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questionnaire. Approximately half of the participants were asked for their study methods during the third week of classes, and the other half were asked on the last day of classes. Next, participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to get an A in their easiest and hardest classes. Participants were then asked to rank the difficulty they experienced in recalling the examples they had previously listed. The researchers hypothesized that students would use the availability heuristic, based on the number of study methods they listed, to predict their grade only when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. Students were not expected to use the availability heuristic to predict their grades at the end of the semester or about their easiest final. The researchers predicted this use of the availability heuristic because participants would be uncertain about their performance throughout the semester. The results indicated that students used the availability heuristic, based on the ease of recall of the study methods they listed, to predict their performance when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. If the student listed only three study methods, they predicted a higher grade at the end of the semester only on their hardest final. If students listed eight study methods, they had a harder time recalling the methods and thus predicted a lower final grade on their hardest final. The results were not seen in the easy final condition because the students were certain they would get an A, regardless of the study method. The results supported this hypothesis and gave evidence to the fact that levels of uncertainty affect the use of the availability heuristic.
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available to them. When participants were asked to complete tasks involving estimation, they would often underestimate the end result. Participants were basing their final estimation on a quick first impression of the problem. Participants particularly struggled when the problems consisted of multiple steps. This occurred because participants were basing their estimation on an initial impression. Participants failed to account for the high rate of growth in the later steps due to the impression they formed in the initial steps. This was shown again in a task that asked participants to estimate the answer to a multiplication task, in which the numbers were presented as either 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8 or 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1. Participants who were presented the equation with the larger numbers first (8x7x6...), estimated a significantly higher result than participants with the lower numbers first (1x2x3...). Participants were given a short amount of time to make the estimation, thus participants based their estimates off of what was easily available, which in this case was the first few numbers in the sequence.
209:. One simplifying strategy people may rely on is the tendency to make a judgment about the frequency of an event based on how many similar instances are brought to mind. In 1973, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first studied this phenomenon and labeled it the "availability heuristic". An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. As follows, people tend to use a readily available fact to base their beliefs on a comparably distant concept. There has been much research done with this heuristic, but studies on the issue are still questionable with regard to the underlying process. Studies illustrate that manipulations intended to increase the subjective experience of ease of recall are also likely to affect the amount of recall. Furthermore, this makes it difficult to determine whether the obtained estimates of frequency, likelihood, or typicality are based on participants' phenomenal experiences or on a biased sample of recalled information.
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evaluation form. He asked the first group to write two recommended improvements for the course (a relatively easy task) and then write two positives about the class. The second group was asked to write ten suggestions where the professor could improve (a relatively difficult task) and then write two positive comments about the course. At the end of the evaluation, both groups were asked to rate the course on a scale from one to seven. The results showed that students asked to write ten suggestions (difficult task) rated the course less harshly because it was more difficult for them to recall the information. Most of the students in the group that was asked to fill in 10 suggestions didn't fill in more than two being unable to recall more instances where they were unsatisfied with the class. Students asked to do the easier evaluation with only two complaints had less difficulty in terms of availability of information, so they rated the course more harshly.
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words that begin with the letter "K" (kangaroo, kitchen, kale), but that it would take a more concentrated effort to think of any words in which "K" is the third letter (acknowledge, ask). Results indicated that participants overestimated the number of words that began with the letter "K" and underestimated the number of words that had "K" as the third letter. Tversky and
Kahneman concluded that people answer questions like these by comparing the availability of the two categories and assessing how easily they can recall these instances. In other words, it is easier to think of words that begin with "K", more than words with "K" as the third letter. Thus, people judge words beginning with a "K" to be a more common occurrence. In reality, however, a typical text contains twice as many words that have "K" as the third letter than "K" as the first letter.
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participants would use exemplars to determine the size of each set. Participants would derive their answers on ease of recall of the names that stood out. Participants read a list of names of members of a class for 30 seconds, and then participants were asked the male to female ratio of the class. The participant's answer would depend on the recall of exemplars. If the participant reading the list recalled seeing more common male names, such as Jack, but the only female names in the class were uncommon names, such as
Deepika, then the participant will recall that there were more men than women. The opposite would be true if there were more common female names on the list and uncommon male names. Due to the availability heuristic, names that are more easily available are more likely to be recalled, and can thus alter judgments of probability.
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Subsequently, to assess what subjects could remember (as a measure of availability), each name was represented, as well as the appropriate photograph if one had been originally presented. The study considered whether the display or non-display of photographs biased subjects' estimates as to the percentage of Yale (vs
Stanford) students in the sample of men and women whose names appeared on the original list, and whether these estimated percentages were causally related to the respondents' memory for the college affiliations of the individual students on the list. The presence of photographs affected judgments about the proportion of male and female students at the two universities. Such effects have typically been attributed to the ready accessibility of vividly presented information in memory—that is, to the availability heuristic.
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unassertive behavior. Participants were later asked to rate their own assertiveness. Pretesting had indicated that although most participants were capable of generating twelve examples, this was a difficult task. The results indicated that participants rated themselves as more assertive after describing six examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior, but rated themselves as less assertive after describing twelve examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior. The study reflected that the extent to which recalled content impacted judgment was determined by the ease with which the content could be brought to mind (it was easier to recall 6 examples than 12), rather than the amount of content brought to mind.
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20 less famous women. Subsequently, some participants were asked to recall as many names as possible whereas others were asked to estimate whether male or female names were more frequent on the list. The names of the famous celebrities were recalled more frequently compared to those of the less famous celebrities. The majority of the participants incorrectly judged that the gender associated with more famous names had been presented more often than the gender associated with less famous names. Tversky and
Kahneman argue that although the availability heuristic is an effective strategy in many situations when judging probability, use of this heuristic can lead to predictable patterns of errors.
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the more an instance is repeated within a category or list, the stronger the link between the two instances becomes. Individuals then use the strong association between the instances to determine the frequency of an instance. Consequently, the association between the category or list and the specific instance often influences frequency judgement. Frequency of co-occurrence strongly relates to
Frequency of repetition, such that the more an item-pair is repeated, the stronger the association between the two items becomes, leading to a bias when estimating the frequency of co-occurrence. Due to the phenomena of frequency of co-occurrence, illusory correlations also often play a big role.
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third letter being K could arise from how we categorize and process words into our memory. If we categorize words by the first letter and recall them through the same process, this would show more support for the representative heuristic than the availability heuristic. Based on the possibility of explanations such as these, some researchers have claimed that the classic studies on the availability heuristic are too vague in that they fail to account for people's underlying mental processes. Indeed, a study conducted by Wanke et al. demonstrated this scenario can occur in situations used to test the availability heuristic.
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these effects may be due to effects of new information. Researchers tested the new information effect by showing movies depicting dramatic risk events and measuring their risk assessment after the film. Contrary to previous research, there were no long-term effects on risk perception due to exposure to dramatic movies. However, the study did find evidence of idiosyncratic effects of the movies - that is, people reacted immediately after the movies with enhanced or diminished risk beliefs, which faded after a period of 10 days.
235:. Tversky and Kahneman suggested that availability provides a natural account for the illusory-correlation effect. The strength of the association between two events could provide the basis for the judgment of how frequently the two events co-occur. When the association is strong, it becomes more likely to conclude that the events have been paired frequently. Strong associations will be thought of as having occurred together frequently.
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impressions of their ability to recall names. Those children who were tasked with generating a shorter list had a higher perception of their ability to recall names than those who were tasked with generating a longer list. According to the study, this suggests that the children based their assessment of their recall abilities on their subjective experience of ease of recall.
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dolphins had less of an impact on their memory. Due to the greater impact of seeing a shark, the availability heuristic can influence the probability judgement of the ratio of sharks and dolphins in the water. Thus, an individual who saw both a shark and a dolphin would assume a higher ratio of sharks in the water, even if there are more dolphins in reality.
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hypothetical laws and policies such as "Would you support a law that required all offenders convicted of unarmed muggings to serve a minimum prison term of two years?" Participants then read cases and rated each case on several questions about punishment. As hypothesized, respondents recalled more easily from
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In study 2, a series of male and female names were presented to subjects; for each name, subjects were told the university affiliation of the individual (Yale or
Stanford). When some names were presented, subjects were simultaneously shown a photograph that purportedly portrayed the named individual.
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Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However, such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to
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lying than when the witness was caught lying first before telling the truth. If the availability heuristic played a role in this, lying second would remain in jurors' minds (since it was more recent) and they would most likely remember the witness lying over the truthfulness. To test the hypothesis,
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A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then
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In effect, investors are using the availability heuristic to make decisions and subsequently, may be obstructing their own investment success. An investor's lingering perceptions of a dire market environment may be causing them to view investment opportunities through an overly negative lens, making
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does in fact have a direct causal impact on participants' social reality beliefs. Repeated exposure to vivid violence leads to an increase in people's risk estimates about the prevalence of crime and violence in the real world. Counter to these findings, researchers from a similar study argued that
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For example, many people think that the likelihood of dying from shark attacks is greater than that of dying from being hit by falling airplane parts when more people actually die from falling airplane parts. When a shark attack occurs, the deaths are widely reported in the media whereas deaths as a
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Tversky and
Kahneman argue that the number of examples recalled from memory is used to infer the frequency with which such instances occur. In an experiment to test this explanation, participants listened to lists of names containing either 19 famous women and 20 less famous men or 19 famous men and
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A second line of study has shown that frequency estimation may not be the only strategy we use when making frequency judgments. A recent line of research has shown that our situational working memory can access long-term memories, and this memory retrieval process includes the ability to determine
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In the original
Tversky and Kahneman (1973) research, three major factors that are discussed are the frequency of repetition, frequency of co-occurrence, and illusory correlation. The use of frequency of repetition aids in the retrieval of relevant instances. The idea behind this phenomenon is that
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In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatoric outcomes, and of
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However, some textbooks have chosen the latter interpretation introducing the availability heuristic as "one's judgments are always based on what comes to mind". For example, if a person is asked whether there are more words in the
English language that start with a k or have k as the third letter,
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The mental availability of an action's consequences is positively related to those consequences' perceived magnitude. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater those consequences are often perceived to be. Most notably, people often rely on the content of
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One of the earliest and most powerful critiques of the original
Tversky and Kahneman study on the availability heuristic was the Schwarz et al. study which found that the ease of recall was a key component in determining whether a concept became available. Many studies since this criticism of the
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Another example of the availability heuristic and exemplars would be seeing a shark in the ocean. Seeing a shark has a greater impact on an individual's memory than seeing a dolphin. If someone sees both sharks and dolphins in the ocean, they will be less aware of seeing the dolphins, because the
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A study done asked those participating to pick between two illnesses. Those doing the study wanted to know which disease they thought was more likely to cause death. In the study, they asked participants to choose between a stroke and asthma as to which one someone was more likely to die from. The
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Participants in a 1992 study read case descriptions of hypothetical patients who varied on their sex and sexual preference. These hypothetical patients showed symptoms that could have been caused by five different diseases (AIDS, leukemia, influenza, meningitis, or appendicitis). Participants were
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Much of the criticism against the availability heuristic has claimed that making use of the content that becomes available in our mind is not based on the ease of recall as suggested by Schwarz et al. For example, it could be argued that recalling more words that begin with K than words with the
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Another study by Marie Geurten sought to test the availability heuristic in young children. Children of varying ages (from 4 to 8 years old) were tasked with generating a list of names, with some being asked for a shorter list and some for a longer list. The study then assessed the children's own
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Similarly, research has pointed out that under the availability heuristic, humans are not reliable because they assess probabilities by giving more weight to current or easily recalled information instead of processing all relevant information. Since information regarding the current state of the
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In study 1, Subjects listened to a tape recording that described a woman who lived with her 7-year-old son. Subjects then heard arguments about the woman's fitness as a parent and were asked to draw their own conclusions regarding her fitness or unfitness. The concrete and colorful language were
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A study done by Craig R. Fox provides an example of how availability heuristics can work in the classroom. In this study, Fox tests whether the difficulty of recall influences judgment, specifically with course evaluations among college students. In his study he had two groups complete a course
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In Tversky & Kahneman's first examination of availability heuristics, subjects were asked, "If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?" They argue that English-speaking people would immediately think of many
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performed in 2009, 2010, and 2011. 66 percent of respondents stated that they believed the market was either flat or down in 2009, 48 percent said the same about 2010 and 53 percent also said the same about 2011. In reality, the S&P 500 saw 26.5 percent annual returns in 2009, 15.1 percent
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explanation, wherein the ease with which examples come to mind, not the number of examples, is used to infer the frequency of a given class. In a study by Schwarz and colleagues to test their explanation, participants were asked to recall either six or twelve examples of their assertive or very
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When participants were shown two visual structures and asked to pick the structure that had more paths, participants saw more paths in the structure that had more obvious available paths. In the structure that participants chose, there were more columns and shorter obvious paths, making it more
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selection of crime, focusing on the violent and extreme, rather than the ordinary. This makes most people think that judges are too lenient. But, when asked to choose the punishments, the sentences given by students were equal to or less severe than those given by judges. In other words, the
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The media usually focuses on violent or extreme cases, which are more readily available in the public's mind. This may come into play when it is time for the judicial system to evaluate and determine the proper punishment for a crime. In one study, respondents rated how much they agreed with
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Another factor that affects the availability heuristic in frequency and probability is exemplars. Exemplars are the typical examples that stand out during the process of recall. If asked what participants thought different set sizes were (how many men and how many women are in the class),
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of paired stimuli resulted in participants overestimating the frequency of the pairings. To test this idea, participants were given information about several hypothetical mental patients. The data for each patient consisted of a clinical diagnosis and a drawing made by the patient. Later,
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on the use of the availability heuristic. College students were asked to list either three or eight different study methods they could use in order to get an A on their final exams. The researchers also manipulated the time during the semester they would ask the students to complete the
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economy is readily available, researchers attempted to expose the properties of business cycles to predict the availability bias in analysts' growth forecasts. They showed the availability heuristic to play a role in analysis of forecasts and influence investments because of this.
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Additionally, a study by Hayibor and Wasieleski found that the availability of others who believe that a particular act is morally acceptable is positively related to others' perceptions of the morality of that act. This suggests that availability heuristic also has an effect on
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stories that contain severe harm, which seemed to influence their sentencing choices to make them push for harsher punishments. This can be eliminated by adding high concrete or high contextually distinct details into the crime stories about less severe injuries.
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participants estimated the frequency with which each diagnosis had been accompanied by various features of the drawing. The subjects vastly overestimated the frequency of this co-occurrence (such as suspiciousness and peculiar eyes). This effect was labeled the
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as the first letter than the third. In this Knowledge article itself, for example, there are multiple instances of words such as "likely", "make", "take", "ask" and indeed "Knowledge", but (aside from names) only a couple of initial K's: "know" and "key".
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availability heuristic made people believe that judges and jurors were too lenient in the courtroom, but the participants gave similar sentences when placed in the position of the judge, suggesting that the information they recalled was not correct.
310:. For example, when asked to rate the probability of a variety of causes of death, people tend to rate "newsworthy" events as more likely because they can more readily recall an example from memory. Moreover, unusual and vivid events like homicides,
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312 university students played the roles of mock jurors and watched a videotape of a witness presenting testimony during a trial. Results confirmed the hypothesis, as mock jurors were most influenced by the most recent act.
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researchers concluded that it depended on what experiences were available to them. If they knew someone or heard of someone that died from one of the diseases that is the one they perceived to be a higher risk to die from.
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processing. Soon, this idea spread beyond academic psychology, into law, medicine, and political science. This research questioned the descriptive adequacy of idealized models of judgment, and offered insights into the
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evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents recalled public information about crime and sentencing. This type of information is incomplete because the news media present a highly selective and non-
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In both studies, vividness affected both availability (ability to recall) and judgments. However, causal modeling results indicated that the availability heuristic did not play a role in the judgment process.
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moves, abnormal stock price reactions to upgrades are weaker, than those to downgrades. These availability effects are still significant even after controlling for event-specific and company-specific factors.
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In Tversky and Kahneman's seminal paper, they include findings from several other studies, which also show support for the availability heuristic. Apart from their findings in the "K" study, they also found:
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instructed to indicate which disease they thought the patient had and then they rated patient responsibility and interaction desirability. Consistent with the availability heuristic, either the more common (
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judgments, people watching vivid violent media gave higher estimates of the prevalence of crime and police immorality in the real world than those not exposed to vivid television. These results suggest that
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original availability heuristic model have repeated this initial criticism, that the ease of recall factor became an integral facet of the availability heuristic itself (see Research section).
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annual returns in 2010, and 2.1 percent annual returns in 2011, meaning lingering perceptions based on dramatic, painful events are impacting decision-making even when those events are over.
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exposure, and experience with patients who have HIV. By analyzing answers to questionnaires handed out, researchers concluded that availability of AIDS information did not relate strongly to
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Two studies with 108 undergraduates investigated vivid information and its impact on social judgment and the availability heuristic and its role in mediating vividness effects.
