1843:, a traditional Australian Aboriginal language, special avoidance lexemes are used to express deference when in the presence of tabooed in-law relatives. In other words, speakers will either be completely prohibited from speaking to one's mother-in-law or must employ "avoidance language" to one's brother-in-law. The brother-in-law language involves a special set of words to replace regular Guugu-Yimidhirr words and the speaker must avoid words which could suggest reference to genitalia or bodily acts. This brother-in-law language therefore indexes a deferential social relationship of the brother-in-law to the speaker and is reflected in the appropriate social behavior of Guugu-Yimidhirr society. For example, one avoids touching tabooed in-laws, looking at them, joking with them, and cursing in their presence.
2292:, except in very intimate cases, the use of honorifics depends on whether the other person's year of birth is one year (or more) older, or the same, or one year (or more) younger. However, some Koreans feel that it is unreasonable to distinguish between the use of honorifics based on a small age difference and try to distinguish between the use of honorifics based on intimacy within a small age difference. But their influence is weak. Also, regardless of whether or not honorifics are used, if the year of birth is more than a year apart, no matter how close people are, Korean people are not think of each other as friends. It's often known that Korea is a custom that arose from being influenced more by Confucianism than Japan, but this is not true. Until the
2300:
These elements of the
Japanese military system had a great influence on South and North Korean society. After Japan was defeated in 1945, this culture of arrangement was greatly weakened in Japanese society due to the disbandment of the Japanese military and the establishment of a civilian government, but in South Korea and North Korea, elements of the Japanese military permeated every corner of the society due to the influence of the dictatorship. Therefore, unlike other countries, it is common in South and North Korea to frequently ask people about their age.
1891:, the language had an elaborate system of honorifics, and different expressions were used depending on the societal position of the speaker and listener, politeness, and deference. Using self-deprecation to show humbleness was prevalent, for instance one would refer to works of their own as 拙作 (zhuó zuò) "unsightly work" while referring to other people's work as 尊作 (zūn zuò) "respectable work". It has mostly degenerated since then, but vestiges of the system still exist:
2488:, spoken in scattered communities in rural areas of Central Mexico, utilizes a system of honorific speech to mark social distance and respect. The honorific speech of the Nahuatl dialects spoken in the Malinche Volcano area of Puebla and Tlaxcala in Mexico is divided into four levels: an "intimate or subordinating" Level I; a "neutral, socially distant" or "respectful between intimates" Level II; "noble" or "reverential" Level III; and the
2564:) in order to convey respect. In the Mortlockese Language, there are only two levels of speaking—common language and respectful language(honorifics). While respectful language is used when speaking to people of higher status, common language is used when speaking to anyone of the same or lesser status. One example showing the difference between respectful and common language can be seen in the word sleep. The word for
856:
1676:
581:
723:. A key feature of an honorific system is that one can convey the same message in both honorific and familiar forms—i.e., it is possible to say something like (as in an oft-cited example from Brown and Levinson) "The soup is hot" in a way that confers honor or deference on one of the participants of the conversation.
2156:. High-strata Javanese will bluntly state: "to be human is to be Javanese". Those who are "sampun Jawa" or "already Javanese" are those who have a good grasp of social interaction and stratified Javanese language and applied to foreigners as well. Children, boors, simpletons, the insane, the immoral are
2646:
Given that rank is inherited matrilineally, maternal relatives have specific classifiers, but paternal relatives do not. Personal items that are in close contact with the higher ranks are marked with honorific language. Food is related to social ranking; there is a hierarchy of food distribution. The
2623:, honorific speech is especially important when interacting with chiefs and during Christian church services. Even radio announcements use honorifics, specifically bystander honorifics, because a chief or someone of higher status could potentially be listening. Pohnpeian honorific speech consists of:
764:
in French) is chosen based on the relative social status of the speaker and the hearer (the hearer, in this case, also being the referent). Bystander honorifics express the status of someone who is nearby, but not a participant in the conversation (the overhearer). These are the least common, and are
1830:
that is used by a speaker when in the presence of the speaker's mother-in-law. This mother-in-law language has the same phonology and grammar as the everyday style, but uses an almost totally distinct set of lexemes when in the presence of the tabooed relative. This special lexicon has fewer lexemes
1634:
Also, the normally first person plural form "nous" may be used as a "humility mark" especially in formal communications like college thesis, to recognise that the work done is not the result of the single author of the thesis but comes from in a way, of all the predecessors and pairs in the realm of
2505:
of the listener and verbs. Level II is marked by the prefix on- on the verb and is used between intimates. Some
Nahuatl speakers have been observed to alternate between Level I and Level II for one listener. The use of both levels is believed to show some respect or to not subordinate the listener.
2469:
These six speech styles are sometimes divided into honorific and non-honorific levels where the formal and polite styles are honorific and the rest are non-honorific. According to
Strauss and Eun, the two honorific speech levels are "prototypically used among non-intimate adults of relatively equal
2299:
The current Korean custom of deciding whether to use honorifics based on age in Korea was influenced by
Japanese colonial occupation era. Before 1945, Japan operated its military and schools under a strict rank-and-file system, and the ranking based on age and seniority was stricter than it is now.
2125:
Speech levels, although not as developed or as complex as honorific speech found in
Japanese, are but one of a complex and nuanced aspect of Javanese etiquette: etiquette governs not only speaking but, "sitting, speaking, standing, pointing, composing one's countenance" and one could add mastery of
1393:
These professional titles are more formal as the speaker humbles him/herself and puts the addressee at a higher rank or status. These can also be used along with a name (only last or both names), but that is extremely formal and almost never used in direct conversation. For some professional titles
1208:
is used for an unmarried woman, along with using different suffixes for last name, although it is mostly obsolete and can be considered condescending. Using first name alone is familiar (but not necessarily intimate, as in
Japanese—it is commonly used among colleagues, for example). Using the last
2875:
For example, Hindi and
Bengali have a three-way distinction —Hindi ap, Bengali apni "you" are polite or honorific forms; Hindi tum, Bengali tumi are informal forms; and Hindi tū, Bengali tui are used only for inferiors and small children. (Hindi and Bengali differ, however, in the plural forms of
1630:
the singular form 'tu' is used in intimate and informal speech, as well as "speaking down", as adults to children (but never "up"). The plural form 'vous' is used to address individuals formally and in situations in which adults meet for the first time. Often people decide explicitly to break the
2266:
honorific speech is a mixture of subject honorification, object exaltation, and the various speech levels. Depending on how these three factors are used, the speaker highlights different aspects of the relationship between the speaker, the subject, and the listener (who may also be the subject).
2225:
Javanese women are expected to address their husbands in front of others, including their children in a respectful manner. