142:
5081:
4665:
179:
145:
5076:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ccccll}_{\text{(base)}}&&_{\text{(acid)}}\\{\ce {Na2O}}&+&{\ce {SO3}}&\longrightarrow &{\ce {2Na+{}+\ SO4^{2}-}}&{\text{(species exchanged: }}{\ce {O^{2}-}}{\text{anion)}}\\{\ce {3(NH4)2S}}&+&{\ce {Sb2S5}}&\longrightarrow &{\ce {6NH4+{}+\ 2SbS4^{3}-}}&{\text{(species exchanged: }}{\ce {3S^{2}-}}{\text{ anions)}}\\{\ce {2Na}}&+&{\ce {Cl2}}&\longrightarrow &{\ce {2Na+{}+\ 2Cl-}}&{\text{(species exchanged: 2 electrons)}}\end{array}}}
149:
148:
144:
143:
150:
147:
4635:
1398:
2014:
4027:
1462:
4376:
1823:
1467:
43:
3720:
1635:
674:
4309:
3622:
4630:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ccccl}_{\text{(base)}}&&_{\text{(acid)}}\\{\ce {MgO}}&+&{\ce {CO2}}&\longrightarrow &{\ce {MgCO3}}\\{\ce {CaO}}&+&{\ce {SiO2}}&\longrightarrow &{\ce {CaSiO3}}\\{\ce {NO3-}}&+&{\ce {S2O7^2-}}\!\!&\longrightarrow &{\ce {NO2+ + 2 SO4^2-}}\end{array}}}
6358:
146:
1544:, and others. An acid and a base react not to produce a salt and a solvent, but to form a new acid and a new base. The concept of neutralization is thus absent. Brønsted–Lowry acid–base behavior is formally independent of any solvent, making it more all-encompassing than the Arrhenius model. The calculation of
4335:) have been seen to be acidic or basic on their own right. On the other hand, solvent system theory has been criticized as being too general to be useful. Also, it has been thought that there is something intrinsically acidic about hydrogen compounds, a property not shared by non-hydrogenic solvonium salts.
6526:
recommendations now suggest the newer term "hydronium" be used in favor of the older accepted term "oxonium" to illustrate reaction mechanisms such as those defined in the Brønsted–Lowry and solvent system definitions more clearly, with the
Arrhenius definition serving as a simple general outline of
4654:
developed a general theory that does not restrict acidity to hydrogen-containing compounds, but his approach, published in 1938, was even more general than Lewis theory. Usanovich's theory can be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a
5113:
in 1984. 'Hard' applies to species that are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species that are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact, and the most stable interactions are hard–hard and soft–soft. This theory
495:
It is important to think of the acid–base reaction models as theories that complement each other. For example, the current Lewis model has the broadest definition of what an acid and base are, with the Brønsted–Lowry theory being a subset of what acids and bases are, and the
Arrhenius theory being
5287:
term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid
3286:
4187:
4022:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\underset {\text{base}}{{\ce {2 NaNH2}}}}+{\underset {{\text{amphiphilic}} \atop {\text{amide}}}{{\ce {Zn(NH2)2}}}}&\longrightarrow {\ce {Na2}}\\{\underset {\text{acid}}{{\ce {2 NH4I}}}}\ +\ {\ce {Zn(NH2)2}}&\longrightarrow {\ce {I2}}\end{aligned}}}
3313:
1818:{\displaystyle {\underset {\text{acid}}{{\ce {HCl_{\,}}}}}\ +\ {\underset {\text{base}}{{\ce {H2O}}}}\quad {\ce {<=>}}\quad {\underset {{\text{conjugate }} \atop {\text{acid }}}{{\ce {H3O+}}}}\ +{\underset {{\text{conjugate}} \atop {\text{base}}}{{\ce {Cl_{\,}-}}}}}
5842:
6177:
643:. However, Davy failed to develop a new theory, concluding that "acidity does not depend upon any particular elementary substance, but upon peculiar arrangement of various substances". One notable modification of oxygen theory was provided by
4169:
871:
1393:
793:
and HCl dissolved in toluene are not acidic, and molten NaOH and solutions of calcium amide in liquid ammonia are not alkaline. This led to the development of the Brønsted–Lowry theory and subsequent Lewis theory to account for these
3062:
2495:
in 1923, in the same year as Brønsted–Lowry, but it was not elaborated by him until 1938. Instead of defining acid–base reactions in terms of protons or other bonded substances, the Lewis definition defines a base (referred to as a
663:, finishing the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids started by Davy. Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition.
1008:) in this equation was implied by Arrhenius, rather than included explicitly. It indicates that the substances are dissolved in water. Though all three substances, HCl, NaOH and NaCl are capable of existing as pure compounds, in
1050:). Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and acidic salts. The bubbles are created because, when the baking powder is combined with water, the sodium bicarbonate and acid salts react to produce gaseous
178:
6018:
5420:
5279:
1000:
484:
Their importance becomes apparent in analyzing acid–base reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat less apparent. The first of these concepts was provided by the French
4320:
is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid; this characteristic of the theory has been seen as both a strength and a weakness, because some substances (such as
1536:, produced by the transfer of a proton from the acid to the base. In this approach, acids and bases are fundamentally different in behavior from salts, which are seen as electrolytes, subject to the theories of
3318:
2378:
4304:{\displaystyle {\underset {\text{base}}{{\ce {AgNO3}}}}+{\underset {\text{acid}}{{\ce {NOCl_{\ }}}}}\longrightarrow {\underset {\text{solvent}}{{\ce {N2O4}}}}+{\underset {\text{salt}}{{\ce {AgCl_{\ }}}}}}
3617:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {N2O4}}&{\ce {\, <=> NO+ + NO3-}}\\{\ce {2 SbCl3}}&{\ce {\, <=> SbCl2+ + SbCl4-}}\\{\ce {COCl2}}&{\ce {\, <=> COCl+ + Cl-}}\end{aligned}}}
6440:
6182:
5636:
3725:
3067:
5624:
1150:
6136:
2439:
wrote in 1938, "To restrict the group of acids to those substances that contain hydrogen interferes as seriously with the systematic understanding of chemistry as would the restriction of the term
2006:
6553:
does not undergo such dissolution. However, it becomes electrically conductive when mixed with a polarized compound, which is believed to correspond with the establishment of such an equilibrium.
2221:
6857:(In this document, there is no reference to deprecation of "oxonium", which is also still accepted, as it remains in the IUPAC Gold book, but rather reveals preference for the term "Hydronium".)
5631:
2872:
2973:
1611:
4313:
Because the solvent system definition depends on the solute as well as on the solvent itself, a particular solute can be either an acid or a base depending on the choice of the solvent:
2593:
5476:
4034:
812:
6353:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {HCl}}&\longrightarrow {\ce {H_{(aq)}+ {}+ Cl_{(aq)}-}}\\{\ce {H2SO4}}&\longrightarrow {\ce {H_{(aq)}+ {}+ HSO4_{\,(aq)}-}}\end{aligned}}}
1874: – that is, it can act as both an acid and a base. The Brønsted–Lowry model explains this, showing the dissociation of water into low concentrations of hydronium and
6536:"Removal and addition of a proton from the nucleus of an atom does not occur – it would require very much more energy than is involved in the dissociation of acids."
1182:
659:
proposed that an acid is a hydrogen-containing compound whose hydrogen can be replaced by a metal. This redefinition was based on his extensive work on the chemical composition of
1057:
Whether commercially or domestically prepared, the principles behind baking powder formulations remain the same. The acid–base reaction can be generically represented as shown:
5846:
The notation signifies "concentration of X". When these two equations are combined by eliminating the hydrogen ion concentration, an expression for the equilibrium constant,
477:
frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example,
6849:
782:
are restricted to aqueous solutions and are not valid for most non-aqueous solutions, and refer to the concentration of the solvent ions. Under this definition, pure
5853:
1513:
An acid–base reaction is, thus, the removal of a hydrogen ion from the acid and its addition to the base. The removal of a hydrogen ion from an acid produces its
5305:
5198:
5195:
parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is
894:
7035:
1452:
478:
371:
312:
6985:
John Brodie, John Godber "Bakery
Processes, Chemical Leavening Agents" in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 2001, John Wiley & Sons.
7584:
3630:. A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvate ions and a decrease in the concentration of the solvonium ions is defined as a
432:
7409:
7380:
7118:
7002:
Brönsted, J.N. (1923). "Einige
Bemerkungen über den Begriff der Säuren und Basen" [Some observations about the concept of acids and bases].
1528:
Unlike the previous definitions, the Brønsted–Lowry definition does not refer to the formation of salt and solvent, but instead to the formation of
3281:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {2 H2O}}&{\ce {\, <=> H3O+ + OH-}}\\{\ce {2 NH3}}&{\ce {\, <=> NH4+ + NH2-}}\end{aligned}}}
2251:
60:
7218:
5482:. A solution of a weak acid is also a buffer solution. When a weak acid reacts with a weak base an equilibrium mixture is produced. For example,
3626:
A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the concentration of solvate ions is defined as an
2708:
Adducts involving metal ions are referred to as co-ordination compounds; each ligand donates a pair of electrons to the metal ion. The reaction
5628:
The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be derived from the acid dissociation constants of adenine and of the dihydrogen phosphate ion.
5505:
1062:
7362:
7200:
7166:
6908:
750:, because it is now known that a bare proton does not exist as a free species in aqueous solution. This is the species which is measured by
7030:
1881:
2062:
107:
79:
2711:
517:" into chemistry to mean a substance which reacts with an acid to give it solid form (as a salt). Bases are mostly bitter in nature.
6960:
6816:
6786:
6766:
126:
7599:
2880:
1562:
86:
6369:
2987:
studied the acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia in 1905 and pointed out the similarities to the water-based
Arrhenius theory.
2535:
2491:
The hydrogen requirement of
Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry was removed by the Lewis definition of acid–base reactions, devised by
2988:
5427:
4670:
2225:
In this example, a water molecule is split into a hydrogen ion, which is donated to a pyridine molecule, and a hydroxide ion.
7619:
7480:
1154:
The real reactions are more complicated because the acids are complicated. For example, starting with sodium bicarbonate and
64:
6054:
93:
6576:, p. 166 – Table of discoveries attributes Antoine Lavoisier as the first to posit a scientific theory in relation to
7317:
6676:
1487:
1474:
510:
425:
4381:
7445:
3007:, formulated the solvent-based theory in 1925, thereby generalizing the Arrhenius definition to cover aprotic solvents.
75:
7614:
7067:, pp. 167–169 – According to this page, the original definition was that "acids have a tendency to lose a proton"
3031:: a generic name for negative ions. These are also sometimes called solve-bases; when deprotonated solvent, they are
1420:
as one of the two acidic components instead of sodium aluminium sulfate. Another typical acid in such formulations is
611: 'engender'). The Lavoisier definition held for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by
6472:
4171:
The unique strength of this definition shows in describing the reactions in aprotic solvents; for example, in liquid
7609:
7407:
Parr, Robert G.; Pearson, Ralph G. (1983). "Absolute hardness: companion parameter to absolute electronegativity".
7250:
6824:
6815:
Murray, Kermit K.; Boyd, Robert K.; Eberlin, Marcos N.; Langley, G. John; Li, Liang; Naito, Yasuhide (June 2013) .
6487:
6042:
6028:
5478:
does not involve them. With weak bases addition of acid is not quantitative because a solution of a weak base is a
5297:
802:
203:
53:
7278:
6482:
1417:
688:
248:
6590:
Paik, Seoung-Hey (2015). "Understanding the
Relationship Among Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis Theories".
1413:
876:
696:
418:
268:
253:
6452:
3010:
Germann pointed out that in many solutions, there are ions in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules:
470:
273:
7091:, p. 166 – Table of discoveries attributes the date of publication/release for the Lewis theory as 1924.
5837:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left\!\left&=K_{a1}{\bigl }\\\left\!\left&=K_{a2}\left\end{aligned}}}
644:
7454:
6467:
2984:
7315:
Drago, Russel S.; Whitten, Kenneth W. (1966). "The
Synthesis of Oxyhalides Utilizing Fused-Salt Media".
6503:
2486:
1409:
1401:
1155:
401:
376:
317:
283:
243:
233:
100:
4343:
This acid–base theory was a revival of the oxygen theory of acids and bases proposed by German chemist
2874:
can be seen as an acid–base reaction in which a stronger base (ammonia) replaces a weaker one (water).
5302:
The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example,
2228:
In the Brønsted–Lowry model, the solvent does not necessarily have to be water, as is required by the
7506:
6685:
6637:
6599:
3303:
3291:
2655:
278:
7459:
7248:(1939). ""Säuren" und "Basen" im Schmelzfluss: die Bestimmung. der Sauerstoffionen-Konzentration".
6033:
An acid–alkali reaction is a special case of an acid–base reaction, where the base used is also an
4164:{\displaystyle {\underset {\text{base}}{{\ce {HNO3}}}}+{\ce {2 H2SO4 -> NO2+ + H3O+ + 2 HSO4-}}}
866:{\displaystyle {\text{acid}}\ +\ {\text{base}}\ \longrightarrow \ {\text{salt}}\ +\ {\text{water}}}
6924:
5424:
In this reaction both the sodium and chloride ions are spectators as the neutralization reaction,
5136:
is a quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions,
1519:, which is the acid with a hydrogen ion removed. The reception of a proton by a base produces its
7472:
6990:
6841:
6149:
4640:
1507:
1040:
628:
2693:, can act as a Lewis base. The Lewis definition is not limited to these examples. For instance,
1388:{\displaystyle {\ce {14 NaHCO3 + 5 Ca(H2PO4)2 -> 14 CO2 + Ca5(PO4)3OH + 7 Na2HPO4 + 13 H2O}}}
1397:
7358:
7297:
7196:
7162:
6956:
6950:
6904:
6782:
6762:
6625:
4651:
2514:
1625:
880:
656:
576:
572:
489:
454:
288:
163:
155:
3717:
The non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are similar to the reactions in water:
7514:
7464:
7418:
7389:
7344:
7326:
7287:
7227:
7182:
7148:
7127:
7044:
7011:
6986:
6874:
6833:
6693:
6645:
6607:
6038:
5133:
4362:
2492:
2436:
1629:
1549:
1009:
1005:
884:
806:
795:
692:
684:
677:
616:
580:
514:
462:
391:
361:
223:
213:
3306:
into dichloroantimonium and tetrachloroantimonate, and phosgene into chlorocarboxonium and
2877:
The Lewis and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are consistent with each other since the reaction
2013:
1559:
The general formula for acid–base reactions according to the Brønsted–Lowry definition is:
875:
In this traditional representation an acid–base neutralization reaction is formulated as a
6477:
5479:
2694:
2629:
2440:
1421:
888:
640:
584:
568:
564:
263:
228:
188:
7578:
7510:
6689:
6641:
6603:
2402:
ion to an ammonia molecule of the solvent creates its conjugate acid, the ammonium ion,
1031:
is used to cause the dough for breads and cakes to "rise" by creating millions of tiny
7604:
7354:
7269:
7231:
7192:
7158:
6736:, p. 166 – table of discoveries attributes Justus von Liebig's publication as 1838
4348:
3680:
2983:
One of the limitations of the
Arrhenius definition is its reliance on water solutions.
2245:
1521:
1515:
1461:
1051:
1032:
594:
6037:. When an acid reacts with an alkali salt (a metal hydroxide), the product is a metal
3017:: a generic name for positive ions. These are also sometimes called solvo-acids; when
2658:, shown symbolically as ←, between the atoms A (acceptor) and D (donor). Compounds of
2524:
is a typical Lewis acid. It can accept a pair of electrons as it has a vacancy in its
7593:
6457:
6142:
5102:
2502:
1499:
1440:
1174:
1028:
560:
208:
7476:
7292:
7273:
6845:
2421:) acids. Thus, some substances, which many chemists considered to be acids, such as
1466:
7437:
6462:
4358:
3056:
1541:
1491:
1478:
751:
660:
612:
381:
332:
327:
322:
238:
647:, who stated that acids are oxides of nonmetals while bases are oxides of metals.
7348:
7186:
7152:
718:); that is, an acid increases the concentration of H ions in an aqueous solution.
683:
The first modern definition of acids and bases in molecular terms was devised by
30:"Acid–base" redirects here. For chemicals that can behave as acids or bases, see
7245:
6492:
5110:
5106:
5096:
4366:
4344:
3295:
3028:
3022:
2697:
acts as a Lewis base when it forms an adduct with boron trifluoride, of formula
2596:
2233:
1871:
1537:
1495:
1036:
723:
567:
surrounded by oxygen, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the
545:
530:
386:
337:
218:
42:
31:
17:
1408:
A typical formulation (by weight) could call for 30% sodium bicarbonate, 5–12%
7116:
Germann, Albert F.O. (6 October 1925). "A General Theory of
Solvent Systems".
6868:
6013:{\displaystyle \left\!\left=K{\bigl }\!\left;\quad K={\frac {K_{a1}}{K_{a2}}}}
3018:
2525:
779:
711:
352:
7015:
6837:
7048:
6878:
6817:"Standard definition of terms relating to mass spectrometry recommendations"
5487:
5129:
5123:
3048:
3044:
3032:
3014:
2682:
1875:
1856:
727:
526:
446:
406:
396:
347:
342:
293:
7301:
6873:(2.3.3 ed.). International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2014.
5151:
parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an
1548:
under the Arrhenius model depended on alkalis (bases) dissolving in water (
5415:{\displaystyle {\ce {HCl_{(aq)}{}+ Na(OH)_{(aq)}-> H2O + NaCl_{(aq)}}}}
2043:
As an example of water acting as an acid, consider an aqueous solution of
593:, which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former" (from
7536:
Clayden, Jonathan; Greeves, Nick; Warren, Stuart; Wothers, Peter (2015).
5274:{\displaystyle -\Delta H=E_{\rm {A}}E_{\rm {B}}+C_{\rm {A}}C_{\rm {B}}+W}
3699:
3307:
3052:
2992:
2659:
2607:
2529:
2458:
are not considered Brønsted bases, but rather salts containing the bases
2044:
1836:
995:{\displaystyle {\ce {HCl_{(aq)}{}+ NaOH_{(aq)}-> NaCl_{(aq)}{}+ H2O}}}
7422:
7393:
7330:
7131:
7468:
6649:
6577:
5483:
3691:
3299:
3040:
2387:
775:
673:
534:
486:
159:
7518:
7216:
Franz, H. (1966). "Solubility of Water Vapor in Alkali Borate Melts".
6697:
6611:
4639:
This theory is also useful in the systematisation of the reactions of
6363:
The alkali breaks apart in water, yielding dissolved hydroxide ions:
6034:
2640:
2444:
589:
474:
2417:
The Brønsted–Lowry model calls hydrogen-containing substances (like
1502:
of acids – that is, the ability of acids to "donate" hydrogen ions (
1486:
The Brønsted–Lowry definition, formulated in 1923, independently by
1556:
tested using insoluble and soluble solutions (gas, liquid, solid).
509:
The concept of an acid–base reaction was first proposed in 1754 by
6523:
6497:
4656:
2670:
2618:
687:. A hydrogen theory of acids, it followed from his 1884 work with
140:
2435:, are excluded from this classification due to lack of hydrogen.
2386:
ion is removed from acetic acid, forming its conjugate base, the
7585:
John W. Kimball's online biology book section of acid and bases.
6156:) or cause them to be produced in solutions. Hydrochloric acid (
4659:(oxidation-reduction) as a special case of acid–base reactions.
525:
The first scientific concept of acids and bases was provided by
458:
302:
193:
2595:
is a typical Lewis acid, Lewis base reaction. All compounds of
2028:, and a second molecule of water acts as a base, accepting the
6903:. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 602.
6870:
IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (interactive version)
6171:) are common examples. In water, these break apart into ions:
2532:
ion has a full octet and can donate a pair of electrons. Thus
2373:{\displaystyle {\ce {CH3COOH + NH3 <=> NH4+ + CH3COO-}}}
1404:("MCP") is a common acid component in domestic baking powders.
36:
3290:
Some aprotic systems also undergo such dissociation, such as
2669:
may also act as Lewis bases; in this way, a compound like an
6674:
Hall, Norris F. (March 1940). "Systems of Acids and Bases".
6435:{\displaystyle {\ce {NaOH -> Na^+_{(aq)}{}+ OH_{(aq)}-}}}
4643:, especially the xenon oxides, fluorides, and oxofluorides.
2012:
1624:
For example, a Brønsted–Lowry model for the dissociation of
762:
is a substance that dissociates in water to form hydroxide (
7378:
Pearson, Ralph G. (1963). "Hard and Soft Acids and Bases".
7076:
1553:
1545:
466:
258:
5619:{\displaystyle {\ce {AH + HPO4^2- <=> A- + H2PO4-}}}
5086:
Rationalizing the strength of Lewis acid–base interactions
4373:) acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. For example:
6278:
6265:
6121:
5893:
5807:
5597:
5461:
5408:
5381:
5365:
5328:
5013:
4889:
4876:
4851:
4838:
4734:
4709:
4550:
4507:
4485:
4454:
4432:
4292:
4267:
4254:
4229:
4204:
4125:
4091:
4078:
4051:
4011:
3994:
3981:
3947:
3934:
3894:
3865:
3852:
3827:
3791:
3778:
3745:
3538:
3441:
3345:
3332:
3192:
3146:
3085:
2958:
2857:
2827:
2814:
2785:
2755:
2739:
2550:
2356:
2285:
2266:
2183:
2170:
2109:
2090:
2077:
2020:
Here, one molecule of water acts as an acid, donating an
1971:
1915:
1896:
1750:
1681:
1650:
1378:
1358:
1345:
1322:
1309:
1291:
1275:
1255:
1242:
1229:
1201:
1173:), the reaction produces carbon dioxide by the following
1145:{\displaystyle {\ce {NaHCO3 + H+ -> Na+ + CO2 + H2O}}}
1135:
1119:
1077:
985:
967:
943:
917:
4662:
Some examples of Usanovich acid–base reactions include:
2510:) to be a compound that can receive this electron pair.
6131:{\displaystyle {\ce {OH_{(aq)}- + H+_{(aq)}-> H2O}}}
6048:
In general, acid–alkali reactions can be simplified to
766:) ions; that is, a base increases the concentration of
5555:
3567:
3470:
3374:
3221:
3117:
2929:
2309:
2136:
2001:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O + H2O <=> H3O+ + OH-}}}
1942:
1716:
6372:
6180:
6057:
5856:
5634:
5508:
5430:
5308:
5201:
4668:
4379:
4369:. This definition describes an acid as an oxide ion (
4190:
4037:
3723:
3316:
3065:
2883:
2714:
2538:
2254:
2216:{\displaystyle {\ce {C5H5N + H2O <=> + + OH-}}}
2065:
1884:
1638:
1613:
where HA represents the acid, B represents the base,
1565:
1416:. Alternately, a commercial baking powder might use
1185:
1065:
897:
815:
7497:Vogel G. C.; Drago, R. S. (1996). "The ECW Model".
4031:Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:
2606:can behave as Lewis acids. Similarly, compounds of
1552:). The Brønsted–Lowry model expanded what could be
754:to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution.
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
6434:
6352:
6148:Acids are in general pure substances that contain
6130:
6012:
5836:
5618:
5470:
5414:
5273:
5114:has found use in organic and inorganic chemistry.
5075:
4629:
4303:
4163:
4021:
3616:
3280:
2967:
2866:
2587:
2372:
2215:
2010:This equation is demonstrated in the image below:
2000:
1843:, the conjugate base of the acid. The addition of
1817:
1605:
1510: – to bases, which "accept" them.
1387:
1144:
1035:bubbles. Baking powder is not to be confused with
994:
865:
7438:"Chemical hardness and density functional theory"
5941:
5877:
5751:
5659:
5563:
5562:
5545:
5544:
5169:. Each base is likewise characterized by its own
4655:base as the reverse. This defined the concept of
4573:
4572:
3575:
3574:
3557:
3556:
3478:
3477:
3460:
3459:
3382:
3381:
3364:
3363:
3229:
3228:
3211:
3210:
3125:
3124:
3107:
3106:
2937:
2936:
2919:
2918:
2867:{\displaystyle {\ce {+ + 2 NH3 -> + + 4 H2O}}}
2317:
2316:
2299:
2298:
2144:
2143:
2126:
2125:
1950:
1949:
1932:
1931:
1724:
1723:
1706:
1705:
1012:they are fully dissociated into the aquated ions
587:), he defined acids in terms of their containing
801:The reaction of an acid with a base is called a
7060:
7058:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6745:
1525:, which is the base with a hydrogen ion added.
563:), which tend to contain central atoms in high
529:in around 1776. Since Lavoisier's knowledge of
2968:{\displaystyle {\ce {H+ + OH- <=> H2O}}}
805:reaction. The products of this reaction are a
5936:
5924:
5714:
5702:
1606:{\displaystyle {\ce {HA + B -> BH+ + A-}}}
426:
8:
7103:
7088:
7064:
6991:10.1002/0471238961.0308051303082114.a01.pub2
6802:
6733:
6710:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6659:
6573:
5105:proposed a qualitative concept known as the
891:(NaCl) and some additional water molecules.
27:Chemical reaction between an acid and a base
7274:"The Acidic and Basic Properties of Oxides"
7036:Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry
5486:, written as AH, can react with a hydrogen
2975:is an acid–base reaction in both theories.
2588:{\displaystyle {\ce {BF3 + F- -> BF4-}}}
7540:(First ed.). Oxford University Press.
7099:
7097:
7004:Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas
6041:and water. Acid–alkali reactions are also
2232:. For example, consider what happens when
433:
419:
168:
7458:
7291:
6777:Whitten K.W., Galley K.D. and Davis R.E.
6628:(2006). "The origin of the term "base"".
6425:
6413:
6412:
6403:
6397:
6385:
6384:
6373:
6371:
6339:
6327:
6326:
6322:
6313:
6307:
6295:
6294:
6289:
6277:
6272:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6243:
6231:
6230:
6221:
6215:
6203:
6202:
6197:
6185:
6181:
6179:
6120:
6115:
6102:
6090:
6089:
6076:
6064:
6063:
6058:
6056:
5999:
5986:
5980:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5935:
5934:
5929:
5923:
5922:
5905:
5900:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5866:
5861:
5855:
5819:
5814:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5783:
5761:
5756:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5713:
5712:
5707:
5701:
5700:
5691:
5669:
5664:
5648:
5643:
5635:
5633:
5609:
5604:
5596:
5591:
5578:
5564:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5546:
5539:
5537:
5536:
5534:
5525:
5520:
5509:
5507:
5471:{\displaystyle {\ce {H + OH- -> H2O}}}
5460:
5455:
5442:
5431:
5429:
5407:
5395:
5394:
5380:
5375:
5364:
5352:
5351:
5340:
5331:
5327:
5315:
5314:
5309:
5307:
5258:
5257:
5246:
5245:
5231:
5230:
5219:
5218:
5200:
5064:
5055:
5050:
5039:
5033:
5028:
5024:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4990:
4986:
4977:
4967:
4962:
4958:
4953:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4920:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4900:
4888:
4883:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4850:
4845:
4837:
4832:
4824:
4822:
4818:
4809:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4777:
4772:
4760:
4754:
4749:
4745:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4688:
4676:
4669:
4667:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4562:
4557:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4462:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4409:
4399:
4387:
4380:
4378:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4279:
4266:
4261:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4241:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4216:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4191:
4189:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4132:
4124:
4119:
4106:
4101:
4090:
4085:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4010:
4005:
3993:
3988:
3980:
3975:
3967:
3959:
3958:
3946:
3941:
3933:
3928:
3920:
3915:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3877:
3864:
3859:
3851:
3846:
3838:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3785:
3777:
3772:
3764:
3759:
3757:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3722:
3603:
3590:
3576:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3558:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3516:
3511:
3498:
3493:
3479:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3461:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3426:
3415:
3410:
3397:
3383:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3365:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3344:
3339:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3315:
3267:
3262:
3249:
3244:
3230:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3212:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3166:
3153:
3145:
3140:
3126:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3108:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3064:
2957:
2952:
2938:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2920:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2902:
2889:
2884:
2882:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2834:
2826:
2821:
2813:
2808:
2800:
2792:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2762:
2754:
2749:
2738:
2733:
2725:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2578:
2573:
2560:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2537:
2363:
2355:
2350:
2337:
2332:
2318:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2300:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2229:
2206:
2193:
2182:
2177:
2169:
2164:
2156:
2145:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2127:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2108:
2103:
2089:
2084:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2064:
1991:
1978:
1970:
1965:
1951:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1914:
1909:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1807:
1802:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1770:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1737:
1725:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1707:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1596:
1583:
1566:
1564:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1357:
1352:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1321:
1316:
1308:
1303:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1254:
1249:
1241:
1236:
1228:
1223:
1215:
1210:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1134:
1129:
1118:
1113:
1100:
1087:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1064:
984:
979:
970:
966:
954:
953:
942:
930:
929:
920:
916:
904:
903:
898:
896:
858:
844:
830:
816:
814:
738:) ion. Thus, in modern times, the symbol
615:in which he proved the lack of oxygen in
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
7547:A New View of Current Acid–Base Theories
7410:Journal of the American Chemical Society
7381:Journal of the American Chemical Society
7119:Journal of the American Chemical Society
6167:
6163:
4331:
4324:
4316:
4178:
4174:
3686:
3663:
3659:
3640:
2700:
2688:
2676:
2665:
2650:
2646:
2635:
2624:
2613:
2602:
2520:
2461:
2454:
2431:
2424:
2393:
2239:
2054:
2050:
2035:
1862:
1850:
1617:represents the conjugate acid of B, and
1435:
1431:
1427:
1396:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1046:
887:(NaOH) solutions produces a solution of
789:
785:
745:
733:
691:in establishing the presence of ions in
672:
650:
634:
622:
555:
551:
540:
7219:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
7143:
7141:
6566:
6515:
5538:
5109:. later made quantitative with help of
5107:Hard and Soft Acids and Bases principle
3550:
3453:
3357:
3204:
3100:
2912:
2292:
2119:
1925:
1699:
1506:) – otherwise known as
360:
301:
171:
7545:Finston, H.L.; Rychtman, A.C. (1983).
