AMES Type 80 - Knowledge (XXG)

1260:. Saxa Vord was retained purely as an early warning source; even if they were jammed to deny tracking information, that would still provide a clear warning of an approaching raid to the main air-defence network far to the south. Saxa Vord was part of the long-term Linesman plans, but ultimately became part of the NADGE network, and financial control passed to NATO while still manned by the RAF. It was damaged by the wind on several occasions after 1956; on 27 January 1961, the entire antenna was blown off its mounts and had to be replaced. As it was handed to NADGE, a 454:, and then gradually expanding to cover the entire British Isles over time. For Phase I, 28 of the wartime radar sites would be upgraded with new electronics, a further 14 "Chain Early Warning" stations using the Type 14 and Type 13 would be added, along with 8 new GCI stations with upgraded Type 7's. Many other wartime stations would be shut down. Control would be divided among six Sector Operations Centres, coordinating reports from the radars in their area. Phase I was to be completed by the end of 1952, or 1953 at the latest. 34: 1160:", normally amounted to a few degrees. Correcting for this required the site to be accurately calibrated against external objects, a time-consuming but not technically challenging operation. As the amount of squint changes with frequency, changing the magnetron during maintenance caused the calibration to be lost once again as each magnetron has a slightly different natural frequency. The solution to this problem was the addition of a small 711: 1102: 847:

radar display with noise that would render the aircraft invisible. Older jammer systems could do this, but only after isolating the radar frequencies being used and tuning their transmitters to match them, a time-consuming process. If there was more than one radar in the area, or the aircraft moved into a different radar's view, all of this had to be repeated. The carcinotron could sweep so rapidly that it could

605:, would be deployed as part of ROTOR Phase II. Not only would the system be ready earlier than MEW, it would eliminate many of the existing WWII-era stations saving £1.6 million in installation costs, and another £1.5 million a year in continued operations. Almost all design effort within the TRE switched to the Stage IA, leaving little manpower available for the original MEW. MEW's development was spun off to 825:

depressions, typically bowl-shaped valleys. In the case of the Mark III, neither of these apply; the range of the system was so great that it could cover the entire inland area even if sited on the coast, and local reflections were avoided by the much narrower beam of the radar, which could aim away from obstructions. This implied that the number of stations in the network could be reduced significantly.

644:

but much more important was its ability to scan at higher altitudes so that the area above the station would be at least partially covered. Faster scanning rates would also be desirable. This could be accomplished through the design of a somewhat modified antenna, which became the AMES Type 81. However, as the Type 14 was seen as adequate in the short term, this project was given lower priority.

1396: 1149:

interceptor and bomber are rotated by the same amount and their positions relative to each other remain the same. For the SAM role, where the location of the missile was fixed on the ground, the sites had to be accurately calibrated to the local terrain so angles measured off the radar display could be sent to the missile sites who would then direct their radars in that direction.

747: 813:, and an adaptation of the Type 80. By mid-1953, the Air Ministry made the firm decision to use the Type 80-derived Type 81 rather than the other designs. Because the Type 81 spread its signal over a much greater vertical angle, the amount of energy in any given area was lower. This meant the design would have less range than the Type 80 even though it was otherwise similar. 862:. In tests beginning in late 1954, the jammer proved to be able to render the area around the aircraft unreadable, even when the aircraft was still below the radar horizon. In one test, any aircraft 20 miles (32 km) to either side of the jammer was invisible. As the jammer aircraft approached the radar station, the signal would be picked up in the radar antenna's 925:. This left a smaller network, mostly Type 80 Mark III's, dividing the country into nine sub-sectors. The entire air defence mission, from initial tracking to planning the interception, would be carried out entirely from these stations. Interceptions would be plotted on new 12 inches (300 mm) displays, while the overall image would be displayed on the 651:. Due to the curvature of the Earth, and assuming the maximum possible altitude of an air-breathing aircraft was about 60,000 feet (18,000 m), this corresponds to a range of 320 nautical miles (590 km; 370 mi). For the new Type 80's 210 nmi nominal range, this meant it could see anything above about 22,000 feet (6,700 m). 998:

investigated. If they repeated this exercise, they could wear out the aircraft and crews. In this scenario, the main purpose for manned fighters would be to shoot down jammer aircraft, which could fly outside the range of SAMs. There was no need to defend anything outside the immediate area of the BMEWS and V force airfields.

937:

3,000 full-time manpower requirements could be removed while at the same time expanding from a 2-shift to 3-shift round-the-clock operation. The fact that ROTOR only operated during daylight hours had been a subject of some embarrassment when it was revealed in the US press. The plan was ratified at a meeting on 21 June 1956.

970:

network layout, but used the new Type 84 and Type 85 radars which had even longer effective range and were much more resistant to jamming. The network would be linked together using new computer systems to allow all of the interceptions to be handled from two Master Control Centers, with the MRSs now reduced to backup.

834: 1421:

duty of measuring the altitude of the targets. This was indicated by one of the other operators placing a "strobe" on a selected target and then pressing a button on their console. This sent a signal to a heights operator who received the angle and range, and then slewed one of their radars, typically an

1309:

running across the front of the reflector, which can be easily seen in photographs. The waveguide was pressurized to eliminate humidity and prevent arcing. The system's vertical coverage could be adjusted by moving the waveguide, but this was difficult and time-consuming and normally done only on the

1267:

Buchan was not part of Linesman, and was originally planned to be shut down when Linesman came online. However, as was the case for Killard Point, by the 1960s Buchan was providing valuable air traffic information. In October 1969, it was decided to keep the location operational, proposing to replace

989:

In the new environment, air defences were simply not useful. Even if they worked perfectly and every enemy bomber was shot down, the country would be destroyed by missiles anyway. The only defence was deterrence, so it was absolutely essential that the V bomber fleet be given enough warning to launch

936:

These new comprehensive radar stations, later known as Master Radar Stations, had the side-effect of greatly reducing the total complexity of the reporting and control system. The total number of stations was reduced from 37 of ROTOR III to 28, many of the operational centres would not be needed, and

892:

test. In contrast to fission weapons, which had to be delivered relatively close to their targets, the hydrogen bomb was so powerful that it could be dropped within miles and still be effective, especially in a strategic role against cities. With the accuracy demands greatly reduced there was no need

820:

While this was being considered, the new 2 MW magnetron finally became available in quantity. These were added to the Mark III specification, offsetting any loss of range due to the increase in vertical angle. This also led to the curious situation that the new Mark III radars not only performed

643:

The design's improved resolution allowed it to distinguish between closely spaced targets at 95 nautical miles (176 km; 109 mi), well over twice the range of the Type 7. That meant it could potentially fill the OR2046 GCI role as well. This would benefit from even higher angular resolution,

464:

For both phases of ROTOR, shorter-range radars like the Type 7 and Type 14 would continue to fill the GCI role. It was understood that the GCI radars would have to be replaced at some point, and even by 1950 there were several radar systems under consideration for this role. The two Phase II concepts

404:

To address the UK's needs during this expected interwar period, in 1945 Group Captain J. Cherry authored "A Memorandum on the Raid Reporting and Control Aspects of the United Kingdom Air Defense Organization", better known as the Cherry Report. It outlined a number of problems in the existing network

276:

plan to provide radar coverage over the UK in a phased rollout. As part of Stage 2, a new EW radar with long range would be deployed starting in 1957. A TRE research project, Green Garlic, appeared to be able to fill this role. The first examples of the Type 80 were being installed in 1953 and became

1399:

This image shows the interior of the AMES Type 80 control room operated by the Canadian 1st Air Division in Metz, France. In the foreground are several of the Type 64 consoles, and in the background, the side-lit perspex plot board and tote boards showing known missions on the left and tracks on the

1375:

Each station operated on its own allotted frequency from 2,850 to 3,050 MHz. A significant improvement in the Type 80 compared to earlier radars was an automatic tuning system that allowed it to easily adjust to changes in the frequency as the magnetron warmed and cooled, and especially when it

1148:

Normally when used in the GCI-role, the absolute location of the objects is not important, only the relative positions of the target and interceptor are needed – if a given radar rotates everything five degrees clockwise on the display, it does not make a difference to the operator as both the

997:

There was considerable debate on whether there was a need for manned interceptors at all, but a scenario emerged that led to their requirement. If the Soviets flew aircraft far offshore and jammed the BMEWS radar, they could force the RAF to launch the V bombers to staging areas while the threat was

965:

At a meeting on 8 January 1959, the shrunken 1958 Plan was declared complete, with eight GCI stations having been converted to MRSs. This had already allowed the six Sector Operations Centers and a number of other facilities to be closed. The only remaining work was to re-arrange the consoles in the

900:

The RAF spent much of 1955 considering how these changes affected the overall air defence picture. They had already given up on the concept of a close defence based on anti-aircraft guns and handed the SAM mission from the Army to the Air Force to be integrated into their interceptor operations. Now

846:

valve entered the discussion. First announced publicly in 1953, the carcinotron could rapidly tune across a wide band of the microwave region by changing the input voltage. By sweeping the transmission through the entire frequency band of the radars the aircraft might meet, the jammer would fill the

816:

One of the other side-effects of the original improper installation of the transmitter at Trimmingham was the observation that the vertical angle of the coverage pattern could be raised by moving the transmitter. This seemed to eliminate the need for the separate GCI radar, and any given radar could

792:

As the second batch of stations neared their construction start dates, there was not enough time to get the new magnetron into production. Adopting only the new waveguide, these systems became the second production Mark I design. A greatly strengthened antenna and mounting design intended for all of

726:

in early 1954, taking much of the year to complete. The transmitter antenna was initially installed in the wrong position relative to the receiver above it, but this was corrected by repeatedly moving it and testing it. The only issue requiring modifications to the basic design was a minor change to

514:

minutes, which represent a distance of approximately 200 miles of early warning. The average range of early warning to be expected from ROTOR or the present CH stations is 130 miles. ... It will, therefore, be seen that the overriding requirement to enable interception to be made is the extension of

2030:

To add further confusion, the term "Stage I radar" may refer to any radar of ROTOR Phase I, or specifically to the upgraded Type 14's used in the early deployment. Likewise, the term "centimetric early warning", or CEW, may refer to the Type 14's, or to the Type 80, or even the L-band developments.

1420:

display, which was a large format for the era. Each station was given control of a single interception duty, talking directly to the pilot to fly them in the direction of the target until the fighter's own radar picked it up. Aiding them were the operators in the "heights cabin", who had the single

1217:

Changing priorities, development problems, and budget constraints all led to the deployment of Linesman/Mediator being greatly stretched out over more than a decade. Through this period the Type 80s and ROTOR control centres remained the primarily air-defence network in the UK. It was not until the

1208:

Type 80's were not the only radars moved to the ATC role. The Type 82s that the Type 80s replaced in the missile role was put into ATC use almost immediately, covering an area that was regarded as one of the most disorganized regions in the UK. In the future, Type 84's would also find themselves in

1077:

Ultimately only the logarithmic receiver was adopted, as it consisted solely of a small amount of additional electronics, while the polarizer required significantly more work and changes to the antenna. The logarithmic receiver also had the advantage of offering anti-jamming improvements as jammers

824:

GCI radars had previously been located inland for two reasons. One was that their range was relatively short, so they needed to be spread out geographically so their coverage overlapped in the defended area. Secondly, in order to reduce local reflections, the Type 7's had to be installed in natural

635:

building the electronics, Currans the turntable assembly, and Starkie Gardiner the 75 by 25 foot (22.9 m × 7.6 m) semi-parabolic reflector antenna. At this time the system was given the name AMES Type 80, separating them from wartime designs that were numbered in the teens. The first

617:

Development of a production version of Green Garlic was mostly concerned with the design of an antenna that would provide more vertical coverage than the horizon-scanning pattern of the Type 14. A further increase in angular resolution was also desirable, and these two features led to a much larger

1443:

Most of this list is primarily from McCamley (table, p. 91) and Gough (diagram, p. 144), both of which concentrate on the UK-based sites that were part of ROTOR or the 1958 Plan. Additional Type 80's are known to have been used in both the UK and elsewhere, and these have been added from

1335:

The entire system was held aloft on a 25 foot (7.6 m) tall truncated-pyramid of steel beams, with the microwave cabin in the centre and the antenna on top. The modulator was located in a separate building under the cabin at the base of the pyramid, and the motor-generator in a building beside

1021:

The Type 80s, by this time, had proven their utility. It was decided to keep several of the systems active in the new network to provide warning of aircraft attempting to approach from the North Sea along the Norwegian coast. In this case, even complete jamming of the Type 80 was acceptable, as it

932:

Within each sector, there would be multiple radars, with the "comprehensive" stations running the operations as a whole, with backup radars, either GCI or early warning, feeding them information. This deployment plan had three phases; the first would simply build new command and control centres at

581:

aircraft at ranges of 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi), and track them continually at 160 nautical miles (300 km; 180 mi) while flying at 25,000 feet (7.6 km), a rather dramatic improvement over the roughly 50 nautical miles (93 km; 58 mi) maximum range of the

969:

Just as the introduction of the hydrogen bomb upset the layout of the ROTOR system and led to the 1958 Plan, by the mid-1950s concerns over the carcinotron were growing. The initial response was released in January 1959 as Plan Ahead. Plan Ahead was similar to the 1958 Plan in general concept and

754:

ROTOR I was not completed by the end of 1953 as expected, as the upgraded Type 7's proved to be rather problematic and it was not until early 1955 that the systems were all modified to correct the problems. These delays closely matched those of the Type 80 installations. In July 1955, the ROTOR I

1331:

was not fully developed when the Type 80 was being designed, so the radio frequency portions of the system are located in the "cabin" below the reflector, rotating with it. Entering the cabin to service the components required the operators to wait for the appropriate time and then jump onto the

1199:

During the 1950s, military aircraft flew at altitudes and speeds that no civilian aircraft could match, so there was no interference between the two and the RAF was used to flying as they wished above about 30,000 feet (9.1 km). Likewise, unknown aircraft flying at high altitudes and speeds

1144:

The RRE stopped development work on the Type 80 in 1960 as their attention turned to the newer systems like Type 85. However, the increased accuracy of the Mark III suggested it was technically capable of "laying" the Yellow Rivers. Work began on converting the Type 80 for this role, which would

718:

In January 1953, Bard Hill had been selected as the site for a prototype of the production design. Construction of the system at was carried out through the year. As the parts arrived and lessons learned from their installation, the design was further modified. By the end of the year, the final

758:

Following Trimmingham, another five systems were to come online at a rate of one per month. When these were complete, after a nine-month delay, construction would begin on the Type 81 stations, eventually reaching a total of twenty-one Type 81s. ROTOR III added another ten stations in Northern

1284:. Like Killard Point, the Type 80 was not immediately replaced, and instead operated side by side by newer systems. It was ultimately the last Type 80 to stand down, running long after the others until 1993. Its closing ceremony was attended by some of the original Decca production engineers. 957:. Fourteen Mk. III stations were in various stages of completion. By February 1957, the plan had once again fallen behind schedule. The delivery date for the first of the twelve remaining units was pushed back to October 1957, with the network supposed to be fully completed by October 1958. 701:

This change results in some confusing terminology. Originally, ROTOR was to be in two phases, describing both the expansion of the network and its upgrading with the new radars. Now the Stage IA radar would be used with ROTOR Phase II and III, while the original Stage II radar was no longer

461:(MEW) radar, which would push the detection range out and give the operators more time to deal with aircraft that were now expected to be jet powered. It would also mean fewer stations would be needed to provide complete coverage, and the coverage would extend over the entire British Isles. 1171:

was fixed to the gantry and driven by the rotation of the radar head. It was found that the selsyn moved in its mount and its angle reporting changed as the antenna rotated. This was a small effect, but enough to upset the measurements for missile direction. This led to the last mechanical

468:

It was also realized that passing the information from the early warning to the GCI radars would be problematic, so ROTOR also called for the construction of six Sector Operation Centers (SOCs) to coordinate the information being provided from the EW radars. Four of these were newly built

1245:, and the Type 80 at Killard Point was left operational and remotely operated from Bishops Court. The civilian air traffic control services paid for the installation of a digitizer ("plot and code extractor") to feed information from Bishops Court's displays into the overall ATC network. 405:

and suggested a slow improvement to the equipment over the next decade. Much of the work detailed ways to improve the system by sending all of the radar data from the outlying stations to Master GCI stations, instead of having to hand data from station to station as aircraft moved about.

1434:

system, produced map imagery that could be displayed on the consoles, and also in some cases received information from remote radars. This latter task became more common when the ROTOR system was being upgraded to Linesman, and new radars were put into operation from the same R3 bunker.

