women's health
4921:
4911:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4901:
4894:
4893:External links
4891:
4888:
4887:
4841:
4798:Yi YS (2018).
4790:
4738:
4709:(3): 489–502.
4689:
4660:
4632:
4602:
4583:
4529:
4492:(3): 448–452.
4472:
4451:(3): 345–350.
4429:
4408:10.1086/285346
4402:(3): 603–622.
4382:
4328:
4291:(3): 629–633.
4266:
4237:(3): 341–344.
4217:
4182:(2): 125–128.
4159:
4107:
4083:
4021:
4014:
3985:
3931:
3882:
3835:
3792:
3749:
3706:
3663:
3628:
3621:
3603:
3574:(7662): a180.
3554:
3503:
3452:
3401:
3352:
3309:
3274:
3239:
3210:(3): 633–639.
3190:
3141:
3120:(2): 364–368.
3100:
3051:
2998:
2955:
2920:
2874:
2824:
2765:
2752:
2722:
2696:
2644:
2625:(6): 490–494.
2608:
2561:
2532:(5): 631–644.
2503:
2473:
2466:
2443:
2392:
2334:
2285:
2248:(3): 629–633.
2227:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2156:guided imagery
2144:
2140:
2128:
2119:
2116:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2079:
2077:
2063:
2060:
2058:), as well as
2050:
2047:
2023:
2020:
2015:prostaglandins
2007:
2004:
1978:
1975:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1848:
1845:
1831:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1755:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1706:
1703:
1676:, and certain
1591:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1461:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1373:
1371:Celiac disease
1367:
1366:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1293:
1290:
1229:
1228:
1226:
1225:
1218:
1211:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1171:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1102:
1101:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1060:
1059:
1057:United Nations
1051:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
997:
996:
993:
992:
989:
988:
983:
982:
980:
979:
978:
977:
972:
967:
957:
956:
955:
954:
953:
943:
932:
929:
928:
918:
917:
915:
914:
909:
904:
903:
902:
901:
900:
885:
884:
883:
873:
867:
864:
863:
861:
860:
858:Ovarian cancer
855:
854:
853:
852:
851:
841:
834:Uterine cancer
831:
826:
820:
817:
816:
806:
805:
793:
792:
790:
789:
784:
779:
778:
777:
770:Sexual assault
767:
762:
757:
752:
746:
743:
742:
732:
729:
728:
725:
724:
719:
718:
715:
714:
711:
710:
707:
706:
704:
703:
702:
701:
691:
686:
681:
676:
670:
667:
666:
657:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
629:Child marriage
626:
625:
624:
619:
617:Clitoridectomy
608:
605:
604:
602:
601:
596:
595:
594:
584:
578:
575:
574:
564:
563:
554:
553:
552:
551:
541:
536:
531:
526:
525:
524:
519:
512:Menstrual aids
509:
504:
498:
495:
494:
488:
487:
485:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
457:Tubal ligation
454:
449:
444:
439:
433:
430:
429:
419:
418:
416:
415:
414:
413:
408:
398:
397:
396:
391:
386:
375:
372:
371:
365:
364:
362:
361:
360:
359:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
323:
322:
317:
316:
315:
310:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
260:
259:
258:
257:
256:
251:
241:
240:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
204:
199:
197:Antenatal care
194:
193:
192:
182:
177:
166:
163:
162:
156:
155:
153:
152:
147:
142:
140:Fallopian tube
137:
132:
127:
122:
121:
120:
115:
110:
109:
108:
92:
89:
88:
78:
77:
67:
62:
61:
58:
57:
52:
44:
43:
41:Women's health
37:
36:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4936:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4892:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4860:(6): 101369.
4859:
4855:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4837:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4794:
4791:
4786:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4745:
4743:
4739:
4734:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4693:
4690:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4650:
4646:
4639:
4637:
4633:
4622:
4618:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4603:
4598:
4594:
4587:
4584:
4579:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4525:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4476:
4473:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4433:
4430:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4386:
4383:
4378:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4160:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4114:
4112:
4108:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4028:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3883:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3855:(4): 102494.
3854:
3850:
3846:
3839:
3836:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3750:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3710:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3632:
3629:
3624:
3618:
3614:
3607:
3604:
3599:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3558:
3555:
3550:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3456:
3453:
3448:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3356:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3325:(6): 101367.