6721:
2500:) to be a compound that can donate an
1494:in England, is based upon the idea of
1456:
520:
6981:
6979:
6955:(6 ed.). Springer. p. 102.
6761:(2nd ed., Prentice-Hall 1999) p. 154
1621:represents the conjugate base of HA.
7:
7486:from the original on 9 October 2022.
6855:from the original on 9 October 2022.
2032:ion and forming the conjugate acid,
65:adding citations to reliable sources
7563:Miessler, G.L.; Tarr, D.A. (1991).
695:and led to Arrhenius receiving the
7549:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
7232:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1966.tb13302.x
5259:
5247:
5232:
5220:
5205:
3795:
1867:, the conjugate acid of the base.
1801:
1764:
742:is interpreted as a shorthand for
521:Lavoisier's oxygen theory of acids
154:Video of reaction between gaseous
25:
6630:The Journal of Chemical Education
726:of water, or the creation of the
651:Liebig's hydrogen theory of acids
6781:(4th ed., Saunders 1992) p. 356
5066:(species exchanged: 2 electrons)
2024:and forming the conjugate base,
1465:
1460:
714:in water to form hydrogen ions (
604: 'acid, sharp' and
177:
41:
7293:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.01-0592
5973:
3043:undergo such dissociation into
1736:
1693:
1453:Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
879:. For example, the reaction of
479:Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
52:needs additional citations for
6420:
6414:
6392:
6386:
6377:
6334:
6328:
6302:
6296:
6286:
6238:
6232:
6210:
6204:
6194:
6108:
6097:
6091:
6071:
6065:
5565:
5540:
5448:
5402:
5396:
5368:
5359:
5353:
5347:
5341:
5322:
5316:
5019:
4895:
4841:
4825:
4740:
4576:
4491:
4438:
4238:
4094:
3997:
3984:
3968:
3960:
3955:
3937:
3921:
3868:
3855:
3839:
3831:
3813:
3781:
3765:
3679:) is a strong acid. In liquid
3577:
3552:
3480:
3455:
3384:
3359:
3231:
3206:
3127:
3102:
2939:
2914:
2830:
2817:
2801:
2793:
2788:
2758:
2745:
2726:
2718:
2643:between them have the formula
2566:
2319:
2294:
2189:
2157:
2146:
2121:
1952:
1927:
1726:
1701:
1576:
1312:
1296:
1258:
1245:
1216:
1093:
961:
955:
946:
937:
931:
911:
905:
838:
465:. It can be used to determine
1:
7499:Journal of Chemical Education
6952:The Technology of Cake Making
6925:"Theories of acids and bases"
6677:Journal of Chemical Education
6592:Journal of Chemical Education
4351:
4347:in 1939, further improved by
2639:, can behave as Lewis bases.
1855:(acting as a base) forms the
774:The Arrhenius definitions of
7446:Journal of Chemical Sciences
7031:"The uniqueness of hydrogen"
6757:Miessler G.L. and Tarr D.A.
4357:and is still used in modern
770:ions in an aqueous solution.
6746:Finston & Rychtman 1983
877:double-replacement reaction
513:, who introduced the word "
7636:
7436:Pearson, Ralph G. (2005).
6825:Pure and Applied Chemistry
6488:Neutralization (chemistry)
6029:Neutralization (chemistry)
6026:
5298:Acid dissociation constant
5295:
5121:
5094:
2484:
1488:Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted
1475:Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted
1450:
511:Guillaume-François Rouelle
29:
7350:Chemistry of the Elements
7347:; Earnshaw, Alan (1984).
7279:Acta Chemica Scandinavica
7188:Chemistry of the Elements
7185:; Earnshaw, Alan (1984).
7154:Chemistry of the Elements
7151:; Earnshaw, Alan (1984).
6483:Nucleophilic substitution
4955:(species exchanged:
4791:(species exchanged:
3637:Thus, in liquid ammonia,
2979:Solvent system definition
2443:to substances containing
2230:Arrhenius Acid–Base model
1473:
1459:
1447:Brønsted–Lowry definition
1418:sodium acid pyrophosphate
702:As defined by Arrhenius:
689:Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald
533:was mainly restricted to
7104:Miessler & Tarr 1991
7089:Miessler & Tarr 1991
7065:Miessler & Tarr 1991
7016:10.1002/recl.19230420815
6838:10.1351/PAC-REC-06-04-06
6803:Miessler & Tarr 1991
6734:Miessler & Tarr 1991
6711:Miessler & Tarr 1991
6574:Miessler & Tarr 1991
3656:) is a strong base, and
2610:elements with a formula
2599:elements with a formula
1632:would be the following:
1414:sodium aluminium sulfate
697:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
269:Self-ionization of water
254:Hammett acidity function
7556:The Basics of Chemistry
7049:10.1002/jctb.5000420302
6949:A.J. Bent, ed. (1997).
6879:10.1351/goldbook.O04379
3698:) behave as acids, and
3039:For example, water and
457:that occurs between an
7272:; Forland, T. (1947).
6899:LeMay, Eugene (2002).
6473:Gutmann–Beckett method
6468:Electron configuration
6436:
6354:
6132:
6014:
5838:
5620:
5472:
5416:
5275:
5077:
4631:
4305:
4165:
4023:
3618:
3282:
2991:, working with liquid
2985:Edward Curtis Franklin
2969:
2868:
2589:
2374:
2217:
2017:
2002:
1819:
1607:
1405:
1389:
1146:
1024:Example: Baking powder
996:
867:
680:
496:the most restrictive.
166:
162:(base), forming white
7620:Equilibrium chemistry
6504:Resonance (chemistry)
6437:
6355:
6160:) and sulfuric acid (
6133:
6015:
5839:
5621:
5473:
5417:
5292:Acid–base equilibrium
5276:
5143:. The model assigned
5078:
4632:
4306:
4166:
4024:
3694:compounds (supplying
3619:
3283:
2970:
2869:
2590:
2487:Lewis acids and bases
2485:Further information:
2398:. The addition of an
2375:
2218:
2016:
2003:
1820:
1608:
1498:of bases through the
1410:monocalcium phosphate
1402:Monocalcium phosphate
1400:
1390:
1156:monocalcium phosphate
1147:
997:
868:
676:
500:Acid–base definitions
284:Frustrated Lewis pair
244:Equilibrium chemistry
234:Dissociation constant
204:Acid–base homeostasis
153:
7579:Acid–base Physiology
7345:Greenwood, Norman N.
7183:Greenwood, Norman N.
7149:Greenwood, Norman N.
7029:Lowry, T.M. (1923).
6527:acid–base character.
6370:
6178:
6055:
6023:Acid–alkali reaction
5854:
5632:
5506:
5428:
5306:
5199:
4666:
4647:Usanovich definition
4377:
4339:Lux–Flood definition
4188:
4035:
3721:
3314:
3304:antimony trichloride
3292:dinitrogen tetroxide
3063:
2881:
2712:
2656:dative covalent bond
2536:
2252:
2063:
1882:
1636:
1563:
1183:
1063:
895:
813:
710:is a substance that
667:Arrhenius definition
645:Jöns Jacob Berzelius
505:Historic development
279:Lewis acid catalysis
76:"Acid–base reaction"
61:improve this article
7600:Acid–base chemistry
7565:Inorganic Chemistry
7554:Meyers, R. (2003).
7511:1996JChEd..73..701V
7423:10.1021/ja00364a005
7394:10.1021/ja00905a001
7331:10.1021/ic50038a038
7318:Inorganic Chemistry
7132:10.1021/ja01687a006
7077:Clayden et al. 2015
6929:www.chemguide.co.uk
6759:Inorganic Chemistry
6690:1940JChEd..17..124H
6642:2006JChEd..83.1130J
6604:2015JChEd..92.1484P
6453:Acid–base titration
6430:
6402:
6344:
6312:
6280:
6267:
6248:
6220:
6123:
6107:
6081:
5964:
5910:
5895:
5824:
5809:
5745:
5614:
5599:
5551:
5533:
5463:
5410:
5383:
5367:
5330:
5015:
4949:
4919:
4891:
4878:
4853:
4840:
4785:
4736:
4711:
4641:noble gas compounds
4621:
4596:
4570:
4552:
4530:
4509:
4487:
4456:
4434:
4294:
4269:
4256:
4231:
4206:
4159:
4127:
4111:
4093:
4080:
4053:
4013:
3996:
3983:
3949:
3936:
3896:
3867:
3854:
3829:
3793:
3780:
3747:
3714:) behave as bases.
3563:
3540:
3521:
3503:
3466:
3443:
3420:
3370:
3347:
3334:
3272:
3254:
3217:
3194:
3148:
3113:
3087:
2989:Albert F.O. Germann
2960:
2925:
2859:
2829:
2816:
2787:
2757:
2741:
2583:
2552:
2358:
2342:
2305:
2287:
2268:
2185:
2172:
2132:
2111:
2092:
2079:
1973:
1938:
1917:
1898:
1799:
1752:
1712:
1683:
1652:
1479:Thomas Martin Lowry
1439:), a derivative of
1380:
1360:
1347:
1324:
1311:
1293:
1277:
1257:
1244:
1231:
1203:
1137:
1121:
1079:
987:
969:
945:
919:
7615:Chemical reactions
7558:. Greenwood Press.
7469:10.1007/BF02708340
7106:, pp. 170–172
7079:, pp. 182–184
6867:"oxonium ylides".
6748:, pp. 140–146
6650:10.1021/ed083p1130
6626:Jensen, William B.