485:

For a 500 knot bomber flying between 40,000 and 50,000 ft, the order to scramble must be given before the bomber is within fifteen minutes flying time, or 125 miles, from the coast. An additional five minutes are required for the appreciation to be made by the controller, and a further

1425:

purchased from the US, to that angle and began searching vertically for a target at about the same range. If one was detected, they strobed the target on their display, which sent the angle to a calculator that extracted the height and then sent the result to the requesting station.

2049:

Existing sources do not state what the back-to-back mounting option was intended to do. It does not appear that it was ever used in operation. The Type 84 also had this option and was installed with a second antenna, but it was never used for its original purpose of highly-accurate

817:

be made into a Type 80 or Type 81 simply by moving the antenna between two pre-set positions. After some experimentation, the Type 81 name was dropped, and the new concept became the Type 80 Mark III. Another change was to allow the turntable to mount two antennas back-to-back.

476:

The cost of Phase I was enormous; £24 million for construction, £8.5 million for new electronics, and £19 million for telecommunications systems. In modern terms, this is £1816 million in 2023. In spite of this, the system was already seen to be almost useless. A report by the

901:

they were questioning the entire idea of widespread defence and increasingly seeing any system purely as a way to ensure the survival of the V bomber force. In keeping with this mission, by April 1955 the plans had changed with the removal of two of the Mark III stations, at

837:

This image shows the effect of four carcinotron-carrying aircraft on a Type 80-type radar. The aircraft are located at roughly the 4 and 5:30 locations. The display is filled with noise any time the antenna's main lobe or sidelobes pass the jammer, rendering the aircraft

877:, and a single atomic attack was unlikely to eliminate a target. In this case, a protracted battle might occur in which the RAF and Army would seek to attrite the Soviet force so that follow-up attacks would become ineffective, essentially a damage-mitigation strategy. 688:

Green Garlic proved to give "outstanding results" and was a highlight of the exercise. But Ardent also demonstrated that ROTOR's limited coverage over northern Scotland provided a "back door" route that allowed bombers to elude the fighters. Concerns expressed by the

1444:

Appendix Two and the slightly different list in Appendix Three of "The Decca Legacy", with additions from Adams and AP3401. A number of stations that appear in Gough were not completed as the network was repeatedly cut back, including Hope Cove and St. Twynnells.

1179:

In 1963 the SAM role was handed off to the Type 80s at RAF Patrington and RAF Bawdsey, which had been upgraded to send this data to the missile sites in digital format. This arrangement was short-lived, however, as the missiles were stood down in the UK in 1964.

1204:

presented a significant new challenge, as these aircraft flew at roughly the same speeds and altitudes as the military aircraft. Very shortly after moving to MARCS, these radars began to host civilian operators as well, becoming the Joint ATCRU, or JARCRU.

555:

is based on the 4th root of received energy, meaning that three times the energy results in about a 75% increase in effective range. Combining the new receiver with the more powerful magnetrons suggested a doubling of the effective range was possible.

447:, which could reach the UK while carrying one of these weapons. Several new reports on air defence were quickly produced. By 1950 these had resulted in two broad deployment plans, ROTOR and VAST, covering systems in the UK and overseas, respectively. 1336:

it, just outside the legs of the pyramid. The antenna's rotation was driven by four electric motors, although the number in use at any given time depended on the wind. The normal rotation speed was 4 rpm, but it could run as high as 6 rpm if needed.

590:

With relatively minor improvements, Green Garlic could fill most of the requirements of OR2047, yet do so years earlier than the MEW. This led to changes in the ROTOR plans so that these new radars, referred to within the plans as Stage IA, or Stage

665:

To gain familiarity with the design, and to compare its performance with earlier systems, TRE built a second experimental set. This used an example of the new antenna mounted back-to-back with the original Type 14 antenna on a Type 16 turntable.

1045:

radars for civilian air traffic control. The deal for four Type 80's was announced to be worth "several million pounds". In Swedish service, it was known as the PS-08. The four Swedish examples, all Mark III's, served from 1957 until 1979.

1073:

when they reflect off of small round objects, but larger objects including round portions of aircraft, are too large to cause this. By filtering out signals with the opposite polarization, the signal from the rain is strongly suppressed.

693:

that this route could be used to mine western ports led an order for an additional eight Stage IA radars in February 1953. These would be placed in Scotland, the Shetland Islands, and Northern Ireland. A new sector operations centre in

1413:. This map provided the overall "air picture" of the action in that MRS's area of operations. Commanders above the PDU table could watch the development and movement of aircraft and then hand off targets to the individual operators. 986:(ICBMs), which meant they would be deployed earlier, likely by the mid-1960s. They had low accuracy, but when armed with hydrogen bombs, they were capable of hitting the V-bomber bases and rendering the UK deterrent force impotent. 738:(NADGE). Trimingham was handed over operationally to the RAF in February 1955, about six months later than initially expected, but still well over two years before the original ROTOR plans called for the MEW's to be installed. 933:

eight of the existing GCI sites and build a new one at Farrid Head, phase two would convert another 19 ROTOR sites to "satellite" stations, and finally, the system would be tied together and automated with computer systems.

1093:. Adding MTI not only decluttered the display, but also allowed the transmissions to be aimed much closer to the ground and thereby offer much better coverage at low altitudes. RRE had led the development of these systems. 408:

The Cherry Report was soon followed by a series of Defense White Papers covering all of the armed forces, calling for a rapid drawdown of military strength. In the area of air defence, they suggested moving the emphasis to

1241:. However, a fire in the R3 bunker at Neatishead delayed these plans, and it was not until 1970 that the Type 84 could be moved. By that time the plans had changed slightly, and the Type 84 was instead installed at nearby 981:

would hit the UK in about 15 minutes, potentially with no warning as the existing radar systems would not see them on their high trajectories far above the horizon. These missiles were simpler and less expensive than the

1404:

Each of the Master Radar Stations had a series of displays and consoles similar to those of the earlier Type 7 installations, or the later ROTOR Sector Controls. In the main Control Room was a pit that contained a large

1429:

All of this was run from the "radar office" located one floor below the operations areas. This room contained the equipment that calculated altitude from the angle, passed messages between the various offices, ran the

778:. By October, four of the Type 80s were in service, late but well on the way to completing the original Phase IA. A fifth Mk. I system in the UK, as well as the RCAF Mk. I in Metz, were operational by the end of 1955. 285:) that directly directed air defences, filling the GCI role as well. The original ROTOR plans for over 60 stations was reduced by half, retaining only a small number of older radars to fill gaps. Many of the ROTOR 618:

antenna. This, in turn, led to the need for a more robust turntable than the Type 7. An added advantage of the larger antenna would be that the energy of the beam would be concentrated into a smaller angle, only

727:

the oil system in the 8 foot (2.4 m) diameter bearing that supported the antenna. This became the pattern for following systems, and the original order of seven units was installed to this new standard.

1297:

The Type 80 used a 75 by 25 foot (22.9 m × 7.6 m) shaped semi-parabolic reflector made of wire mesh held in shape by a steel tube framework behind the mesh. The antenna was shaped to provide a

1025:

Plans for a NATO-wide network continued, and the Type 80 was offered for the main EW radar in this network. Ultimately the various systems were divided among the NATO countries, and the EW role was given to

940:

By June 1956 the sites of the original ROTOR II and III plans were being installed, although a number had been cancelled. Five Type 80 Mk. I's were in operation at Trimmingham, Beachy Head, St. Margarets,

866:, until the entire display was filled with noise and nothing could be tracked anywhere. It appeared that the decade-long effort to provide radar coverage for the UK was being rendered useless at a stroke. 586:

at 45,000 feet (14,000 m), the maximum range was increased to 230 to 250 nautical miles (430 to 460 km; 260 to 290 mi) and tracking range to 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi).

1416:

Outside of the Control Room were a variety of operational offices. Primary among these were the "fighter control cabins" that included a Console Type 64, which was centred on a 12 inches (300 mm)

1196:

in busy areas. These stations were known as Air Traffic Control Radar Units (ATCRU), and organized around four major centres, Ulster (Killard Point), Southern (Sopley), Mersey (Hack Green) and Border.

1054:

The Type 80, and any radar working in the S-band, was subject to strong returns from rain or even very heavy clouds. The mid-1950s period while the Type 80's were being installed was one of intense

821:

the GCI role, but also had a longer early warning range than the Mk. I and Mk. II installations. It was at this point that the Mark III began to have a significant influence on the ROTOR program.

1156:

like the one used to send the signal to the reflector. This caused a slight angle to develop between the waveguide's physical orientation and the actual signal produced. This problem, known as "

1376:

was serviced or replaced. In previous systems, such changes required a lengthy process of re-tuning the receiver, tube-by-tube. In contrast, this Automatic Frequency Control ensured the output

473:, while two were rebuilt from WWII control centres. Plans began to develop a system to automatically forward information from the radars to the SOCs and combine it onto a single large display. 1089:(MTI) system. MTI removed slow-moving objects from the display, both still objects like hills and local buildings, as well as things like waves which could become strong reflectors at high 559:

To test these concepts, the TRE built a lash-up system using two antennas from the Type 14 radars, placing them side by side on a Type 7 turntable, and replacing the Type 14's 500 kW

855: 781:

Several improvements were considered as the construction of the original units continued, including the addition of a new 2 MW magnetron and a pressurized waveguide system to keep

2003:

There is some confusion between sources when the name Green Garlic was introduced, and to which machines it was applied. Gough introduces it for this experimental machine on page F-7.

303:

appeared to make such attacks much more likely to succeed. This led to plans to replace the Type 80s even before they were fully installed, relying on a much smaller network known as

640:, the following six units were expected to be installed through 1953 and be operational in mid-1954. This set of quickly installed systems was carried out under "Operation ROTOR 2". 1013:

system. The goal of the new system was to provide guaranteed detection of an actual attack, as opposed to spoofing by jammers. Any such attack would trigger the V force to launch.

296:

led to serious questions about the nature of the defence, as a single bomber escaping interception was capable of causing catastrophic damage. Meanwhile, the introduction of the

897:. This meant the close-in defence offered by the ROTOR system was largely useless; the enemy bombers would now have to be stopped well before they reached their target areas. 3306: 1065:

that muted down very large signals so it did not overwhelm any smaller ones in the same area. The second was to add a delay system to the antenna to cause the signal to be

1058:

in the radar field. Two of these developments were considered for addition to the existing Type 80 sites to solve the rain problem, but only one of the two was installed.

314:

Some of the Mark I models shut down as early as 1959 as the Mark III's increased range began filling gaps. Most of the UK fleet shut down in the late 1960s as Linesman's

917:

In April 1956, the same month ROTOR I was declared fully operational, the new "1958 Plan" was released. ROTOR II and III disappeared, along with another two stations at

869:

Through the same period, changes in the strategic environment were leading to questions about the ultimate role of defensive operations. Early post-war thinking treated

789:

was subjected to 90 nautical miles (170 km; 100 mi) wind loads which strained the antenna, and demanded changes to the support framework and mounting system.

413:, as they expected there would be rapid technological improvement over the next few years and there was no point building existing designs that would soon be obsolete. 3286: 1172:

modification to the Type 80s, moving the selsyn from the gantry to a fixed location below it on the ground where it was rigidly fixed. This was first trialled at

628:

of a degree. This allowed it to overpower jammers, a significant problem for the Type 7 where roughly 500 kW of power was spread over a 3 degree width.

1302:, which broadcasts less energy at higher angles, where the targets are closer, such that the amount of energy returned from near or far targets is evened out. 973:

Within the government, opinion was that Plan Ahead was itself facing a threat that appeared to render it useless. In this case, it was the introduction of the

529: 563:

with a new 1.5 MW model. The resulting system had an antenna that was effectively 50 by 8 feet (15.2 m × 2.4 m), with a beam-width of

1368:

it produced. The power was fed to the cabin above via slip rings. The 12-cycle power was, in turn, generated by a large motor-generator run on the local

750:

The main bearing of the Type 80 at Metz failed in March 1958 and had to be replaced. This was a non-trivial operation that took three months to complete.

573: degree. The first example, known as Green Garlic, was operational on 18 February 1951, and a few days later it demonstrated its ability to detect 292:

The system was developed during a period of rapid development in both radar technology and the nature of the strategic threat. The introduction of the

525: 242: 1005:

of a nationwide air defence system was limited in the age of missiles, Plan Ahead was repeatedly scaled back. It was eventually merged with civilian

3291: 524:

The ROTOR plans were taking place during a period of rapid technical development at the UK's radar research establishments — the RAF-oriented

966:

interception offices, which would be carried out until 1962. The Air Council agreed that no further work should be done on the existing network.

2012:

Gough says eight on page 128, but it is not clear if these were all production units or if this includes the prototype system produced in 1952.

547:. In 1950, the TRE combined these crystal detectors with new electronics and produced a microwave-frequency receiver that added 10 dB of 3172: 2031:

The stations hosting the Type 80 are also normally referred to as CEW. Gough uses all of these terms in different ways throughout his book.

1383:

The receiver was split in two, entering linear and logarithmic amplifiers. The logarithmic helped eliminate returns from rain, clutter and

974: 401:

began to wind down operations. At the end of the war this process accelerated, as it was believed another war was at least a decade off.

735: 347: 307:

with only three main sites. Two Type 80s were retained in this network for coverage over the North Sea, and several more were used for

1022:

would still provide a warning that Soviet aircraft were aloft, without effecting the operation of the main stations far to the south.

983: 265:. It was the primary military ground-based radar in the UK from the mid-1950s into the late 1960s, providing coverage over the entire 1770:

Adams has images of a Type 80 at Ventnor, but it is not listed in Gough. Likely satellite for Wartling after Sopley became a JATCRU.

3249: 3206: 3139: 734:

officials in October 1954. This was part of an effort to develop a NATO-wide air warning system that would eventually emerge as the

217: 2982: 3273:, film from 1952 showing aircraft during Exercise Ardent in 1952. The original ops room of the Type 7 "happidromes" can be seen. 3164:

Watching the skies: a history of ground radar for the air defence of the United Kingdom by the Royal Air Force from 1946 to 1975

3149: 1387:(anaprop). However, this was at the cost of the loss of weaker signals due to the logarithmic amplification of noise as well. 500:

minutes to allow for the delays from the first detection to display on the General Situation Map. These time allowances total

533: 386: 234: 89: 893:

for the bomber to fly over the target for aiming, one could drop the bomb from long range or use a booster to form a simple

851:

all potential frequencies, allowing it to jam all the radars in the area at the same time with little or no operator input.

2040:

AP3401 refers to a Mark IA design, which Gough does not mention. It is likely the second batch are these Mark IA systems.

714:

Some feeling of the immensity of the Type 80 can be seen in this photo of men standing beside the prototype at Bard Hill.

1431: 1311: 1277: 1122: 873:

in a fashion similar to large conventional ones; the total damage caused by an atomic bomb was less than that of the

1369: 801:

As early as 1950, the RAF had considered several solutions to the original Phase II GCI requirement, including the

647:

Within the RAF, a new term began to be used, a "horizon limited radar", a system that could see anything above the

465:

were formalized under Operational Requirements OR2047 for the early warning system, and OR2046 for the GCI system.

261:

at ranges over 210 nautical miles (390 km; 240 mi), and large, high-flying aircraft were seen out to the

107: 762:

By this time a number of Type 80s were ready for service entry, although Trimmingham and the next installation at

1410: 926: 854:

To test whether such a system would actually be effective, the RAF purchased a carcinotron from the designers at

775: 583: 1299: 1055: 767: 410: 335: 1137:. When the air defence role was handed to the RAF, Type 82 went with it and became the warning system for the 2887: 1562: 1134: 1086: 1070: 833: 771: 766:

were still being corrected for antenna position. One additional system was arranged to be taken over by the

1495: 3296: 1901: 1377: 1273: 1130: 1062: 450:

ROTOR was to be a two-phase program, initially providing coverage only in the "Core Defended Area" around

457:

ROTOR Phase II would replace the early warning portions of the network with a dramatically more powerful

3311: 1959: 1384: 1066: 874: 574: 548: 2021:

Burr refers to a system known as "Richard" as one of the early units. This might refer to this example.

1793: 1352:

pulses from a modulator fed by 600 V 12-phase AC power and then converted to DC using an enormous

1237:. Bawdsey planned to stand down as part of the move to Linesman, and its duties would be taken over by 954: 922: 763: 1660: 1823: 1138: 397:

entering service late in the war. Starting in 1943, with the threat of German air attack waning, the

1634: 1233:

was supposed to be replaced by the first production Type 84, which had originally been installed at

38:

The Type 80 radar at Metz in France run by the 61 AC&W Squadron of the Canadian 1st Air Division

3216: 1810: 1687: 1626:

Master Radar Station, Sector 1. Early install of Mk. I and then upgraded. Last Type 80 in service.

1546: 1469: 1193: 1006: 990:

into their holding areas safe from attack. After discussions with the US, it was agreed to build a

678: 637: 478: 377:

By the middle of 1943, the UK's radar network was in a fairly complete form. It primarily used the

354:. The Swedish examples, Tom, Dick, Harry and Fred, were in use until 1978/79. The last Type 80, at 308: 230: 84: 1269: 1042: 888:, it was clear it would not be long before they had one, which came to pass in late 1955 with the 394: 1849: 1226:

radars began to replace the Type 80s, with most of the handover being declared complete in 1968.

1201: 1002: 674: 470: 1875: 427:

Events in the late 1940s led to a revaluation of this policy. These included the opening of the

1364:

in the comic series. This was placed in a metal cabinet to protect operators from the powerful

1164:

to the head frame of the radar, which was read off against landscape points made by surveyors.

909:. Now the remaining seventeen Mark III stations were expected to be operational in March 1958. 902: 719:

design of the Type 80 was released. At the same time, the order was increased to eleven units.

33: 3245: 3239: 3202: 3168: 3135: 1799: 1365: 1353: 1306: 1242: 1153: 1010: 894: 690: 682: 304: 3129: 1782: 1417: 1345: 1249: 1230: 1157: 1114: 560: 544: 540: 331: 254: 710: 1757:

Possibly used briefly as a satellite station for Wartling, but moved to JATCRU use early.

1508: 1400:

right. The MRS used much of the same equipment, although the plot was replaced by the PDU.

1264:

was constructed to protect it from the wind, but the radome was also damaged on occasion.

1101: 906: 848: 670: 660: 606: 358:, shut down in 1993 after 37 years of operation. A total of about 35 Type 80s were built. 286: 250: 3118: 385:

and a handful of other special-purpose early warning designs. For fighter direction, or

3301: 1700: 1482: 1349: 1238: 1173: 870: 806: 723: 669:

The system was operational in October 1952 and took part in that year's air war-games,

578: 552: 432: 398: 382: 3280: 1603: 1577: 1118: 1078:

tended to be very strong signals, and thus were also muted down in the same fashion.

1038: 918: 885: 810: 786: 648: 293: 266: 262: 3183: 515:

early warning from the ROTOR figure of 130 miles to a minimum of 200 nautical miles.

277:

operational in 1955. New sites received updated Mark III models and some formed the

1739: 1673: 1590: 1280:

missiles, which would be available in 1971 as the UK drew down its presence in the

1223: 1219: 1126: 1110: 1031: 978: 950: 698:

would handle traffic in this area. This expansion became known as ROTOR Phase III.

458: 444: 315: 300: 223: 1129:

to sort and filter approaching aircraft and then hand off selected targets to the

1061:

The first solution to this problem was to use a "logarithmic receiver", a form of

949:. Three Mk. II's had been installed, one replacing the Mk. I at Saxa Vord, one at 3265: 3196: 3162: 318:

came online. The Type 80 also saw some overseas use by the RAF, with stations in

1888: 1765: 1713: 1647: 1534: 1521: 1281: 1234: 1192:

Military Area Radar Control Service (MARCS) to provide high-altitude long-range

1027: 946: 942: 843: 770:(RCAF) for delivery in the summer of 1955. This later unit would be used by the 632: 440: 390: 351: 297: 246: 55: 1395: 3270: 1970: 1966: 1836: 1752: 1621: 1406: 1253: 1189: 1167:

To coordinate the motion of the beam on the radar display with the antenna, a

1105:

The Type 82 had a complex antenna that allowed it to measure altitude as well.

802: 746: 428: 378: 372: 355: 1332:

rotating platform, which was normally turning at 24 degrees-per-second.

1125:

to allow it to easily track many targets. It was originally designed for the

1041:. The only third-party sales were to Sweden, which had already purchased the 539:

Among the important advances in the immediate post-war era were higher-power

1357: 1328: 1161: 1090: 863: 759:

Ireland and western Scotland, completing the coverage of the British Isles.

695: 117: 3016: 1188:

In 1959, a number of existing facilities were turned over to the joint RAF/

929:, which had originally been developed for ROTOR Phase II command centres. 785:

out of the piping to prevent arcing. In January 1957, the installation at

673:. Ardent was, by far, the largest air exercise carried out since the war. 551:, slightly more than three times the sensitivity of previous designs. The 1422: 1372:. This was located in a separate building beside the modulator building. 1361: 1257: 1200:

demanded investigation. The introduction of the first jetliners like the

1152:

Solving this problem was relatively difficult due to a problem in linear

782: 1994:

Different sources say 1993, 1994 and 1997, but Burr clearly states 1993.

1726: 1035: 389:(GCI) as it was known, the primary system was the somewhat more modern 319: 168: 1261: 1168: 889: 631:

An order for eight production units was delivered in July 1952, with

543:

over 1 MW, and the introduction of new wide-bandwidth low-noise

451: 343: 323: 258: 99: 20: 1348:

providing the microwave signal was pulsed by delivery of 25 kV

636:

of the units would be purely experimental and would be installed at

1117:. This radar was shorter-ranged than the Type 80, but had built-in 1862: 1394: 1314:(IFF) antenna was mounted in front and below the waveguide, about 1100: 991: 881: 832: 745: 709: 436: 422: 327: 273: 238: 1409:

table that displayed information being projected upward from the

842:

It was during this same period that the growing concern over the

1082: 731: 339: 1652:

Master Radar Station, Sector 2. As Buchan, originally a Mk. I.

439:

in 1949. The Soviets were known to have built copies of the US

1974: 1380:

was always 13.5 MHz, no matter what was being broadcast.

994:

radar in the UK, giving the bombers enough warning to launch.

677:

carried out a total of 2,000 sorties, met by 5,500 sorties by

3077: 3075: 755:

system was declared "complete to all intents and purposes".

2237: 2235: 2233: 1487:

Satellite station for Neatishead. First production Mk. I.

2730: 2728: 2726: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2220: 2218: 1582:

Mk. I upgraded to Mk. II. Satellite station for Buchan.

2952: 2950: 2948: 2935: 2933: 2920: 2918: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2745: 2743: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2578: 2576: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2400: 2398: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 1327:

The technique of feeding high-power microwaves through

1248:

Similar fates befell the Type 80's at Saxa Vord in the

1176:

and then rolled out to the other sites that needed it.

681:. At its peak, the rate of sorties matched that of the 2073: 2071: 1731:

Satellite station for Bawdsey. Formerly RAF Sandwich.

19:"Green Garlic" redirects here. For the vegetable, see 3038: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3030: 1639:

Satellite station for Boulmer. Now used as a museum.

1145:

eliminate the need for the separate Type 82 network.

722:

The first true production unit began installation at

3241:

Geography, Technology and Instruments of Exploration

2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 1781:

Satellite station for Killard Point. Today known as

1034:). In the end, the UK's contribution to NADGE was a 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 1946:Adams postulates this to be a redundant RAF model. 203: 193: 185: 177: 167: 159: 155:

better than 240 nmi (440 km; 280 mi)