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Stalans, Loretta J. (1993). "Citizens' crime stereotypes, biased recall, and punishment preferences in abstract cases: The educative role of interpersonal sources".
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One study sought to analyze the role of the availability heuristic in financial markets. Researchers defined and tested two aspects of the availability heuristic:
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Riddle, Karen (2010). "Always on My Mind: Exploring How Frequent, Recent, and Vivid Television Portrayals Are Used in the Formation of Social Reality Judgments".
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Triplet, R.G (1992). "Discriminatory biases in the perception of illness: The application of availability and representativeness heuristics to the AIDS crisis".
140:, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This
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Wänke, Michaela; Schwarz, Norbert; Bless, Herbert (1995). "The availability heuristic revisited: Experienced ease of retrieval in mundane frequency estimates".
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Gilovich, T. D.; Griffin, D.; Kahneman, D. (2002). "Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment". New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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Manis, Melvin; Jonides, Jonathan; Shedler, John; Nelson, Thomas (1993). "Availability Heuristic in Judgments of Set Size and Frequency of Occurrence".
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Carroll, John S. (1978). "The effect of imagining an event on expectations for the event: An interpretation in terms of the availability heuristic".
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Read, J.D. (1995). "The availability heuristic in person identification: The sometimes misleading consequences of enhanced contextual information".
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deTurck, M. A.; Texter, L. A.; Harszlak, J. J. (1989). "Effects of Information Processing Objectives on Judgments of Deception Following Perjury".
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196:. Kahneman and Tversky explained that judgment under uncertainty often relies on a limited number of simplifying heuristics rather than extensive
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Pachur, Thorsten; Hertwig, Ralph; Steinmann, Florian (2012). "How do people judge risks: Availability heuristic, affect heuristic, or both?".
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Another measurable effect is the inaccurate estimation of the fraction of deaths caused by terrorism compared to homicides with other causes.
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Hayibor, Sefa; Wasieleski, David M. (2008). "Effects of the Use of the Availability Heuristic on Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations".
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it less appealing to consider taking on investment risk, no matter how small the returns on perceived "safe" investments. To illustrate,
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Lee, Byunghwan; O'Brien, John; Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2008). "An Analysis of Financial Analysts' Optimism in Long-term Growth Forecasts".
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Sjöberg, Lennart; Engelberg, Elisabeth (2010). "Risk Perception and Movies: A Study of Availability as a Factor in Risk Perception".
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Chapman (1967) described a bias in the judgment of the frequency with which two events co-occur. This demonstration showed that the
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Hulme, Charles; Roodenrys, Steven; Brown, Gordon; Mercer, Robin (1995). "The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span".
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Kliger, Doron; Kudryavtsev, Andrey (2010). "The Availability Heuristic and Investors' Reaction to Company-Specific Events".
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the person will probably be able to think of more words that begin with the letter k, concluding incorrectly that k is more
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Heath, Linda; Acklin, Marvin; Wiley, Katherine (1991). "Cognitive Heuristics and AIDS Risk Assessment Among Physicians".
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Schwarz, Norbert; Bless, Herbert; Strack, Fritz; Klumpp, Gisela; Rittenauer-Schatka, Helga; Simons, Annette (1991).
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Many researchers have attempted to identify the psychological process which creates the availability heuristic.
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Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1973). "Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability".
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are more often reported in mass media than common and un-sensational causes of death like common diseases.
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their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it.
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1322:"The availability heuristic in the classroom: How soliciting more criticism can boost your course ratings"
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can help fuel a person's example bias with widespread and extensive coverage of unusual events, such as
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Shedler, Jonathan; Manis, Melvin (1986). "Can the availability heuristic explain vividness effects?".
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1002:
975:
878:
870:
856:"Effects of uncertainty on use of the availability of heuristic for self-efficacy judgments"
828:
790:
722:
445:
407:
303:
214:
3994:
3821:
3252:
3228:
3048:
3020:
3000:
2848:
2816:
2800:
2438:
2428:
2205:
2185:
2100:
2003:
1978:
1973:
1946:
1924:
1836:
1595:
419:
378:
Outcome Availability – availability of positive and negative investment outcomes, and
177:
145:
3288:
2765:
306:, and less coverage of more routine, less sensational events, such as common diseases or
1704:
1041:
898:
4024:
3939:
3929:
3917:
3833:
3806:
3751:
3697:
3189:
3174:
3096:
3015:
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2581:
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2475:
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2215:
2160:
2150:
2135:
2130:
2095:
2050:
2015:
1919:
1868:
1798:
1691:
Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases".
1111:
479:
382:
355:
326:
295:
193:
1370:
Geurten, Marie; Willems, Sylvie; Germain, Sophie; Meulemans, Thierry (November 2015).
794:
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2418:
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2243:
2155:
2115:
2110:
2105:
1983:
1887:
1763:
1736:
1551:
1524:
1446:
1306:
1237:
1194:
1049:
1014:
832:
406:'s annual Global Investor Sentiment Survey 1 asked individuals how they believed the
311:
227:
206:
1073:
4218:
4206:
3907:
3687:
3326:
2745:
2378:
2140:
2125:
1356:
710:
606:
390:
307:
173:
1712:
17:
631:
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3912:
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3624:
3519:
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2065:
2055:
2045:
1941:
1146:
875:
10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(199903/05)29:2/3<407::aid-ejsp943>3.0.co;2-3
325:
In a 2010 study exploring how vivid television portrayals are used when forming
322:
result of being hit by falling airplane parts are rarely reported in the media.