6432:
6408:
6380:
6350:
6348:
6318:
6290:
6268:
6255:
6226:
6198:
6128:
6111:
6085:
6059:
6010:
5947:
5896:
5883:
5834:
5832:
5810:
5797:
5728:
5616:
5600:
5587:
5570:
5516:
5468:
5451:
5412:
5390:
5371:
5339:
5310:
5271:
5073:
5071:
5003:
4932:
4905:
4879:
4866:
4828:
4823:
4768:
4724:
4699:
4627:
4625:
4604:
4582:
4553:
4540:
4516:
4497:
4475:
4444:
4422:
4301:
4299:
4282:
4274:
4257:
4244:
4236:
4219:
4211:
4194:
4161:
4145:
4115:
4097:
4081:
4068:
4058:
4041:
4019:
4017:
4001:
3971:
3966:
3924:
3919:
3904:
3884:
3842:
3837:
3817:
3807:
3768:
3763:
3752:
3735:
3614:
3612:
3582:
3528:
3507:
3489:
3485:
3431:
3406:
3389:
3335:
3322:
3278:
3276:
3258:
3240:
3236:
3182:
3136:
3132:
3075:
3021:solvent, they are
2965:
2948:
2944:
2864:
2847:
2804:
2799:
2775:
2729:
2724:
2585:
2569:
2540:
2370:
2346:
2328:
2324:
2275:
2256:
2213:
2173:
2160:
2151:
2099:
2080:
2067:
2018:
1998:
1961:
1957:
1905:
1886:
1815:
1813:
1787:
1776:
1740:
1731:
1691:
1671:
1657:
1642:
1603:
1406:
1385:
1368:
1348:
1335:
1299:
1294:
1281:
1265:
1232:
1219:
1214:
1191:
1142:
1125:
1109:
1067:
1041:sodium bicarbonate
992:
975:
949:
925:
899:
863:
681:
629:hydrogen telluride
451:acid–base reaction
199:Acid–base reaction
167:
7610:Bases (chemistry)
7581:– an on-line text
7538:Organic Chemistry
7519:10.1021/ed073p701
7417:(26): 7512–7516.
7388:(22): 3533–3539.
7364:978-0-08-022057-4
7202:978-0-08-022057-4
7168:978-0-08-022057-4
7126:(10): 2461–2468.
6910:978-0-13-054383-7
6779:General Chemistry
6698:10.1021/ed017p124
6612:10.1021/ed500891w
6419:
6411:
6391:
6383:
6376:
6333:
6321:
6301:
6293:
6271:
6258:
6237:
6229:
6209:
6201:
6188:
6126:
6114:
6096:
6088:
6070:
6062:
6008:
5950:
5932:
5899:
5886:
5865:
5813:
5800:
5760:
5731:
5710:
5668:
5647:
5603:
5590:
5577:
5572:
5519:
5512:
5466:
5454:
5441:
5434:
5401:
5393:
5386:
5374:
5358:
5346:
5338:
5321:
5313:
5067:
5054:
5046:
5032:
5006:
4993:
4980:
4966:
4956:
4935:
4927:
4908:
4882:
4869:
4856:
4831:
4812:
4798:
4792:
4771:
4767:
4753:
4727:
4714:
4702:
4691:
4679:
4652:Mikhail Usanovich
4607:
4585:
4556:
4543:
4519:
4500:
4478:
4465:
4447:
4425:
4412:
4402:
4390:
4298:
4289:
4285:
4280:
4273:
4260:
4247:
4242:
4235:
4226:
4222:
4217:
4210:
4197:
4192:
4148:
4131:
4118:
4100:
4084:
4071:
4057:
4044:
4039:
4004:
3974:
3965:
3927:
3918:
3914:
3908:
3903:
3899:
3887:
3878:
3845:
3836:
3820:
3806:
3804:
3799:
3771:
3762:
3758:
3751:
3738:
3729:
3602:
3589:
3584:
3531:
3510:
3492:
3487:
3434:
3409:
3396:
3391:
3338:
3325:
3261:
3243:
3238:
3185:
3165:
3152:
3139:
3134:
3090:
3078:
2963:
2951:
2946:
2901:
2888:
2862:
2850:
2807:
2798:
2778:
2744:
2732:
2723:
2572:
2559:
2543:
2515:boron trifluoride
2506:, and an acid (a
2362:
2349:
2331:
2326:
2278:
2271:
2259:
2205:
2188:
2176:
2163:
2153:
2114:
2102:
2095:
2083:
2070:
1990:
1977:
1964:
1959:
1920:
1908:
1901:
1889:
1812:
1810:
1805:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1756:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1690:
1686:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1661:
1656:
1645:
1640:
1626:hydrochloric acid
1595:
1582:
1575:
1569:
1484:
1483:
1383:
1371:
1351:
1338:
1327:
1302:
1284:
1268:
1235:
1222:
1213:
1194:
1140:
1128:
1112:
1099:
1086:
1070:
1010:aqueous solutions
990:
978:
960:
952:
936:
928:
910:
902:
881:hydrochloric acid
861:
857:
851:
847:
843:
837:
833:
829:
823:
819:
657:Justus von Liebig
490:Antoine Lavoisier
455:chemical reaction
443:
442:
289:Chiral Lewis acid
164:ammonium chloride
156:hydrochloric acid
151:
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
7627:
7568:
7559:
7550:
7541:
7523:
7522:
7494:
7488:
7487:
7485:
7462:
7442:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7404:
7398:
7397:
7375:
7369:
7368:
7357:. p. 1056.
7341:
7335:
7334:
7312:
7306:
7305:
7295:
7266:
7260:
7259:
7242:
7236:
7235:
7213:
7207:
7206:
7179:
7173:
7172:
7145:
7136:
7135:
7113:
7107:
7101:
7092:
7086:
7080:
7074:
7068:
7062:
7053:
7052:
7026:
7020:
7019:
6999:
6993:
6983:
6974:
6973:
6971:
6969:
6946:
6940:
6939:
6937:
6935:
6921:
6915:
6914:
6896:
6890:
6889:
6887:
6885:
6864:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6832:(7): 1515–1609.
6821:
6812:
6806:
6800:
6789:
6775:
6769:
6755:
6749:
6743:
6737:
6731:
6725:
6719:
6713:
6708:
6702:
6701:
6671:
6654:
6653:
6622:
6616:
6615:
6598:(9): 1484–1489.
6587:
6581:
6571:
6554:
6543:
6537:
6534:
6528:
6520:
6441:
6439:
6438:
6433:
6431:
6429:
6424:
6423:
6417:
6409:
6404:
6401:
6396:
6395:
6389:
6381:
6374:
6359:
6357:
6356:
6351:
6349:
6345:
6343:
6338:
6337:
6331:
6319:
6314:
6311:
6306:
6305:
6299:
6291:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6269:
6266:
6263:
6256:
6249:
6247:
6242:
6241:
6235:
6227:
6222:
6219:
6214:
6213:
6207:
6199:
6189:
6186:
6170:
6159:
6155:
6150:hydrogen cations
6137:
6135:
6134:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6112:
6106:
6101:
6100:
6094:
6086:
6080:
6075:
6074:
6068:
6060:
6019:
6017:
6016:
6011:
6009:
6007:
6006:
5994:
5993:
5981:
5969:
5965:
5963:
5955:
5948:
5940:
5939:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5927:
5915:
5911:
5909:
5904:
5897:
5894:
5891:
5884:
5876:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5863:
5849:
5843:
5841:
5840:
5835:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5823:
5818:
5811:
5808:
5805:
5798:
5791:
5790:
5771:
5767:
5766:
5765:
5758:
5750:
5746:
5744:
5736:
5729:
5718:
5717:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5705:
5699:
5698:
5679:
5675:
5674:
5673:
5666:
5658:
5654:
5653:
5652:
5645:
5625:
5623:
5622:
5617:
5615:
5613:
5608:
5601:
5598:
5595:
5588:
5583:
5582:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5569:
5568:
5561:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5543:
5535:
5532:
5524:
5517:
5510:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5477:
5475:
5474:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5452:
5447:
5446:
5439:
5432:
5421:
5419:
5418:
5413:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5405:
5399:
5391:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5372:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5356:
5350:
5344:
5336:
5332:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5319:
5311:
5286:
5280:
5278:
5277:
5272:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5252:
5251:
5250:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5177:
5168:
5159:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5134:Russell S. Drago
5082:
5080:
5079:
5074:
5072:
5068:
5065:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5052:
5044:
5040:
5038:
5037:
5030:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5004:
4994:
4991:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4975:
4974:
4964:
4957:
4954:
4950:
4948:
4940:
4933:
4925:
4921:
4918:
4913:
4906:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4880:
4877:
4874:
4867:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4836:
4829:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4796:
4793:
4790:
4786:
4784:
4776:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4759:
4758:
4751:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4725:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4700:
4693:
4692:
4689:
4683:
4681:
4680:
4677:
4636:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4620:
4612:
4605:
4595:
4590:
4583:
4571:
4569:
4561:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4541:
4531:
4529:
4524:
4517:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4498:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4476:
4466:
4463:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4445:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4423:
4413:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4394:
4392:
4391:
4388:
4372:
4363:electrochemistry
4356:
4353:
4334:
4327:
4319:
4310:
4308:
4307:
4302:
4300:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4283:
4275:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4245:
4237:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4224:
4220:
4212:
4208:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4195:
4181:
4170:
4168:
4167:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4153:
4146:
4137:
4136:
4129:
4126:
4123:
4116:
4110:
4105:
4098:
4092:
4089:
4082:
4079:
4076:
4069:
4059:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4042:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4002:
4000:
3995:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3979:
3972:
3963:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3932:
3925:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3885:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3850:
3843:
3834:
3828:
3825:
3818:
3808:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3776:
3769:
3760:
3753:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3736:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3697:
3689:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3673:
3666:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3643:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3615:
3613:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3600:
3595:
3594:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3573:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3555:
3547:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3529:
3522:
3520:
3515:
3508:
3502:
3497:
3490:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3476:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3458:
3450:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3432:
3421:
3419:
3414:
3407:
3402:
3401:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3380:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3362:
3354:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3323:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3271:
3266:
3259:
3253:
3248:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3227:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3209:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3183:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3163:
3158:
3157:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3123:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3105:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3076:
3059:, respectively:
3006:
3005:
3004:
2974:
2972:
2971:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2935:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2917:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2899:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2812:
2805:
2796:
2786:
2783:
2776:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2730:
2721:
2704:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2653:
2638:
2627:
2616:
2605:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2577:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2541:
2523:
2493:Gilbert N. Lewis
2481:Lewis definition
2476:
2475:
2474:
2464:
2457:
2450:
2447:." Furthermore,
2437:Gilbert N. Lewis
2434:
2427:
2420:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2408:
2401:
2397:
2385:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2347:
2341:
2336:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2315:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2297:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2276:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2257:
2243:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2142:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2100:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2068:
2058:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1988:
1983:
1982:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1948:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1887:
1866:
1854:
1846:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1722:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1672:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1630:aqueous solution
1620:
1616:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1588:
1587:
1580:
1573:
1567:
1550:aqueous solution
1505:
1469:
1464:
1457:
1438:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1369:
1359:
1356:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1336:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1307:
1300:
1292:
1289:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1266:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1199:
1192:
1172:
1151:
1149:
1148:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1126:
1120:
1117:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1097:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1068:
1049:
1019:
1015:
1001:
999:
998:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
976:
971:
968:
965:
964:
958:
950:
944:
941:
940:
934:
926:
921:
918:
915:
914:
908:
900:
885:sodium hydroxide
872:
870:
869:
864:
862:
859:
855:
849:
848:
845:
841:
835:
834:
831:
827:
821:
820:
817:
792:
769:
765:
749:
741:
737:
722:This causes the
717:
693:aqueous solution
685:Svante Arrhenius
678:Svante Arrhenius
641:hydrohalic acids
638:
626:
617:hydrogen sulfide
613:Sir Humphry Davy
569:hydrohalic acids
565:oxidation states
558:
543:
435:
428:
421:
402:Non-nucleophilic
229:Buffer solutions
214:Acidity function
181:
169:
152:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
18:Acid-base theory
7635:
7634:
7630:
7629:
7628:
7626:
7625:
7624:
7590:
7589:
7575:
7562:
7553:
7544:
7535:
7532:
7527:
7526:
7496:
7495:
7491:
7483:
7460:10.1.1.693.7436
7440:
7435:
7434:
7430:
7406:
7405:
7401:
7377:
7376:
7372:
7365:
7343:
7342:
7338:
7314:
7313:
7309:
7268:
7267:
7263:
7244:
7243:
7239:
7215:
7214:
7210:
7203:
7195:. p. 525.
7181:
7180:
7176:
7169:
7161:. p. 487.
7147:
7146:
7139:
7115:
7114:
7110:
7102:
7095:
7087:
7083:
7075:
7071:
7063:
7056:
7028:
7027:
7023:
7001:
7000:
6996:
6984:
6977:
6967:
6965:
6963:
6948:
6947:
6943:
6933:
6931:
6923:
6922:
6918:
6911:
6898:
6897:
6893:
6883:
6881:
6866:
6865:
6861:
6852:
6819:
6814:
6813:
6809:
6801:
6792:
6776:
6772:
6756:
6752:
6744:
6740:
6732:
6728:
6720:
6716:
6709:
6705:
6673:
6672:
6657:
6624:
6623:
6619:
6589:
6588:
6584:
6572:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6557:
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6535:
6531:
6521:
6517:
6512:
6478:Lewis structure
6449:
6368:
6367:
6347:
6346:
6282:
6251:
6250:
6190:
6176:
6175:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6053:
6052:
6031:
6025:
5995:
5982:
5942:
5878:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5851:
5847:
5831:
5830:
5792:
5779:
5772:
5757:
5752:
5723:
5720:
5719:
5687:
5680:
5665:
5660:
5644:
5639:
5630:
5629:
5574:
5504:
5503:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5480:buffer solution
5438:
5426:
5425:
5304:
5303:
5300:
5294:
5284:
5253:
5241:
5226:
5214:
5197:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5185:
5179:
5176:
5170:
5167:
5161:
5158:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5137:
5126:
5120:
5099:
5093:
5088:
5070:
5069:
5062:
5051:
5029:
5022:
5017:
5000:
4995:
4983:
4982:
4963:
4951:
4898:
4893:
4863:
4858:
4815:
4814:
4795:
4787:
4750:
4743:
4738:
4721:
4716:
4695:
4694:
4685:
4682:
4673:
4664:
4663:
4649:
4624:
4623:
4579:
4574:
4537:
4532:
4512:
4511:
4494:
4489:
4472:
4467:
4459:
4458:
4441:
4436:
4419:
4414:
4406:
4405:
4396:
4393:
4384:
4375:
4374:
4370:
4354:
4341:
4333:
4329:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4186:
4185:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4128:
4033:
4032:
4016:
4015:
3951:
3874:
3873:
3809:
3719:
3718:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3695:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3651:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3638:
3611:
3610:
3599:
3586:
3542:
3524:
3523:
3445:
3423:
3422:
3393:
3349:
3312:
3311:
3275:
3274:
3196:
3174:
3173:
3162:
3149:
3092:
3061:
3060:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2981:
2898:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2791:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2702:
2698:
2695:carbon monoxide
2690:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2663:
2662:with a formula
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2622:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2600:
2556:
2534:
2533:
2522:
2518:
2489:
2483:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2441:oxidizing agent
2433:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2383:
2359:
2250:
2249:
2244:, dissolves in
2241:
2237:
2202:
2155:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
1987:
1974:
1880:
1879:
1864:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1827:The removal of
1767:conjugate
1753:
1634:
1633:
1618:
1614:
1592:
1579:
1561:
1560:
1534:conjugate bases
1530:conjugate acids
1503:
1490:in Denmark and
1455:
1449:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1422:cream of tartar
1181:
1180:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1096:
1083:
1061:
1060:
1048:
1044:
1026:
1017:
1013:
893:
892:
889:sodium chloride
811:
810:
791:
787:
783:
767:
763:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
715:
669:
653:
636:
632:
624:
620:
557:
553:
549:
542:
538:
523:
507:
502:
492:, around 1776.
439:
264:Proton affinity
189:Acceptor number
172:Acids and bases
141:
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7633:
7631:
7623:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7592:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7582:
7574:
7573:External links
7571:
7570:
7569:
7560:
7551:
7542:
7531:
7528:
7525:
7524:
7505:(8): 701–707.
7489:
7453:(5): 369–377.
7428:
7399:
7370:
7363:
7355:Pergamon Press
7336:
7325:(4): 677–682.
7307:
7286:(6): 592–604.
7261:
7251:Z. Elektrochem
7237:
7226:(9): 473–477.
7208:
7201:
7193:Pergamon Press
7174:
7167:
7159:Pergamon Press
7137:
7108:
7093:
7081:
7069:
7054:
7021:
7010:(8): 718–728.
6994:
6975:
6961:
6941:
6916:
6909:
6891:
6859:
6807:
6790:
6770:
6750:
6738:
6726:
6714:
6703:
6684:(3): 124–128.
6655:
6617:
6582:
6565:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6556:
6555:
6550:
6546:
6538:
6529:
6514:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6507:
6506:
6501:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6465:
6460:
6455:
6448:
6445:
6444:
6443:
6428:
6422:
6416:
6407:
6400:
6394:
6388:
6379:
6361:
6360:
6342:
6336:
6330:
6325:
6317:
6310:
6304:
6298:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6275:
6262:
6253:
6252:
6246:
6240:
6234:
6225:
6218:
6212:
6206:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6184:
6183:
6143:spectator ions
6139:
6138:
6118:
6110:
6105:
6099:
6093:
6084:
6079:
6073:
6067:
6043:neutralization
6027:Main article:
6024:
6021:
6005:
6002:
5998:
5992:
5989:
5985:
5979:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5962:
5959:
5954:
5945:
5938:
5926:
5921:
5918:
5914:
5908:
5903:
5890:
5881:
5875:
5869:
5860:
5828:
5822:
5817:
5804:
5795:
5789:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5764:
5755:
5749:
5743:
5740:
5735:
5726:
5722:
5721:
5716:
5704:
5697:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5672:
5663:
5657:
5651:
5642:
5638:
5637:
5612:
5607:
5594:
5586:
5581:
5567:
5560:
5549:
5542:
5531:
5528:
5523:
5515:
5458:
5450:
5445:
5437:
5404:
5398:
5389:
5378:
5370:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5335:
5324:
5318:
5296:Main article:
5293:
5290:
5270:
5267:
5261:
5256:
5249:
5244:
5240:
5234:
5229:
5222:
5217:
5213:
5210:
5207:
5204:
5183:
5174:
5165:
5156:
5122:Main article:
5119:
5116:
5095:Main article:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5063:
5058:
5049:
5043:
5036:
5027:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5010:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4989:
4985:
4984:
4973:
4970:
4961:
4952:
4947:
4944:
4939:
4930:
4924:
4917:
4912:
4903:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4886:
4873:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4848:
4843:
4835:
4827:
4821:
4817:
4816:
4805:
4802:
4788:
4783:
4780:
4775:
4764:
4757:
4748:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4731:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4706:
4697:
4696:
4687:
4684:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4648:
4645:
4619:
4616:
4611:
4602:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4568:
4565:
4560:
4547:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4514:
4513:
4504:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4482:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4461:
4460:
4451:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4429:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4408:
4407:
4398:
4395:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4340:
4337:
4278:
4264:
4251:
4240:
4215:
4201:
4157:
4152:
4143:
4140:
4135:
4122:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4096:
4088:
4075:
4066:
4062:
4048:
4008:
3999:
3991:
3986:
3978:
3970:
3962:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3944:
3939:
3931:
3923:
3911:
3891:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3870:
3862:
3857:
3849:
3841:
3833:
3824:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3788:
3783:
3775:
3767:
3756:
3742:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3681:sulfur dioxide
3606:
3598:
3593:
3579:
3572:
3561:
3554:
3543:
3535:
3526:
3525:
3519:
3514:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3482:
3475:
3464:
3457:
3446:
3438:
3429:
3425:
3424:
3418:
3413:
3405:
3400:
3386:
3379:
3368:
3361:
3350:
3342:
3329:
3320:
3319:
3270:
3265:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3233:
3226:
3215:
3208:
3197:
3189:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3169:
3161:
3156:
3143:
3129:
3122:
3111:
3104:
3093:
3082:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3037:
3036:
3026:
3015:solvonium ions
3001:
2980:
2977:
2955:
2941:
2934:
2923:
2916:
2905:
2897:
2892:
2854:
2845:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2824:
2819:
2811:
2803:
2795:
2790:
2782:
2773:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2752:
2747:
2736:
2728:
2720:
2581:
2576:
2568:
2563:
2555:
2547:
2482:
2479:
2471:
2366:
2353:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2321:
2314:
2303:
2296:
2282:
2274:
2263:
2246:liquid ammonia
2209:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2180:
2167:
2159:
2148:
2141:
2130:
2123:
2106:
2098:
2087:
2074:
1994:
1986:
1981:
1968:
1954:
1947:
1936:
1929:
1912:
1904:
1893:
1797:
1783:
1760:
1747:
1728:
1721:
1710:
1703:
1678:
1664:
1599:
1591:
1586:
1578:
1572:
1522:conjugate acid
1516:conjugate base
1482:
1481:
1471:
1470:
1451:Main article:
1448:
1445:
1375:
1366:
1363:
1355:
1342:
1333:
1330:
1319:
1314:
1306:
1298:
1288:
1280:
1272:
1263:
1260:
1252:
1247:
1239:
1226:
1218:
1209:
1206:
1198:
1189:
1132:
1124:
1116:
1108:
1103:
1095:
1090:
1082:
1074:
1052:carbon dioxide
1033:carbon dioxide
1025:
1022:
1004:The modifier (
982:
974:
963:
957:
948:
939:
933:
924:
913:
907:
854:
840:
826:
803:neutralization
772:
771:
760:Arrhenius base
720:
719:
708:Arrhenius acid
668:
665:
652:
649:
522:
519:
506:
503:
501:
498:
441:
440:
438:
437:
430:
423:
415:
412:
411:
410:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
372:Brønsted–Lowry
366:
365:
358:
357:
356:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
313:Brønsted–Lowry
307:
306:
299:
298:
297:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
183:
182:
174:
173:
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7632:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7597:
7595:
7586:
7583:
7580:
7577:
7576:
7572:
7566:
7561:
7557:
7552:
7548:
7543:
7539:
7534:
7533:
7529:
7520:
7516:
7512:
7508:
7504:
7500:
7493:
7490:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7452:
7448:
7447:
7439:
7432:
7429:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7411:
7403:
7400:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7383:
7382:
7374:
7371:
7366:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7351:
7346:
7340:
7337:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7319:
7311:
7308:
7303:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7285:
7281:
7280:
7275:
7271:
7265:
7262:
7258:(4): 303–309.