151: 143: 135: 116: 106: 95: 80: 69: 61: 51: 43: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2983:"Type 80 at Saxa Vord – Myths, Legends and Facts" 1973:contemporary Soviet system, but operating in the 1310:initial installation. In the Mark III models, an 3110:Air Publication 10/3401, Control and Reporting 2 3184:"The Forgotten JATCRU? And are there any more?" 483: 2889:History of C2-systems in the Swedish Air Force 1798:Master Radar Station, Sector 8. Now known as 8: 3238:MacDonald, Fraser; Withers, Charles (2016). 1802:, the location of the Type 84 installation. 530:Radar Research and Development Establishment 26: 3307:Military equipment introduced in the 1950s 730:The Trimingham system was demonstrated to 481:'s Air Officer Commander in Chief stated: 289:, only recently completed, were sold off. 32: 25: 3217:"Air defense in a Supersonic Age (NADGE)" 1613:Mark III (listed roughly geographically) 526:Telecommunications Research Establishment 272:In the late 1940s, the RAF developed the 253:(RAF). It could reliably detect a large 243:Telecommunications Research Establishment 3093: 3081: 3066: 3054: 3010: 3008: 2956: 2773: 2734: 2705: 2664: 2282: 2224: 1446: 858:and fitted it to an aircraft christened 381:radars for early warning, supplanted by 16:Cold War-era British early warning radar 3112:(Technical report). Air Ministry. 1969. 2067: 1987: 793:the northern bases became the Mark II. 702:associated with any of ROTOR's phases. 393:, with smaller numbers of the advanced 112:235 to 300 pps, normally 250 to 270 pps 2416: 884:test in August 1953. While not a true 880:This thinking changed with the Soviet 3287:Military radars of the United Kingdom 2999: 2968: 2939: 2924: 2909: 2874: 2862: 2850: 2833: 2821: 2809: 2797: 2785: 2761: 2749: 2717: 2688: 2676: 2647: 2635: 2618: 2582: 2567: 2555: 2538: 2519: 2490: 2471: 2440: 2428: 2404: 2389: 2368: 2344: 2332: 2313: 2294: 2265: 2253: 2241: 2209: 2190: 2178: 2166: 2154: 2142: 2130: 2118: 2106: 2077: 1815:Satellite station for Killard Point. 222:, sometimes known by its development 7: 2452: 2094: 975:intermediate range ballistic missile 774:to control the airspace used by the 3266:Master Radar Station, Radar Type 80 1595:Satellite station for Faraid Head. 984:intercontinental ballistic missiles 736:NATO Air Defence Ground Environment 3042: 3017:"Technical Details of the Type 80" 2601: 2356: 1692:Satellite station for Neatishead. 1665:Satellite station for Patrington. 1526:Satellite station for Patrington. 1229:The Killard Point installation in 1121:, more accurate tracking, and had 14: 3182:Levesley, John (1 October 2016). 1551:Satellite station for Hope Cove. 829:Carcinotron and strategic changes 435:, and especially the test of the 1828:Master Radar Station, Sector 9. 1744:Master Radar Station, Sector 6. 1718:Master Radar Station, Sector 5. 1705:Master Radar Station, Sector 4. 1679:Master Radar Station, Sector 3. 1513:Satellite station for Wartling. 1356:known as the "Mekon", named for 3292:Radar equipment of the Cold War 3198:Cold War Secret Nuclear Bunkers 1500:Satellite station for Bawdsey. 2981:Carle, Gordon (1 March 2014). 1962:was the closest US equivalent. 1305:The signal was end-fed into a 1069:. Such signals will undergo a 534:Admiralty Signal Establishment 387:ground controlled interception 235:ground-controlled interception 70: 1: 1360:, one of the arch-enemies of 1324:the main waveguide's length. 1209:the high-cover role as well. 1123:an electromechanical computer 1081:Another major addition was a 582:original Type 14. Against an 1432:identification friend or foe 1312:identification friend or foe 1278:English Electric Thunderbird 1391:Master Radar Station layout 1218:late 1960s that Linesman's 1184:Move to air traffic control 607:Marconi Wireless Telephones 21:Garlic § Culinary uses 3328: 658: 420: 370: 18: 2455:, p. Appendix Three. 1612: 1568: 1460: 1411:Photographic Display Unit 927:Photographic Display Unit 776:Second Tactical Air Force 584:English Electric Canberra 528:(TRE), the Army-oriented 31: 3224:NATO Information Service 3150:"Decca Radar for Sweden" 2971:, pp. 145, 290–291. 1300:cosecant-squared pattern 1056:research and development 768:Royal Canadian Air Force 437:first Soviet atomic bomb 411:research and development 336:Royal Canadian Air Force 3195:McCamley, Nick (2013). 1563:1 Canadian Air Division 1307:slotted waveguide array 1135:anti-aircraft artillery 1087:moving target indicator 1071:reflection phase change 977:(IRBM). IRBMs based in 772:1 Canadian Air Division 532:(RRDE), and the Navy's 459:Microwave Early Warning 3271:Exercise Ardent (1952) 3057:, pp. 73, 73, 82. 2987:A History of Saxa Vord 1401: 1378:intermediate frequency 1274:tactical control radar 1133:radars that aimed the 1106: 1063:automatic gain control 839: 751: 715: 517: 350:lost to a system from 346:. Potential sales for 338:for operations around 334:. One was used by the 163:75 ft (23 m) 44:Country of origin 3134:. The History Press. 2109:, pp. 22–23, 35. 1778:RAF Lytham St. Annes 1496:RAF St. Margarets Bay 1398: 1385:anomalous propagation 1354:mercury-arc rectifier 1104: 1009:and reemerged as the 875:thousand-bomber raids 836: 749: 713: 575:de Havilland Mosquito 549:signal-to-noise ratio 279:Master Radar Stations 3161:Gough, Jack (1993). 3154:Flight International 3128:Clarke, Bob (2012). 3015:Adams, D.C. (2006). 1902:RAF Christmas Island 1268:the Type 80 with an 1213:Removal from service 1067:circularly polarized 1050:Further improvements 342:. Four were used in 197:1 MW Mark I & II 2899:(Technical report). 2897:Swedish Armed Force 2788:, pp. 178–179. 2720:, pp. 150–151. 2691:, pp. 157–158. 2570:, p. 150, 153. 2443:, pp. 118–119. 2268:, pp. 122–123. 2244:, pp. 115–116. 2193:, pp. 126–127. 1194:air traffic control 1007:air traffic control 706:First installations 679:RAF Fighter Command 613:Type 80 development 479:RAF Fighter Command 471:underground bunkers 309:air traffic control 245:(TRE) and built by 28: 3156:. 25 January 1962. 3131:Britain's Cold War 3117:Burr, Ron (2010). 1940:Swedish Air Force 1930:Swedish Air Force 1920:Swedish Air Force 1910:Swedish Air Force 1402: 1370:three-phase supply 1276:developed for the 1202:De Havilland Comet 1154:slotted waveguides 1139:Bloodhound missile 1107: 1017:Type 80 in service 1003:cost/benefit ratio 840: 752: 716: 675:RAF Bomber Command 102:, 2.85 to 3.05 GHz 3201:. Pen and Sword. 3174:978-0-11-772723-6 3084:, pp. 87–91. 2297:, pp. 58–59. 1950: 1949: 1794:RAF Killard Point 1366:ultraviolet light 1243:RAF Bishops Court 1011:Linesman/Mediator 955:RAF Killard Point 923:RAF St. Twynnells 895:stand-off missile 764:RAF St. Margarets 683:Battle of Britain 545:crystal detectors 541:cavity magnetrons 305:Linesman/Mediator 241:developed by the 229:, was a powerful 213: 212: 189:1 mile at 150 nmi 3319: 3255: 3227: 3226:. November 1972. 3221: 3212: 3191: 3178: 3157: 3145: 3124: 3120:The Decca Legacy 3113: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3025: 3024: 3012: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2943: 2937: 2928: 2922: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2894: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2738: 2732: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2622: 2616: 2605: 2599: 2586: 2580: 2571: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2542: 2536: 2523: 2517: 2494: 2488: 2475: 2469: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2393: 2387: 2372: 2366: 2360: 2359:, p. 22–23. 2354: 2348: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2317: 2311: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2269: 2263: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2228: 2222: 2213: 2207: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2152: 2146: 2140: 2134: 2128: 2122: 2116: 2110: 2104: 2098: 2092: 2081: 2075: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2032: 2028: 2022: 2019: 2013: 2010: 2004: 2001: 1995: 1992: 1783:Warton Aerodrome 1661:RAF Seaton Snook 1447: 1418:cathode ray tube 1346:cavity magnetron 1323: 1322: 1318: 1250:Shetland Islands 1231:Northern Ireland 1115:RAF North Coates 1113:began trials at 627: 626: 622: 604: 603: 599: 596: 572: 571: 567: 561:cavity magnetron 513: 512: 508: 505: 499: 498: 494: 491: 332:Christmas Island 287:operations rooms 199:2.5 MW Mark III 130: 129: 125: 72: 36: 29: 3327: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3317: 3316: 3277: 3276: 3262: 3252: 3237: 3234: 3232:Further reading 3219: 3215: 3209: 3194: 3181: 3175: 3160: 3148: 3142: 3127: 3116: 3108: 3105: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3080: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3045:, p. 22–3. 3041: 3028: 3014: 3013: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2967: 2963: 2955: 2946: 2938: 2931: 2923: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2873: 2869: 2861: 2857: 2849: 2840: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2816: 2808: 2804: 2796: 2792: 2784: 2780: 2772: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2748: 2741: 2733: 2724: 2716: 2712: 2704: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2675: 2671: 2663: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2634: 2625: 2617: 2608: 2600: 2589: 2581: 2574: 2566: 2562: 2554: 2545: 2537: 2526: 2518: 2497: 2489: 2478: 2470: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2403: 2396: 2388: 2375: 2367: 2363: 2355: 2351: 2343: 2339: 2331: 2320: 2312: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2281: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2252: 2248: 2240: 2231: 2223: 2216: 2208: 2197: 2189: 2185: 2177: 2173: 2165: 2161: 2153: 2149: 2141: 2137: 2129: 2125: 2117: 2113: 2105: 2101: 2093: 2084: 2076: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2054: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1960:Bendix AN/FPS-3 1955: 1824:RAF Faraid Head 1509:RAF Beachy Head 1441: 1393: 1342: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1295: 1290: 1215: 1186: 1099: 1052: 1030:(today part of 1019: 963: 953:and another at 915: 907:RAF Charmy Down 871:nuclear weapons 831: 799: 744: 708: 671:Exercise Ardent 663: 661:Exercise Ardent 657: 655:Exercise Ardent 624: 620: 619: 615: 601: 597: 594: 592: 569: 565: 564: 522: 510: 506: 503: 501: 496: 492: 489: 487: 425: 419: 375: 369: 364: 251:Royal Air Force 208: 198: 127: 123: 122: 88: 39: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3325: 3323: 3315: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3279: 3278: 3275: 3274: 3268: 3261: 3260:External links 3258: 3257: 3256: 3250: 3233: 3230: 3229: 3228: 3213: 3207: 3192: 3179: 3173: 3158: 3146: 3140: 3125: 3114: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3098: 3096:, pp. 81. 3086: 3071: 3069:, pp. 82. 3059: 3047: 3026: 3004: 3002:, p. 291. 2992: 2973: 2961: 2944: 2942:, p. 274. 2929: 2927:, p. 165. 2914: 2912:, p. 163. 2902: 2879: 2877:, p. 149. 2867: 2855: 2853:, p. 290. 2838: 2836:, p. 145. 2826: 2824:, p. 186. 2814: 2812:, p. 188. 2802: 2800:, p. 187. 2790: 2778: 2766: 2764:, p. 156. 2754: 2752:, p. 155. 2739: 2722: 2710: 2693: 2681: 2679:, p. 157. 2669: 2652: 2650:, p. 151. 2640: 2638:, p. 154. 2623: 2621:, p. 122. 2606: 2587: 2585:, p. 121. 2572: 2560: 2558:, p. 130. 2543: 2541:, p. 153. 2524: 2522:, p. 164. 2495: 2493:, p. 120. 2476: 2474:, p. 129. 2457: 2445: 2433: 2431:, p. F-8. 2421: 2409: 2407:, p. 128. 2394: 2392:, p. 118. 2373: 2371:, p. 125. 2361: 2349: 2347:, p. 117. 2337: 2335:, p. F-7. 2318: 2299: 2287: 2270: 2258: 2246: 2229: 2214: 2212:, p. 116. 2195: 2183: 2171: 2159: 2147: 2135: 2123: 2111: 2099: 2082: 2080:, p. 124. 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2052: 2042: 2033: 2023: 2014: 2005: 1996: 1986: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1963: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1937: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1906: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1894: 1892: 1886: 1882: 1881: 1879: 1873: 1869: 1868: 1866: 1860: 1856: 1855: 1853: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1840: 1834: 1830: 1829: 1826: 1821: 1817: 1816: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1796: 1791: 1787: 1786: 1779: 1776: 1772: 1771: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1745: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1729: 1724: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1703: 1701:RAF Neatishead 1698: 1694: 1693: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1653: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1640: 1637: 1635:RAF Anstruther 1632: 1628: 1627: 1624: 1619: 1615: 1614: 1610: 1609: 1607: 1601: 1597: 1596: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1583: 1580: 1575: 1571: 1570: 1566: 1565: 1560: 1557: 1553: 1552: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1539: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1519: 1515: 1514: 1511: 1506: 1502: 1501: 1498: 1493: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1483:RAF Trimingham 1480: 1476: 1475: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1440: 1437: 1392: 1389: 1350:direct current 1341: 1338: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1239:RAF Neatishead 1214: 1211: 1185: 1182: 1174:RAF Patrington 1119:height finding 1098: 1095: 1051: 1048: 1018: 1015: 962: 959: 914: 911: 830: 827: 807:Type 984 radar 798: 795: 743: 740: 724:RAF Trimingham 707: 704: 659:Main article: 656: 653: 614: 611: 579:Gloster Meteor 553:radar equation 521: 518: 433:Berlin Airlift 421:Main article: 418: 415: 399:Dowding system 383:Chain Home Low 371:Main article: 368: 365: 363: 360: 211: 210: 205: 201: 200: 195: 191: 190: 187: 183: 182: 179: 175: 174: 171: 165: 164: 161: 157: 156: 153: 149: 148: 145: 141: 140: 137: 133: 132: 120: 114: 113: 110: 104: 103: 97: 93: 92: 82: 78: 77: 74: 67: 66: 63: 59: 58: 53: 49: 48: 45: 41: 40: 37: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3324: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3297:Ground radars 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3284: 3282: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3253: 3251:9781317128823 3247: 3244:. Routledge. 3243: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3208:9781473813243 3204: 3200: 3199: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3170: 3166: 3165: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3141:9780752488257 3137: 3133: 3132: 3126: 3122: 3121: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3094:McCamley 2013 3090: 3087: 3083: 3082:McCamley 2013 3078: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3067:McCamley 2013 3063: 3060: 3056: 3055:McCamley 2013 3051: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3021:Ventnor Radar 3018: 3011: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2957:Levesley 2016 2953: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2903: 2898: 2891: 2890: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2779: 2776:, p. 92. 2775: 2774:McCamley 2013 2770: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2737:, p. 91. 2736: 2735:McCamley 2013 2731: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2711: 2708:, p. 90. 2707: 2706:McCamley 2013 2702: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2670: 2667:, p. 89. 2666: 2665:McCamley 2013 2661: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2604:, p. 22. 2603: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2419:, p. 67. 2418: 2413: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2288: 2285:, p. 86. 2284: 2283:McCamley 2013 2279: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2259: 2256:, p. 52. 2255: 2250: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2230: 2227:, p. 73. 2226: 2225:McCamley 2013 2221: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2184: 2181:, p. 51. 2180: 2175: 2172: 2169:, p. 40. 2168: 2163: 2160: 2157:, p. 43. 2156: 2151: 2148: 2145:, p. 42. 2144: 2139: 2136: 2133:, p. 38. 2132: 2127: 2124: 2121:, p. 37. 