273:
185:
35:
1677:
1508:
726:
4196:
4186:
3944:
3729:
3714:
3707:
3608:
3429:
3423:
3350:
3262:
2413:
2408:
2383:
1639:
1340:
1290:
1221:
1178:
1006:
711:"Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic"
568:
291:
1806:
1771:
1720:
1647:
1604:
1559:
1516:
1481:
1438:
1348:
1298:
1229:
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1119:
1057:
840:
3882:
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3783:
3536:
3320:
3304:
2987:
2501:
1988:
1371:
363:
315:
290:
After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the
197:
3466:
1728:
1612:
1473:
1403:
1065:
979:
3573:
2536:
461:
Researchers in 1989 predicted that mock jurors would rate a witness to be
4211:
3838:
3756:
3414:
2460:
2345:
883:
299:
189:
350:
risk-assessment process. 331 physicians reported worry about on-the-job
164:
Kahneman's research established that common human errors can arise from
4171:
3977:
3811:
2568:
1430:
1395:
1387:
1321:
416:
1586:
781:
Chapman, L.J (1967). "Illusory correlation in observational report".
677:"Behavioral Finance: Key Concept- Overreaction and Availability Bias"
501:
found to influence judgments about the woman's fitness as a mother.
899:"Media's Impact on Society – Media & Society Issues Explained"
159:
1859:
743:
Gilovich, Thomas; Griffin, Dale; Kahneman, Daniel (2002-07-08).
347:
181:
3577:
2540:
1832:
351:
29:
1372:"Less is more: The availability heuristic in early childhood"
346:
Researchers examined the role of cognitive heuristics in the
264:
Schwarz and his colleagues, on the other hand, proposed the
188:. Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of human
1087:
This Is How Your Fear and Outrage Are Being Sold for Profit
746:
Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment
180:
began work on a series of papers examining "heuristic and
1828:
1252:"Investors Should Beware The Role of 'Availability Bias'"
205:
that explained human error without invoking motivated
1825:– an article on the origins of the availability bias.
366:) or the more publicized (AIDS) disease was chosen.
144:, operating on the notion that, if something can be
4117:
4023:
3938:
3782:
3670:
3413:
3401:
3260:
3251:
3160:
3135:
3110:
3034:
2986:
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2897:
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2834:
2784:
2738:
2729:
2667:
2633:
2589:
2580:
2489:
2354:
2229:
1866:
272:Research by Vaughn (1999) looked at the effects of
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
738:
736:
633:An Introduction to Applied Cognitive Psychology
2677:Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise
1666:Journal of Personality & Social Psychology
465:deceptive if the witness testified truthfully
3589:
2682:Negative conclusion from affirmative premises
2552:
1844:
1659:
1657:
945:"Odds and ends - The San Diego Union-Tribune"
8:
1628:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
715:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
4087:Political polarization in the United States
1575:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
1376:British Journal of Developmental Psychology
3596:
3582:
3574:
3410:
3257:
3132:
2735:
2586:
2559:
2545:
2537:
2507:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
1851:
1837:
1829:
27:Bias towards recently acquired information
4140:Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal
1594:
1540:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1160:
1158:
1156:
882:
814:
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
704:
702:
700:
698:
381:Risk Availability – availability of
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
630:Esgate, Anthony; Groome, David (2005).
622:
422:and ethical behavior in organizations.
522:is explained as an availability bias.
4182:Psychological effects of Internet use
863:European Journal of Social Psychology
7:
1100:Journal of Applied Social Psychology
58:adding citations to reliable sources
4157:Digital media use and mental health
1135:Basic and Applied Social Psychology
675:Phung, Albert (February 25, 2009).
518:repeated events. The phenomenon of
172:In the late 1960s and early 1970s,
1799:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x
1112:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00509.x
920:"Social Media's Impact on Society"
25:
4162:Effects of violence in mass media
3866:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
1462:Behavioral Sciences & the Law
636:. Psychology Press. p. 201.
513:Judging frequency and probability
4135:2021 Facebook company files leak
3861:Mobile phones and driving safety
3558:
3557:
1050:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01335.x
571:
34:
4107:2020 U.S. presidential election
4102:2016 U.S. presidential election
949:legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com
45:needs additional citations for
3055:Correlation implies causation
1596:11858/00-001M-0000-0024-F052-7
749:. Cambridge University Press.
1:
3678:Betteridge's law of headlines
1787:British Journal of Psychology
1713:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
1210:Journal of Behavioral Finance
1167:Journal of Behavioral Finance
795:10.1016/s0022-5371(67)80066-5
561:more accurate probabilities.
4192:Social aspects of television
4092:Social media use in politics
3742:Missing white woman syndrome
1764:10.1016/0001-6918(93)E0072-A
1552:10.1016/0022-1031(78)90062-8
1329:Judgment and Decision Making
968:Applied Cognitive Psychology
833:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9
543:Ease of recall as a critique
3703:Least objectionable program
2373:DĂ©formation professionnelle
1147:10.1207/s15324834basp1303_3
4281:
4038:Algorithmic radicalization
3479:I'm entitled to my opinion
2367:Basking in reflected glory
1678:10.1037/0022-3514.65.3.448
1509:10.1177/009365089016003006
1279:Journal of Business Ethics
854:Vaughn, Leigh Ann (1999).
783:Journal of Verbal Learning
727:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195
477:
294:of this event is greater.
