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causes the 'tails' to bear the strongest likeness to the antennae of a butterfly; the real antennae being held so as not to attract attention. Close to the base of the supposed antennae an eye-like mark, in the most appropriate position, exists in many species. The effect of the marking and movement is to produce the deceptive appearance of a head
178:
animals have since been shown to obtain toxic compounds through their diets, making automimicry potentially widespread. Even if toxic compounds are produced by metabolic processes with an animal, there may still be variability in the amount that animals invest in them, so scope for automimicry remains even when dietary
223:
species. First, toxins may not be costly. There is evidence that in some cases there is no cost, and that toxic compounds may actually be beneficial for purposes other than defence. If so, then automimics may simply be unlucky enough not to have gathered enough toxins from their environment. A second
297:
Each hind wing in these butterflies is furnished with a 'tail', which in certain species is long, thin, and apparently knobbed at the end. When the butterfly is resting on a flower the wings are closed and the hind wings are kept in constant motion ... This movement, together with their appearance,
94:
in 1890, a less vulnerable part of an animal's body resembles a more vulnerable part, for example with deceptive eyespots or a false head that deflects attacks away from the real head, providing an immediate selective advantage. The mechanism is found in both vertebrates such as fishes and snakes,
228:
to automimicry. If predators switch between host plants that provide toxins and plants that do not, depending on the abundance of larvae on each type, then automimicry of toxic larvae by non-toxic larvae may be maintained in a balanced polymorphism. A third hypothesis is that automimics are more
177:
coloured and patterned. When feeding on innocuous plants, they are harmless and nutritious, but a bird that has sampled a toxic specimen even once is unlikely to risk tasting harmless specimens with the same aposematic coloration. Such acquired toxicity is not limited to insects: many groups of
274:
butterflies; when perching on a twig or flower, they commonly do so upside down and shift their rear wings repeatedly, causing antenna-like movements of the "tails" on their wings. Studies of rear-wing damage support the hypothesis that this strategy is effective in deflecting attacks from the
205:
theory: how can automimicry be maintained, and how can it evolve? For the first question, as long as prey of the species are, on average, unprofitable for predators to attack, automimicry can persist. If this condition is not met, then the population of the species rapidly crashes. The second
382:
229:
likely to die or to be injured by a predator's attack. If predators carefully sample their prey and spit out any that taste bad before doing significant damage ("go-slow" behaviour), then honest signallers would have an advantage over automimics that cheat.
281:
in favour of features that deflect predators' attacks is straightforward to explain: variants of patterns that more effectively deflect attack are favoured, since animals with ineffective variants are likely to be killed. Naturalists since
155:
It turns out that many species of insects are toxic or distasteful when they have fed on plants that contain chemicals of particular classes, but not when they have fed on plants that lack those chemicals. For instance, some
292:
have noted that butterflies with eyespots or other false head markings can be expected to escape with minor wing damage while the predator gets only "a mouthful of hindwing" instead of an insect meal. In
Poulton's words:
265:
Many insects have filamentous "tails" at the ends of their wings and patterns of markings on the wings themselves. These combine to create a "false head". This misdirects predators such as birds and jumping spiders
218:
for defence affects members of a species, then cheats might always have higher fitness than honest signallers defended by costly toxins. A variety of hypotheses have been put forth to explain signal honesty in
397:
339:
near their tails, and when mildly alarmed swim slowly backwards, presenting the tail as a head; however, various hypotheses for the function of such eyespots have been proposed. Several species of
954:
Sourakov, Andrei (2013). "Two heads are better than one: false head allows
Calycopis cecrops (Lycaenidae) to escape predation by a Jumping Spider, Phidippus pulcherrimus (Salticidae)".
754:
Leimar, Olof; Enquist, Magnus; Sillen-Tullberg, Birgitta (1 January 1986). "Evolutionary
Stability of Aposematic Coloration and Prey Unprofitability: A Theoretical Analysis".
193:
eating a moth, tend to avoid, or to taste and spit out, toxic insects, then mimicry of distasteful forms by harmless morphs of the same species should be favoured.
1165:
Meadows, D. W. (11 February 1993). "Morphological variation in eyespots of the foureye butterflyfish (Chaetodon capistratus): Implications for eyespot function".
1510:
357:
Automimicry has sometimes been used in military vehicles and aircraft. Among vehicles, specialised variants such as the
British Second World War
365:
103:
452:; Cook, Laurence M.; Croze, Harvey J. (March 1967). "Predator Responses to Artificial Batesian Mimics Released in a Neotropical Environment".
1149:
361:
had no room for an actual gun, but was fitted with a dummy weapon, imitating the armed version of the same tank, to give it some protection.