2120: 2115: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2057: 2046: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2027: 2024: 2018: 2015: 2009: 2006: 2000: 1997: 1991: 1988: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1844: 1841: 1838: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1812: 1811:RAF Scarinish 1809: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1800:Bishops Court 1797: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1747: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1734: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1695: 1691: 1689: 1688:RAF Skendleby 1686: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1604:Fort Madalena 1602: 1599: 1598: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1581: 1579: 1578:RAF Saxa Vord 1576: 1573: 1572: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1559:Metz, France 1558: 1555: 1554: 1550: 1548: 1547:RAF Treleaver 1545: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1473: 1471: 1470:RAF Bard Hill 1468: 1465: 1464: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1445: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1427: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1397: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1381: 1379: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1330: 1325: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1301: 1292: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1265: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1109:In 1958, the 1103: 1096: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1057: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1039:height finder 1037: 1033: 1029: 1023: 1016: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 995: 993: 987: 985: 980: 976: 971: 967: 960: 958: 956: 952: 948: 944: 938: 934: 930: 928: 924: 920: 919:RAF Hope Cove 912: 910: 908: 904: 898: 896: 891: 887: 886:hydrogen bomb 883: 878: 876: 872: 867: 865: 861: 857: 852: 850: 845: 835: 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 812: 811:Orange Yeoman 809:, the Army's 808: 804: 796: 794: 790: 788: 787:RAF Saxa Vord 784: 779: 777: 773: 769: 765: 760: 756: 748: 741: 739: 737: 733: 728: 725: 720: 712: 705: 703: 699: 697: 692: 686: 684: 680: 676: 672: 667: 662: 654: 652: 650: 649:radar horizon 645: 641: 639: 638:RAF Bard Hill 634: 629: 612: 610: 608: 588: 585: 580: 576: 562: 557: 554: 550: 546: 542: 537: 535: 531: 527: 519: 516: 482: 480: 474: 472: 466: 462: 460: 455: 453: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 424: 416: 414: 412: 406: 402: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 374: 366: 361: 359: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 316:AMES Type 85s 312: 310: 306: 302: 299: 295: 294:hydrogen bomb 290: 288: 284: 280: 275: 270: 268: 267:British Isles 264: 263:radar horizon 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 231:early warning 228: 225: 221: 219: 207:Green Garlic 206: 202: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 121: 119: 115: 111: 109: 105: 101: 98: 94: 91: 86: 85:early warning 83: 79: 75: 68: 64: 60: 57: 54: 50: 46: 42: 35: 30: 22: 3312:Rainbow code 3240: 3223: 3197: 3187: 3163: 3153: 3130: 3123:. E O Grove. 3119: 3109: 3103:Bibliography 3089: 3062: 3050: 3020: 2995: 2986: 2976: 2964: 2905: 2896: 2888: 2882: 2870: 2865:, p. 3. 2858: 2829: 2817: 2805: 2793: 2781: 2769: 2757: 2713: 2684: 2672: 2643: 2563: 2448: 2436: 2424: 2412: 2364: 2352: 2340: 2290: 2261: 2249: 2186: 2174: 2162: 2150: 2138: 2126: 2114: 2102: 2045: 2036: 2026: 2017: 2008: 1999: 1990: 1740:RAF Wartling 1676:/Patrington 1674:RAF Holmpton 1591:RAF Aird Uig 1442: 1428: 1415: 1403: 1382: 1374: 1343: 1334: 1326: 1304: 1296: 1270:AMES Type 88 1266: 1247: 1228: 1224:AMES Type 85 1220:AMES Type 84 1216: 1207: 1198: 1187: 1178: 1166: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1131:Yellow River 1127:British Army 1111:AMES Type 82 1108: 1097:Missile role 1080: 1076: 1060: 1053: 1043:Decca DASR.1 1032:Thales Group 1024: 1020: 1000: 996: 988: 979:East Germany 972: 968: 964: 951:RAF Aird Uig 939: 935: 931: 916: 899: 879: 868: 859: 853: 841: 823: 819: 815: 800: 791: 780: 761: 757: 753: 729: 721: 717: 700: 687: 668: 664: 646: 642: 630: 616: 589: 558: 538: 523: 520:Green Garlic 484: 475: 467: 463: 456: 449: 445:Tupolev Tu-4 426: 407: 403: 395:AMES Type 14 376: 313: 301:radar jammer 291: 282: 278: 271: 227:Green Garlic 226: 224:rainbow code 216: 214: 209:AMES Type 81 52:Manufacturer 27:AMES Type 80 3188:ATC History 2417:Clarke 2012 1889:RAF Troodos 1850:Breckendorf 1766:RAF Ventnor 1714:RAF Bawdsey 1648:RAF Boulmer 1535:RAF Ventnor 1522:RAF Bempton 1340:Electronics 1288:Description 1282:Middle East 1235:RAF Bawdsey 1028:Thomson-CSF 947:RAF Ventnor 943:RAF Bempton 844:carcinotron 441:Boeing B-29 391:AMES Type 7 352:Thomson-CSF 298:carcinotron 204:Other Names 3281:Categories 3000:Gough 1993 2969:Gough 1993 2940:Gough 1993 2925:Gough 1993 2910:Gough 1993 2875:Decca 1962 2863:NADGE 1972 2851:Gough 1993 2834:Gough 1993 2822:Gough 1993 2810:Gough 1993 2798:Gough 1993 2786:Gough 1993 2762:Gough 1993 2750:Gough 1993 2718:Gough 1993 2689:Gough 1993 2677:Gough 1993 2648:Gough 1993 2636:Gough 1993 2619:Gough 1993 2583:Gough 1993 2568:Gough 1993 2556:Gough 1993 2539:Gough 1993 2520:Gough 1993 2491:Gough 1993 2472:Gough 1993 2441:Gough 1993 2429:Gough 1993 2405:Gough 1993 2390:Gough 1993 2369:Gough 1993 2345:Gough 1993 2333:Gough 1993 2314:Gough 1993 2295:Gough 1993 2266:Gough 1993 2254:Gough 1993 2242:Gough 1993 2210:Gough 1993 2191:Gough 1993 2179:Gough 1993 2167:Gough 1993 2155:Gough 1993 2143:Gough 1993 2131:Gough 1993 2119:Gough 1993 2107:Gough 1993 2078:Gough 1993 2058:References 1878:, Germany 1876:Auenhausen 1865:, Germany 1852:, Germany 1839:, Germany 1837:Brockzetel 1753:RAF Sopley 1622:RAF Buchan 1474:Prototype 1407:plexiglass 1329:slip rings 1254:RAF Buchan 1190:Royal Navy 1091:sea states 961:Plan Ahead 864:side lobes 838:invisible. 803:Royal Navy 429:Korean War 379:Chain Home 373:Chain Home 367:Chain Home 356:RAF Buchan 136:Pulsewidth 62:Introduced 2453:Burr 2010 2095:Burr 2010 2063:Citations 1891:, Cyprus 1453:Location 1439:Locations 1358:The Mekon 1256:north of 1162:telescope 913:1958 Plan 903:RAF Calvo 860:Catherine 696:Inverness 691:Admiralty 257:or small 233:(EW) and 186:Precision 178:Elevation 118:Beamwidth 96:Frequency 3167:. HMSO. 1953:See also 1606:, Malta 1569:Mark II 1423:AN/FPS-6 1362:Dan Dare 1258:Aberdeen 783:humidity 742:Buildout 249:for the 160:Diameter 1727:RAF Ash 1461:Mark I 1319:⁄ 1293:Antenna 1272:/89, a 1085:-based 1036:Marconi 1001:As the 849:barrage 805:'s new 797:Mk. III 623:⁄ 600:⁄ 568:⁄ 509:⁄ 495:⁄ 443:as the 362:History 320:Germany 255:fighter 220:Type 80 169:Azimuth 126:⁄ 3248: 3205: 3171: 3138: 3043:AP3401 2602:AP3401 2357:AP3401 1933:Harry 1456:Notes 1262:radome 1169:selsyn 1158:squint 945:, and 890:RDS-37 452:London 431:, the 344:Sweden 324:Cyprus 259:bomber 237:(GCI) 100:S-band 3302:Decca 3220:(PDF) 2893:(PDF) 1982:Notes 1977:band. 1943:Fred 1923:Dick 1863:Uedem 1556:RCAF 1450:User 992:BMEWS 882:Joe 4 633:Decca 423:ROTOR 417:ROTOR 348:NADGE 328:Malta 274:ROTOR 247:Decca 239:radar 194:Power 181:0–30º 152:Range 73:built 56:Decca 3246:ISBN 3203:ISBN 3169:ISBN 3136:ISBN 2050:IFF. 1971:P-12 1967:P-10 1965:The 1958:The 1913:Tom 1898:RAF 1885:RAF 1872:RAF 1859:RAF 1846:RAF 1833:RAF 1820:RAF 1807:RAF 1790:RAF 1775:RAF 1762:RAF 1749:RAF 1736:RAF 1723:RAF 1710:RAF 1697:RAF 1684:RAF 1670:RAF 1657:RAF 1644:RAF 1631:RAF 1618:RAF 1600:RAF 1587:RAF 1574:RAF 1543:RAF 1531:RAF 1518:RAF 1505:RAF 1492:RAF 1479:RAF 1466:RAF 1344:The 1252:and 1222:and 1083:COHO 921:and 905:and 732:NATO 577:and 340:Metz 330:and 218:AMES 215:The 173:360º 139:5 μS 81:Type 65:1954 1975:VHF 856:CSF 283:MRS 144:RPM 108:PRF 90:GCI 76:~35 71:No. 3283:: 3222:. 3186:. 3152:. 3074:^ 3029:^ 3019:. 3007:^ 2985:. 2947:^ 2932:^ 2917:^ 2895:. 2841:^ 2742:^ 2725:^ 2696:^ 2655:^ 2626:^ 2609:^ 2590:^ 2575:^ 2546:^ 2527:^ 2498:^ 2479:^ 2460:^ 2397:^ 2376:^ 2321:^ 2302:^ 2273:^ 2232:^ 2217:^ 2198:^ 2085:^ 2070:^ 1785:. 1141:. 685:. 609:. 536:. 502:23 326:, 322:, 311:. 269:. 47:UK 3254:. 3211:. 3190:. 3177:. 3144:. 3023:. 2989:. 2959:. 2316:. 2097:. 1969:/ 1321:4 1317:1 625:3 621:1 602:2 598:1 595:+ 593:1 570:2 566:1 511:2 507:1 504:+ 497:2 493:1 490:+ 488:3 281:( 147:4 131:º 128:3 124:1 87:, 23:.

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