4152:Cultural impact of TikTok
3615:
3553:
3462:
3335:
2515:
2497:Cognitive bias mitigation
1640:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.26
1341:10.1017/S1930297500000371
1291:10.1007/s10551-008-9690-7
1222:10.1080/15427560802341889
1179:10.1080/15427561003591116
1007:10.1080/15213261003800140
184:" used in judgment under
4224:Violence and video games
4202:Social impact of YouTube
4082:Knowledge gap hypothesis
4005:Social-desirability bias
3903:Information–action ratio
3505:Motte-and-bailey fallacy
2605:Affirming the consequent
2081:Illusion of transparency
658:"Availability Heuristic"
602:List of cognitive biases
552:Alternative explanations
69:"Availability heuristic"
4177:Mass shooting contagion
3630:Evolutionary psychology
3525:Two wrongs make a right
2856:Denying the correlative
389:On days of substantial
4167:Fascination with death
4030:Political polarization
3958:Availability heuristic
3923:Television consumption
3510:Psychologist's fallacy
3447:Argument to moderation
3437:Argument from anecdote
3387:Chronological snobbery
3011:Quoting out of context
2978:Overwhelming exception
2861:Suppressed correlative
2761:Quoting out of context
2636:quantificational logic
2610:Denying the antecedent
1497:Communication Research
1474:10.1002/bsl.2370070106
1419:Law and Human Behavior
1320:Fox, Craig R. (2006).
980:10.1002/acp.2350090202
587:Attribute substitution
169:
134:availability heuristic
4130:Criticism of Facebook
4010:Social influence bias
3898:Information pollution
3888:Information explosion
3871:Texting while driving
3827:Low information voter
3725:Pink-slime journalism
3473:The Four Great Errors
3453:Argumentum ad populum
3442:Argument from silence
3146:Argumentum ad baculum
2924:Faulty generalization
2615:Argument from fallacy
2449:Arab–Israeli conflict
2176:Social influence bias
2121:Out-group homogeneity
478:Further information:
166:heuristics and biases
163:
4147:Criticism of Netflix
3953:Availability cascade
3893:Information overload
3802:Attention management
3797:Attention inequality
3693:Human-interest story
3635:Behavioral modernity
3620:Cognitive psychology
3491:Invincible ignorance
3297:Reductio ad Stalinum
3283:Reductio ad Hitlerum
3239:Wisdom of repugnance
3006:Moving the goalposts
2871:Illicit transference
2796:Begging the question
2717:Undistributed middle
2625:Mathematical fallacy
2600:Affirming a disjunct
2091:Mere-exposure effect
2021:Extrinsic incentives
1967:Selective perception
821:Cognitive Psychology
592:Cache language model
520:illusory correlation
370:Business and economy
233:illusory correlation
192:was that humans are
156:Overview and history
54:improve this article
4260:Inductive fallacies
4060:Post-truth politics
3990:Mean world syndrome
3224:Parade of horribles
3200:In-group favoritism
3026:Syntactic ambiguity
2669:Syllogistic fallacy
2592:propositional logic
2316:Social desirability
2211:von Restorff effect
2086:Mean world syndrome
2061:Hostile attribution
1705:1974Sci...185.1124T
1699:(4157): 1124–1131.
1042:2010RiskA..30...95S
332:television violence
203:cognitive processes
3878:Influence-for-hire
3856:Media multitasking
3851:Human multitasking
3769:Tabloid television
3720:Media manipulation
3310:Poisoning the well
3127:Proof by assertion
3102:Texas sharpshooter
3036:Questionable cause
2973:Slothful induction
2932:Anecdotal evidence
2792:Circular reasoning
2687:Exclusive premises
2649:Illicit conversion
2231:Statistical biases
2009:Curse of knowledge
1431:10.1007/BF01044378
1388:10.1111/bjdp.12114
901:. 27 February 2022
612:Streetlight effect
404:Franklin Templeton
170:
18:Availability error
4232:
4231:
4055:Fake news website
4015:Spiral of silence
3968:Confirmation bias
3792:Attention economy
3774:Yellow journalism
3662:Social psychology
3571:
3570:
3549:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3485:Ignoratio elenchi
3397:
3396:
3247:
3246:
3209:Not invented here
2914:Converse accident
2836:Correlative-based
2813:Compound question
2756:False attribution
2751:False equivalence
2725:
2724:
2534:
2533:
2171:Social comparison
1952:Choice-supportive
1752:Acta Psychologica
1258:. October 6, 2012
1106:(22): 1859–1867.
643:978-1-84169-318-7
597:Confirmation bias
579:Psychology portal
493:Vividness effects
408:S&P 500 Index
304:airline accidents
266:ease of retrieval
138:availability bias
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
4272:
4250:Cognitive biases
4245:Causal fallacies
4077:Knowledge divide
3973:Crowd psychology
3963:Bandwagon effect
3735:Public relations
3652:Media psychology
3598:
3591:
3584:
3575:
3561:
3560:
3532:Special pleading
3411:
3272:Appeal to motive
3258:
3234:Stirring symbols
3214:Island mentality
3152:Wishful thinking
3133:
2849:Perfect solution
2826:No true Scotsman
2821:Complex question
2806:Leading question
2785:Question-begging
2771:No true Scotsman
2736:
2659:Quantifier shift
2654:Proof by example
2587:
2561:
2554:
2547:
2538:
2331:Systematic error
2286:Omitted-variable
2201:Trait ascription
2041:Frog pond effect
1869:Cognitive biases
1853:
1846:
1839:
1830:
1823:How Belief Works
1811:
1810:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1747:
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1740:
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1682:
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1661:
1652:
1651:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1598:
1587:10.1037/a0028279
1570:
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1535:
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1414:
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1361:
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1310:
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1265:
1263:
1256:Business Insider
1248:
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1241:
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1199:
1198:
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1130:
1124:
1123:
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1078:
1077:
1025:
1019:
1018:
995:Media Psychology
990:
984:
983:
963:
957:
956:
951:. Archived from
941:
935:
934:
932:
931:
916:
910:
909:
907:
906:
895:
889:
888:
886:
869:(2/3): 407–410.
860:
851:
845:
844:
816:
799:
798:
778:
772:
771:
767:
761:
760:
740:
731:
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706:
693:
692:
690:
688:
672:
666:
665:
662:Oxford Reference
654:
648:
647:
627:
581:
576:
575:
574:
446:long-term memory
439:Criminal justice
136:, also known as
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
4280:
4279:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4265:Prospect theory
4235:
4234:
4233:
4228:
4113:
4028:
4019:
3995:Negativity bias
3943:
3934:
3822:Cognitive miser
3778:
3671:Media practices
3666:
3611:
3602:
3572:
3567:
3541:
3515:Rationalization
3458:
3405:
3393:
3331:
3253:Genetic fallacy
3243:
3156:
3131:
3106:
3030:
3021:Sorites paradox
3001:False precision
2982:
2963:Double counting
2918:
2893:
2865:
2830:
2817:Loaded question
2801:Loaded language
2780:
2721:
2663:
2629:
2576:
2565:
2535:
2530:
2511:
2485:
2350:
2225:
2206:Turkey illusion
1974:Compassion fade
1871:
1862:
1857:
1819:
1814:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1690:
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1454:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1324:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1285:(S1): 151–165.
1276:
1275:
1271:
1261:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1164:
1163:
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1132:
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1127:
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1027:
1026:
1022:
992:
991:
987:
965:
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918:
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620:
577:
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554:
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540:
515:
495:
482:
476:
441:
428:
420:decision making
372:
344:
288:
283:
255:
224:
194:rational actors
178:Daniel Kahneman
158:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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4127:
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4119:
4118:Related topics
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4114:
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4111:
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4104:
4099:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4052:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4034:
4032:
4025:Digital divide
4021:
4020:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3980:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3949:
3947:
3940:Cognitive bias
3936:
3935:
3933:
3932:
3930:Sticky content
3927:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3918:Binge-watching
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3848:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3834:Digital zombie
3831:
3830:
3829:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3807:Attention span
3804:
3799:
3794:
3788:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3752:Sensationalism
3749:
3744:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3717:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3698:Junk food news
3695:
3685:
3680:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
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3613:
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3601:
3600:
3593:
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3527:
3517:
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3507:
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3493:
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3394:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3354:
3347:
3345:Accomplishment
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3293:
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3274:
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3255:
3249:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3141:
3139:
3130:
3129:
3120:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3097:Slippery slope
3094:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3063:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3040:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3016:Slippery slope
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2942:Cherry picking
2934:
2928:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2905:
2903:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2875:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2840:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2673:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2594:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2556:
2549:
2541:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2493:
2491:
2490:Bias reduction
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2466:Political bias
2463:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2394:Infrastructure
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2369:
2364:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2311:Self-selection
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2235:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2146:Pro-innovation
2143:
2138:
2133:
2131:Overton window
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2001:
1999:Dunning–Kruger
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1913:Correspondence
1910:
1908:Actor–observer
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1874:
1872:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1818:
1817:External links
1815:
1813:
1812:
1793:(4): 527–536.
1777:
1742:
1683:
1672:(3): 448–457.
1653:
1618:
1581:(3): 314–330.
1565:
1530:
1503:(3): 434–452.
1487:
1452:
1425:(4): 451–470.
1409:
1382:(4): 405–410.
1362:
1312:
1269:
1243:
1216:(3): 171–184.
1200:
1152:
1141:(3): 303–322.
1125:
1090:
1079:
1020:
1001:(2): 155–179.
985:
958:
955:on 2019-03-25.
936:
924:Ad Council Org
911:
890:
846:
827:(2): 207–232.
800:
773:
762:
755:
732:
721:(2): 195–202.
694:
667:
649:
642:
621:
619:
616:
615:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
583:
582:
566:
563:
553:
550:
544:
541:
539:
536:
514:
511:
494:
491:
480:Perceived risk
475:
474:Perceived risk
472:
455:representative
440:
437:
427:
424:
387:
386:
383:financial risk
379:
371:
368:
356:perceived risk
343:
340:
327:social reality
296:Media coverage
287:
284:
282:
279:
254:
251:
250:
249:
223:
220:
157:
154:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4277:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4125:Computer rage
4123:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4097:United States
4095:
4094:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4072:Filter bubble
4070:
4066:
4065:United States
4063:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4026:
4022:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
4000:Peer pressure
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3846:Doomscrolling
3844:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3832:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3785:
3781:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3758:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3722:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3657:Media studies
3655:
3653:
3650:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3614:
3610:
3609:human factors
3606:
3599:
3594:
3592:
3587:
3585:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3564:
3556:
3555:
3552:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3486:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3400:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3250:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3205:Invented here
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2968:False analogy
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2937:Sampling bias
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2900:Secundum quid
2896:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2844:False dilemma
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2712:Illicit minor
2710:
2708:
2707:Illicit major
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2557:
2555:
2550:
2548:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2444:United States
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2419:False balance
2417:
2416:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2291:Participation
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2259:Psychological
2257:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2026:Fading affect
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1849:
1847:
1842:
1840:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1491:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1270:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1129:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1036:(1): 95–106.
1035:
1031:
1030:Risk Analysis
1024:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
989:
986:
981:
977:
974:(2): 91–121.
973:
969:
962:
959:
954:
950:
946:
940:
937:
925:
921:
915:
912:
900:
894:
891:
885:
884:2027.42/34564
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
857:
850:
847:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
801:
796:
792:
788:
784:
777:
774:
766:
763:
758:
756:9780521796798
752:
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65:Find sources:
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43:This article
41:
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19:
4219:Technophobia
4207:Technophilia
4050:Echo chamber
3957:
3908:Rage farming
3688:Infotainment
3500:Naturalistic
3483:
3471:
3451:
3422:
3406:of relevance
3349:
3327:Whataboutism
3319:
3295:
3289:Godwin's law
3281:
3261:
3144:
3137:Consequences
3118:Law/Legality
3092:Single cause
3065:
3058:
2898:
2766:Loki's Wager
2746:Equivocation
2739:Equivocation
2404:In education
2371:
2355:Other biases
2341:Verification
2326:Survivorship
2276:Non-response
2249:Healthy user
2191:Substitution
2166:Self-serving
1962:Confirmation
1930:Availability
1929:
1878:Acquiescence
1790:
1786:
1780:
1758:(1): 83–90.