343:
bear false eyes (ocelli) on the back of the head, misleading predators into reacting as though they were the subject of an aggressive stare.
148:, were noxious to jays - in fact, jays that ingested them vomited. Subsequently, Brower proposed the hypothesis of automimicry involving a
1316:
1283:
1258:
520:
306:
1200:
996:
Robbins, Robert K. (November 1981). "The "False Head" Hypothesis: Predation and Wing
Pattern Variation of Lycaenid Butterflies".
182:
is not involved. Whatever the mechanism, palatability may vary with age, sex, or how recently they used their supply of toxin.
211:
1542:
225:
237:
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on the underside. This was intended to confuse the enemy about the aircraft's attitude and likely direction of travel.
302:. The body is short and does not extend as far as the supposed head, so that the insect is uninjured when it is seized.
1607:
1418:
197:
The existence of automimicry in the form of non-toxic mimics of toxic members of the same species (analogous to
1471:
312:
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1403:
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149:
76:
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are parasitic on more strongly-defended members of their species, mimicking them to provide the negative
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A 1981 experiment confirmed the expected correlation between deceptiveness and survival in butterflies.
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29:
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coil up and hide their head, instead displaying their tail as a false head. Some fishes such as the
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251:) have a false head at the rear, held upwards at rest, deflecting attacks from the actual head.
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question is more difficult, and can also be rephrased as being about the mechanisms that keep
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802:"How can automimicry persist when predators can preferentially consume undefended mimics?"
408:
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or spectrum of palatability: some individuals might be defended, and others palatable.
129:
111:
68:
21:
1204:
896:
853:
682:
647:
1596:
919:
Guilford, Tim (October 1994). ""Go-slow" Signalling and the
Problem of Automimicry".
797:
502:
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975:
783:
580:
1547:
740:
540:
539:; Ryerson, William N.; Coppinger, Lorna L.; Glazier, Susan C. (27 September 1968).
564:
512:
Avoiding Attack: the
Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals, and Mimicry
1084:"The movement of 'false antennae' in butterflies with 'false head' wing patterns"
967:
1495:
1481:
1346:
328:
220:
174:
72:
64:
in which the same species of animal is imitated. There are two different forms.
858:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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173:; this makes them poisonous to most predators. These insects are often
137:
61:
723:
706:
79:
required for warning signals to function. The mechanism, analogous to
887:
854:"Theoretical Investigations of Automimicry, I. Single Trial Learning"
705:
Summers, K.; Speed, M. P.; Blount, J. D.; Stuckert, A. M. M. (2015).
648:"Theoretical Investigations of Automimicry, I. Single Trial Learning"
1178:
465:
1009:
767:
389:
Armoured recovery vehicle variant of
Churchill tank, with dummy gun
411:
painted in, as if the plane was the right way up, imitating itself
368:
was sometimes painted with a camouflage scheme that included both
305:
236:
215:
184:
20:
1298:
114:
had a dummy gun, imitating an armed variant of the same tank.
1033:"Two-headed butterfly vs. mantis: do false antennae matter?"
594:
Svennungsen, Thomas Owens; Holen, Øistein
Haugsten (2007).
1294:
1082:
Cordero, Carlos; López-Palafox, Tania G. (August 2015).
144:. However, monarchs raised on their natural host plant,
102:
Automimicry has sometimes been put to military use. The
806:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
112:
armoured recovery vehicle variant of the Churchill tank
1278:. Squadron/Signal Publications. pp. 72–77, 92.
1031:
López-Palafox, Tania; Cordero, Carlos (2017-06-22).
541:"Ecological Chemistry and the Palatability Spectrum"
1464:
1426:
1332:
224:hypothesis for signal honesty is that there may be
71:in 1967, weakly-defended members of a species with
1242:
852:; Pough, F. Harvey; Meck, H. R. (15 August 1970).
118:Mimicry of distasteful members of the same species
1127:. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. pp. 206–209.
210:. If signals were not honest, they would not be
128:Automimicry was first reported by the ecologist
652:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
646:; Pough, F. Harvey; Meck, H. R. (August 1970).
295:
1201:"Northern Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium californicum)"
110:on its underside, imitating itself, while the
44:, deflecting attacks from the vulnerable head.
1310:
515:. Oxford University Press. pp. 176–182.
391:, imitating an armed variant of the same tank
8:
429:Including Swynnerton, 1926, and Blest, 1957.
596:"The evolutionary stability of automimicry"
1317:
1303:
1295:
1228:British and American Tanks of World War II
1113:
1111:
991:
989:
987:
985:
16:Mimicry of part of own body, e.g. the head
1511:Coloration evidence for natural selection
1226:Chamberlain, Peter; Ellis, Chris (1969).