3324:
3320:
3313:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3145:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3101:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3029:2027.42/72031
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3002:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2835:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2766:
2755:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2723:
2711:
2707:
2700:
2697:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2612:
2609:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2396:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2330:public domain
2312:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2199:
2190:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2163:Complementary
2162:
2157:
2153:
2152:self-hypnosis
2149:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2104:
2096:
2093:November 2023
2087:
2083:
2080:This section
2078:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1984:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1943:Polymyositis
1942:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1857:Autoantibody
1856:
1855:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1827:
1820:
1818:
1811:
1809:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1761:
1753:
1751:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1731:demyelination
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1368:
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423:Contraception
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384:Childlessness
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1766:X chromosome
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1678:vasculitides
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1502:Polymyositis
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1375:1.5:1 – 2:1
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1277:may worsen.
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1243:X chromosome
1234:Autoimmunity
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898:Hip fracture
893:Osteoporosis
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622:Infibulation
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529:Dysmenorrhea
492:Menstruation
249:Preeclampsia
244:Hypertension
118:Labia majora
113:Labia minora
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4810:: 2140521.
4617:"Ibuprofen"
3114:Diabetology
1770:lyonization
1760:Lyonization
1616:scleroderma
888:Bone health
824:Lung cancer
654:Dyspareunia
592:HPV vaccine
539:Amenorrhoea
534:Menorrhagia
379:Infertility
337:Stillbirths
222:Miscarriage
4913:Categories
4683:2023-12-01
4654:2023-12-01
4626:2023-12-01
4101:2023-11-30
4044:(2): 165.
3902:(10): 68.
3673:The Lancet
3523:: 933415.
3472:: 874680.
3421:: 885218.
2759:2023-11-21
2497:2023-11-14
2223:References
2148:Meditation
2105:Palliative
2039:prednisone
2035:annexin A1
1987:See also:
1981:See also:
1860:Condition
1774:compensate
1758:See also:
1715:joint pain
1680:including
1566:3:1 – 9:1
1448:2:1 – 3:1
1438:4:1 – 9:1
1418:3:1 – 4:1
1398:2:1 – 3:1
1365:1:5 – 2:1
1335:1:2 – 1:9
1325:1:3 – 1:4
946:Depression
263:Childbirth
185:Obstetrics
16:See also:
4882:209384051
4678:Drugs.com
4643:PubChem.
4615:PubChem.
4506:1365-2249
4467:1465-7279
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4196:1607-842X
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4060:2075-4426
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3185:221619856
3136:2673-4540
2869:215819311
2801:1664-3224
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1977:Treatment
1847:Diagnosis
1830:Pregnancy
1790:psoriasis
1699:Silk Road
1697:historic
699:Vaginitis
544:Menopause
411:Fostering
401:Parenting
268:Midwifery
254:Eclampsia
170:Pregnancy
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4836:29707030
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2596:UpToDate
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2438:32542149
2387:21208397
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2280:33767739
1812:Estrogen
1302:Disease
1251:estrogen
1249:such as
1086:UN Women
876:Dementia
782:Femicide
760:Misogyny
639:Polygamy
502:Menarche
437:Safe sex
406:Adoption
342:Abortion
283:Oxytocin
101:Clitoris
32:a series
29:Part of
4827:5863355
4776:5647120
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4368:6180207
4314:7980266
4293:Bibcode
4252:7233727
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2112:insulin
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1745:Causes
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1717:, and
1711:fevers
1657:, and
1638:, and
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649:Orgasm
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135:Uterus
130:Cervix
125:Vagina
4878:S2CID
4420:S2CID
4208:S2CID
4150:S2CID
3976:S2CID
3873:S2CID
3826:S2CID
3783:S2CID
3740:S2CID
3697:S2CID
3343:S2CID
3181:S2CID
3042:S2CID
2989:S2CID
2911:S2CID
2865:S2CID
2837:(PDF)
1275:lupus
926:Other
664:Other
145:Ovary
4870:PMID
4832:PMID
4808:2018
4781:PMID
4729:PMID
4574:PMID
4520:PMID
4502:ISSN
4463:ISSN
4412:ISSN
4373:PMID
4319:PMID
4257:PMID
4200:PMID
4192:ISSN
4142:PMID
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4056:ISSN
4010:ISBN
3968:PMID
3922:PMID
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3818:PMID
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3470:2012
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3392:PMID
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3249:JAMA
3230:PMID
3173:PMID
3132:ISSN
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3034:PMID
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2603:2023
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2462:ISBN
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2383:PMID
2319:2017
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2133:yoga
2041:and
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