1755:
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683:. p. 10
681:Investopedia
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607:Recency bias
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174:Amos Tversky
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52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3983:Moral panic
3913:Screen time
3747:News values
3683:Gatekeeping
3625:Externality
3520:Red herring
3277:Association
2958:Conjunction
2879:Composition
2776:Reification
2692:Existential
2644:Existential
2471:Publication
2424:Vietnam War
2271:Length time
2254:Information
2196:Time-saving
2056:Horn effect
2046:Halo effect
1994:Distinction
1903:Attribution
1898:Attentional
1396:2268/186448
1262:December 1,
789:: 151–155.
687:December 1,
274:uncertainty
198:algorithmic
186:uncertainty
4255:Heuristics
4239:Categories
4197:Social bot
4187:Sealioning
3945:Conformity
3730:Propaganda
3715:Media bias
3708:Soft media
3496:Moralistic
3430:Sealioning
3424:Ad nauseam
3351:Ipse dixit
3263:Ad hominem
3087:Regression
2889:Ecological
2702:Four terms
2620:Masked man
2434:South Asia
2409:Liking gap
2221:In animals
2186:Status quo
2101:Negativity
2004:Egocentric
1979:Congruence
1957:Commitment
1947:Blind spot
1935:Mean world
1925:Automation
930:2022-11-14
905:2022-11-14
618:References
292:likelihood
110:March 2023
80:newspapers
3883:Infodemic
3817:Clickbait
3784:Attention
3640:Cognition
3537:Straw man
3415:Arguments
3404:fallacies
3378:Tradition
3368:Etymology
3340:Authority
3321:Tu quoque
3305:Bulverism
3075:Gambler's
3044:Animistic
2988:Ambiguity
2954:Base rate
2697:Necessity
2569:fallacies
2502:Debiasing
2481:White hat
2476:Reporting
2389:Inductive
2306:Selection
2266:Lead time
2239:Estimator
2216:Zero-risk
2181:Spotlight
2161:Restraint
2151:Proximity
2136:Precision
2096:Narrative
2051:Hindsight
2036:Frequency
2016:Emotional
1989:Declinism
1920:Authority
1893:Anchoring
1883:Ambiguity
1807:0007-1269
1772:0001-6918
1737:143452957
1721:0036-8075
1648:1939-1315
1605:1939-2192
1560:0022-1031
1525:145495112
1517:0093-6502
1482:0735-3936
1447:142611246
1439:1573-661X
1349:1930-2975
1307:144947312
1299:0167-4544
1238:154169718
1230:1542-7560
1195:154727453
1187:1542-7560
1120:0021-9029
1058:0272-4332
1015:145074578
841:0010-0285
538:Critiques
485:imagine.
426:Education
364:influenza
316:lightning
142:heuristic
4212:Neophile
3839:Phubbing
3757:Hot take
3645:Mismatch
3563:Category
3195:Ridicule
3180:Flattery
3170:Children
3067:Post hoc
2947:McNamara
2909:Accident
2884:Division
2731:Informal
2399:Inherent
2362:Academic
2336:Systemic
2321:Spectrum
2301:Sampling
2281:Observer
2244:Forecast
2156:Response
2116:Optimism
2111:Omission
2106:Normalcy
2076:In-group
2071:Implicit
1984:Cultural
1888:Affinity
1729:17835457
1613:22564084
1404:26332945
1074:10584667
1066:20055978
565:See also
300:homicide
222:Research
215:frequent
190:judgment
146:recalled
4172:Griefer
3978:Mobbing
3812:Chumbox
3764:Spiking
3382:Novelty
3357:Poverty
3219:Loyalty
3185:Novelty
3162:Emotion
3111:Appeals
3080:Inverse
3060:Cum hoc
3049:Furtive
2567:Common
2521:General
2519:Lists:
2454:Ukraine
2379:Funding
2141:Present
2126:Outcome
2031:Framing
1701:Bibcode
1693:Science
1357:4466291
1038:Bibcode
417:ethical
94:scholar
3467:Cliché
3402:Other
3373:Nature
3361:Wealth
2996:Accent
2582:Formal
2526:Memory
2439:Sweden
2429:Norway
2296:Recall
2066:Impact
1942:Belief
1860:Biases
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342:Health
182:biases
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4043:Youth
3605:Media
3229:Spite
3123:Stone
2414:Media
2384:FUTON
1733:S2CID
1521:S2CID
1443:S2CID
1353:S2CID
1325:(PDF)
1303:S2CID
1234:S2CID
1191:S2CID
1070:S2CID
1011:S2CID
859:(PDF)
314:, or
286:Media
101:JSTOR
87:books
3607:and
3315:Tone
3190:Pity
3175:Fear
2573:list
1803:ISSN
1768:ISSN
1725:PMID
1717:ISSN
1644:ISSN
1609:PMID
1601:ISSN
1556:ISSN
1513:ISSN
1478:ISSN
1435:ISSN
1400:PMID
1345:ISSN
1295:ISSN
1264:2013
1226:ISSN
1183:ISSN
1116:ISSN
1062:PMID
1054:ISSN
837:ISSN
751:ISBN
689:2013
638:ISBN
463:more
348:AIDS
176:and
132:The
73:news
2634:In
2590:In
2461:Net
2346:Wet
1795:doi
1760:doi
1709:doi
1697:185
1674:doi
1636:doi
1591:hdl
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