7257:
7254:(in German).
7253:
7252:
7247:
7241:
7238:
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7220:
7212:
7209:
7204:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7189:
7184:
7178:
7175:
7170:
7164:
7160:
7156:
7155:
7150:
7144:
7142:
7138:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7121:
7120:
7112:
7109:
7105:
7100:
7098:
7094:
7090:
7085:
7082:
7078:
7073:
7070:
7066:
7061:
7059:
7055:
7050:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7037:
7032:
7025:
7022:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7005:
6998:
6995:
6992:
6988:
6982:
6980:
6976:
6964:
6962:9780751403497
6958:
6954:
6953:
6945:
6942:
6930:
6926:
6920:
6917:
6912:
6906:
6902:
6895:
6892:
6880:
6876:
6872:
6871:
6863:
6860:
6851:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6826:
6818:
6811:
6808:
6805:, p. 165
6804:
6799:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6788:
6787:0-03-072373-6
6784:
6780:
6774:
6771:
6768:
6767:0-13-841891-8
6764:
6760:
6754:
6751:
6747:
6742:
6739:
6735:
6730:
6727:
6724:, p. 156
6723:
6718:
6715:
6712:
6707:
6704:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6679:
6678:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6662:
6660:
6656:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6627:
6621:
6618:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6586:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6570:
6567:
6560:
6542:
6539:
6533:
6530:
6525:
6519:
6516:
6509:
6505:
6502:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6458:Deprotonation
6456:
6454:
6451:
6450:
6446:
6426:
6405:
6398:
6366:
6365:
6364:
6340:
6323:
6315:
6308:
6284:
6273:
6260:
6244:
6223:
6216:
6192:
6174:
6173:
6172:
6151:
6146:
6144:
6116:
6103:
6082:
6077:
6051:
6050:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6030:
6022:
6020:
6003:
6000:
5996:
5990:
5987:
5983:
5977:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5960:
5957:
5952:
5943:
5919:
5916:
5912:
5906:
5901:
5888:
5879:
5873:
5867:
5858:
5850:is obtained.
5844:
5826:
5820:
5815:
5802:
5793:
5787:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5774:
5768:
5762:
5753:
5747:
5741:
5738:
5733:
5724:
5695:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5682:
5676:
5670:
5661:
5655:
5649:
5640:
5626:
5610:
5605:
5592:
5584:
5579:
5558:
5547:
5529:
5526:
5521:
5513:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5456:
5443:
5435:
5422:
5387:
5376:
5333:
5299:
5291:
5289:
5281:
5268:
5265:
5254:
5242:
5238:
5227:
5215:
5211:
5208:
5202:
5182:
5173:
5164:
5155:
5141:
5135:
5131:
5125:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5103:Ralph Pearson
5098:
5090:
5085:
5083:
5056:
5047:
5041:
5034:
5025:
5008:
4997:
4987:
4979: anions)
4971:
4968:
4959:
4945:
4942:
4937:
4928:
4922:
4915:
4910:
4901:
4884:
4871:
4860:
4846:
4833:
4819:
4803:
4800:
4781:
4778:
4773:
4762:
4755:
4746:
4729:
4718:
4704:
4686:
4674:
4660:
4658:
4653:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4637:
4617:
4614:
4609:
4600:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4566:
4563:
4558:
4545:
4534:
4526:
4521:
4502:
4480:
4469:
4449:
4427:
4416:
4397:
4385:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4350:
4346:
4338:
4336:
4311:
4276:
4262:
4249:
4213:
4199:
4183:
4155:
4150:
4141:
4138:
4133:
4120:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4086:
4073:
4064:
4060:
4046:
4029:
4006:
3989:
3976:
3953:
3942:
3929:
3909:
3889:
3880:
3860:
3847:
3822:
3811:
3786:
3773:
3754:
3740:
3731:
3715:
3701:
3693:
3682:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3624:
3604:
3596:
3591:
3570:
3559:
3533:
3517:
3512:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3473:
3462:
3436:
3427:
3416:
3411:
3403:
3398:
3377:
3366:
3340:
3327:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3288:
3268:
3263:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3224:
3213:
3187:
3178:
3167:
3159:
3154:
3141:
3120:
3109:
3080:
3071:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3008:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2978:
2976:
2953:
2932:
2921:
2903:
2895:
2890:
2875:
2852:
2843:
2840:
2835:
2822:
2809:
2780:
2771:
2768:
2763:
2750:
2734:
2706:
2696:
2684:
2672:
2661:
2657:
2642:
2631:
2620:
2609:
2598:
2579:
2574:
2561:
2553:
2545:
2531:
2527:
2516:
2513:For example,
2511:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2503:electron pair
2499:
2494:
2488:
2480:
2478:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2415:
2389:
2380:
2364:
2351:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2312:
2301:
2280:
2272:
2261:
2247:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2223:
2207:
2199:
2194:
2178:
2165:
2139:
2128:
2104:
2096:
2085:
2072:
2046:
2041:
2015:
2011:
2008:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1966:
1945:
1934:
1910:
1902:
1891:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1858:
1838:
1835:produces the
1825:
1795:
1781:
1758:
1745:
1719:
1708:
1676:
1662:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1597:
1589:
1584:
1570:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1517:
1511:
1509:
1501:
1500:deprotonation
1497:
1493:
1489:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1441:tartaric acid
1423:
1419:
1415:
1412:, and 21–26%
1411:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1373:
1364:
1361:
1353:
1340:
1331:
1328:
1317:
1304:
1286:
1278:
1270:
1261:
1250:
1237:
1224:
1207:
1204:
1196:
1187:
1178:
1176:
1175:stoichiometry
1157:
1152:
1130:
1122:
1114:
1106:
1101:
1088:
1080:
1072:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1029:Baking powder
1023:
1021:
1011:
1007:
1002:
980:
972:
922:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
852:
824:
808:
804:
799:
797:
781:
777:
761:
757:
756:
755:
753:
752:pH indicators
729:
725:
713:
709:
705:
704:
703:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
679:
675:
671:
666:
664:
662:
661:organic acids
658:
648:
646:
642:
630:
618:
614:
610:
606:
603:
599:
596:
592:
591:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
561:sulfuric acid
547:
536:
532:
528:
518:
516:
512:
504:
499:
497:
493:
491:
488:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
436:
431:
429:
424:
422:
417:
416:
414:
413:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
369:
368:
367:
363:
359:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
310:
309:
308:
304:
300:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
209:Acid strength
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
186:
185:
184:
180:
176:
175:
170:
165:
161:
157:
139:
131:
128:
120:
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
7564:
7555:
7546:
7537:
7502:
7498:
7492:
7450:
7444:
7431:
7414:
7408:
7402:
7385:
7379:
7373:
7349:
7339:
7322:
7316:
7310:
7283:
7277:
7264:
7255:
7249:
7246:Lux, Hermann
7240:
7223:
7217:
7211:
7187:
7177:
7153:
7123:
7117:
7111:
7084:
7072:
7043:(3): 43–47.