1099:
1058:
1048:
895:
877:
825:
722:
707:"Are aposematic signals honest? A review"
681:
671:
619:
1203:. Owl Research Institute. Archived from
497:
495:
493:
491:
441:
422:
378:
372:and automimicry in the form of a false
1245:Fighter combat: tactics and maneuvring
323:Among vertebrates, snakes such as the
270:). Spectacular examples occur in the
7:
1138:Graham, Sean P. (18 February 2018).
359:Churchill armoured recovery vehicle
1451:Pouyannian (with pseudocopulation)
189:If insect-eating birds, like this
83:, is found in insects such as the
14:
1249:. Naval Institute Press. p.
1577:
1576:
1417:
1352:Aristotelian/Distraction display
396:
381:
245:) such as this gray hairstreak (
90:In another form, first noted by
67:In one form, first described by
36:) mimic its own eyes, which are
711:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
132:and colleagues, who found that
106:was often painted with a false
1230:. Arco Publishing. p. 70.
921:Journal of Theoretical Biology
316:) showing eyespots behind head
226:frequency-dependent advantages
1:
1543:Frequency-dependent selection
565:10.1126/science.161.3848.1349
968:10.1080/00222933.2012.759288
300:at the wrong end of the body
1624:
1144:. JHU Press. p. 319.
956:Journal of Natural History
366:A-10 Thunderbolt (Warthog)
350:
254:
201:) poses two challenges to
121:
104:A-10 Thunderbolt (Warthog)
1571:
1415:
1472:Anti-predator adaptation
1276:A-10 Warthog Walk Around
1101:10.1093/czoolo/61.4.758
998:The American Naturalist
800:; Speed, M. P. (2006).
756:The American Naturalist
537:Brower, Lincoln Pierson
509:; Speed, M. P. (2004).
450:Brower, Lincoln Pierson
313:Glaucidium californicum
241:Many blue butterflies (
1124:The Colours of Animals
941:10.1006/jtbi.1994.1192
879:10.1073/pnas.66.4.1059
818:10.1098/rspb.2005.3238
673:10.1073/pnas.66.4.1059
612:10.1098/rspb.2007.0456
317:
304:
289:The Colours of Animals
252:
208:warning signals honest
194:
77:reinforcement learning
45:
1563:Underwater camouflage
1342:Aggressive/Wicklerian
1274:Neubeck, Ken (1999).
1241:Shaw, Robert (1985).
370:disruptive coloration
351:Further information:
333:foureye butterflyfish
309:
255:Further information:
240:
212:evolutionarily stable
188:
122:Further information:
58:intraspecific mimicry
34:Chaetodon capistratus
30:foureye butterflyfish
24:
1538:Evolutionary ecology
1523:Deception in animals
1517:Dazzled and Deceived
1477:Animal communication
962:(15–16): 1047–1054.
214:. If costs of using
166:) which contain the
158:milkweed butterflies
95:and insects such as
1384:Emsleyan/Mertensian
1207:on 28 December 2015
933:1994JThBi.170..311G
870:1970PNAS...66.1059B
664:1970PNAS...66.1059B
606:(1621): 2055–2063.
557:1968Sci...161.1349B
551:(3848): 1349–1351.
405:A-10 Thunderbolt II
353:Aircraft camouflage
261:Disruptive eye mask
160:feed on milkweeds (
134:monarch butterflies
42:disruptive eye mask
1608:Warning coloration
1528:Deimatic behaviour
1119:Poulton, Edward B.
1050:10.7717/peerj.3493
850:Brower, Lincoln P.
644:Brower, Lincoln P.
364:The ground attack
318:
253:
195:
140:were palatable to
73:warning coloration
46:
1590:
1589:
1558:Signalling theory
1533:Mimicry#Evolution
1506:Community ecology
1501:Animal coloration
1347:Ant/Myrmecomorphy
1151:978-1-4214-2360-9
812:(1584): 373–378.
798:Ruxton, Graeme D.
724:10.1111/jeb.12676
503:Ruxton, Graeme D.
286:in his 1890 book
284:Edward B. Poulton
279:Natural selection
257:Eyespot (mimicry)
168:cardiac glycoside
124:Signalling theory
92:Edward B. Poulton
85:monarch butterfly
54:Browerian mimicry
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50:automimicry
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1597:Categories
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1456:Vavilovian
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1334:In animals
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325:rubber boa
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268:Salticidae
243:Lycaenidae
233:False head
221:aposematic
180:plasticity
136:reared on
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1441:Dodsonian
1428:In plants
1394:Müllerian
1367:Locomotor
1211:23 August
1043:: e3493.
454:Evolution
341:pygmy owl
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163:Asclepias
142:blue jays
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