7040:
7034:
7024:
7007:
7003:
6997:
6966:. Retrieved
6951:
6944:
6932:. Retrieved
6928:
6919:
6900:
6894:
6882:. Retrieved
6869:
6862:
6829:
6823:
6810:
6778:
6773:
6758:
6753:
6741:
6729:
6717:
6706:
6681:
6675:
6633:
6629:
6620:
6595:
6591:
6585:
6569:
6541:
6532:
6522:More recent
6518:
6463:Donor number
6362:
6147:
6141:by omitting
6140:
6047:
6032:
5845:
5627:
5423:
5301:
5282:
5180:
5171:
5162:
5153:
5139:
5127:
5100:
4661:
4650:
4638:
4367:molten salts
4359:geochemistry
4342:
4312:
4184:
4030:
3716:
3636:
3631:
3627:
3625:
3289:
3038:
3029:solvate ions
3023:lyonium ions
3009:
2982:
2876:
2707:
2512:
2507:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2416:
2381:
2227:
2224:
2042:
2019:
2009:
1869:
1826:
1623:
1558:
1533:
1529:
1527:
1520:
1514:
1512:
1492:Martin Lowry
1485:
1407:
1179:
1153:
1059:
1056:
1027:
1003:
874:
800:
798:exceptions.
773:
759:
721:
707:
701:
682:
670:
654:
608:
605:
601:
598:
588:
531:strong acids
524:
508:
494:
483:
450:
444:
239:Donor number
198:
138:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
6722:Meyers 2003
6636:(8): 1130.
6493:Protonation
6045:reactions.
5288:strengths.
5132:created by
5111:Robert Parr
5097:HSAB theory
5091:HSAB theory
4355: 1947
4349:Håkon Flood
4345:Hermann Lux
3798:amphiphilic
3702:(supplying
3667:(supplying
3644:(supplying
3296:nitrosonium
2234:acetic acid
1496:protonation
1039:, which is
1037:baking soda
883:(HCl) with
809:and water.
796:non-aqueous
724:protonation
639:), and the
546:nitric acid
475:theoretical
219:Amphoterism
32:amphoterism
7594:Categories
7353:. Oxford:
7191:. Oxford:
7157:. Oxford:
6561:References
3033:lyate ions
3019:protonated
2630:phosphines
2617:, such as
2508:Lewis acid
2498:Lewis base
1872:amphoteric
1772:acid
780:alkalinity
609:(geinomai)
537:, such as
473:. Several
397:Superbases
343:Superacids
249:Extraction
87:newspapers
7455:CiteSeerX
7270:Flood, H.
6968:12 August
6901:Chemistry
6500:reactions
6427:−
6378:⟶
6341:−
6287:⟶
6245:−
6195:⟶
6109:⟶
6078:−
5961:−
5907:−
5868:−
5821:−
5742:−
5650:−
5611:−
5580:−
5566:⇀
5559:−
5548:−
5541:↽
5530:−
5488:phosphate
5449:⟶
5444:−
5369:⟶
5206:Δ
5203:−
5130:ECW model
5124:ECW model
5118:ECW model
5101:In 1963,
5057:−
5020:⟶
4972:−
4946:−
4896:⟶
4804:−
4782:−
4741:⟶
4618:−
4577:⟶
4567:−
4527:−
4492:⟶
4439:⟶
4239:⟶
4156:−
4095:⟶
3956:⟶
3814:⟶
3605:−
3578:⇀
3571:−
3560:−
3553:↽
3518:−
3481:⇀
3474:−
3463:−
3456:↽
3417:−
3385:⇀
3378:−
3367:−
3360:↽
3269:−
3232:⇀
3225:−
3214:−
3207:↽
3168:−
3128:⇀
3121:−
3110:−
3103:↽
3049:hydroxide
3045:hydronium
2940:⇀
2933:−
2922:−
2915:↽
2904:−
2789:⟶
2683:thioether
2580:−
2567:⟶
2562:−
2365:−
2320:⇀
2313:−
2302:−
2295:↽
2208:−
2147:⇀
2140:−
2129:−
2122:↽
1993:−
1953:⇀
1946:−
1935:−
1928:↽
1876:hydroxide
1870:Water is
1857:hydronium
1831:from the
1804:conjugate
1796:−
1727:⇀
1720:−
1709:−
1702:↽
1628:(HCl) in
1598:−
1577:⟶
1259:⟶
1094:⟶
1014:H, Cl, Na
947:⟶
839:⟶
728:hydronium
699:in 1903.
655:In 1838,
527:Lavoisier
471:titration
447:chemistry
294:ECW model
274:Titration
117:July 2022
7481:Archived
7477:96042488
7302:18907702
6934:18 April
6850:Archived
6846:98095406
6578:oxyacids
6447:See also
3700:sulfites
3308:chloride
3053:ammonium
2993:phosgene
2660:group 16
2608:group 15
2597:group 13
2530:fluoride
2045:pyridine
1837:chloride
607:γεινομαι
535:oxoacids
7530:Sources
7507:Bibcode
6686:Bibcode
6638:Bibcode
6600:Bibcode
5484:adenine
4272:solvent
3692:thionyl
3300:nitrate
3041:ammonia
2681:, or a
2654:with a
2641:Adducts
2388:acetate
1847:to the
1542:Onsager
1508:protons
776:acidity
712:ionises
487:chemist
382:Organic
328:Organic
323:Mineral
160:ammonia
101:scholar
7475:
7457:
7361:
7300:
7199:
7165:
6959:
6907:
6844:
6785:
6765:
6545:Pure N
6035:alkali
5187:. The
5160:and a
5045:
4926:
4811:anion)
4766:
4690:(acid)
4678:(base)
4401:(acid)
4389:(base)
4288:
4225:
3913:
3907:
3051:, and
2628:, and
2619:amines
2528:. The
2445:oxygen
1878:ions:
1779:
1666:
1660:
856:
850:
842:
836:
828:
822:
602:(oxys)
590:oxygen
583:, and
548:) and
461:and a
392:Strong
338:Strong
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
7605:Acids
7484:(PDF)
7473:S2CID
7441:(PDF)
6884:9 May
6853:(PDF)
6842:S2CID
6820:(PDF)
6524:IUPAC
6510:Notes
6498:Redox
5490:ion,
4657:redox
4499:CaSiO
3803:amide
3294:into
3057:amide
2671:ether
2526:octet
2390:ion,
1859:ion,
1839:ion,
1538:Debye
1193:NaHCO
1069:NaHCO
1045:NaHCO
860:water
597:
595:Greek
453:is a
449:, an
387:Oxide
377:Lewis
364:types
353:Solid
333:Oxide
318:Lewis
305:types
108:JSTOR
94:books
7359:ISBN
7298:PMID
7197:ISBN
7163:ISBN
6970:2009
6957:ISBN
6936:2018
6905:ISBN
6886:2007
6783:ISBN
6763:ISBN
6375:NaOH
6039:salt
5392:NaCl
5283:The
5191:and
5178:and
5147:and
5128:The
4446:MgCO
4361:and
4328:and
4315:HClO
4297:salt
4284:AgCl
4234:acid
4221:NOCl
4209:base
4196:AgNO
4056:base
3902:acid
3750:base
3737:NaNH
3632:base
3628:acid
3588:COCl
3530:COCl
3509:SbCl
3491:SbCl
3433:SbCl
3298:and
3055:and
3047:and
2997:COCl
2703:B←CO
2649:A←DY
2465:and
2451:and
2270:COOH
2242:COOH
1809:base
1689:base
1655:acid
1532:and
1477:and
1160:Ca(H
1016:and
951:NaCl
927:NaOH
846:salt
832:base
818:acid
807:salt
778:and
600:ὀξύς
515:base
469:via
463:base
459:acid
407:Weak
362:Base
348:Weak
303:Acid
224:Base
194:Acid
158:and
80:news
7515:doi
7465:doi
7451:117
7419:doi
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7390:doi
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1054:.
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539:HNO
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7596::
7513:.
7503:73
7501:.
7479:.
7471:.
7463:.
7449:.
7443:.
7413:.
7386:85
7384:.
7321:.
7296:.
7282:.
7276:.
7256:45
7224:49
7222:.
7140:^
7124:47
7122:.
7096:^
7057:^
7041:42
7039:.
7033:.
7008:42
7006:.
6978:^
6927:.
6848:.
6840:.
6830:85
6828:.
6822:.
6793:^
6692:.
6682:17
6680:.
6658:^
6644:.
6634:83
6632:.
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6596:92
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6418:aq
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3601:Cl
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3310::
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2404:NH
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2330:NH
2277:NH
2258:CH
2248:.
2238:CH
2236:,
2204:OH
2187:NH
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575:,
573:HF
554:SO
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467:pH
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7567:.
7521:.
7517::
7509::
7467::
7425:.
7421::
7396:.
7392::
7367:.
7333:.
7329::
7323:5
7304:.
7290::
7284:1
7234:.
7230::
7205:.
7171:.
7134:.
7130::
7051:.
7047::
7018:.
7014::
6989::
6972:.
6938:.
6913:.
6888:.
6877::
6836::
6700:.
6696::
6688::
6652:.
6648::
6640::
6614:.
6610::
6602::
6580:.
6551:4
6549:O
6547:2
6442:.
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6399:+
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5925:[
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5917:=
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5880:[
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5864:A
5859:[
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5827:]
5816:4
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5794:[
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5781:K
5777:=
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5754:[
5748:]
5739:2
5734:4
5725:[
5715:]
5703:[
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5685:=
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5667:H
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5216:E
5212:=
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3072:2
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3002:2
2962:O
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2823:2
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2030:H
2022:H
1985:+
1980:+
1976:O
1967:3
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1919:O
1911:2
1907:H
1903:+
1900:O
1892:2
1888:H
1865:O
1863:3
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1829:H
1782:+
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1746:3
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1677:2
1673:H
1663:+
1619:A
1594:A
1590:+
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1436:6
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1382:O
1374:2
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1287:5
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1197:3
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1139:O
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989:O
981:2
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956:(
938:)
932:(
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912:)
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853:+
825:+
790:4
786:2
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556:4
552:2
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544:(
541:3
434:e
427:t
420:v
130:)
124:(
119:)
115:(
105:·
98:·
91:·
84:·
57:.
34:.
20:)
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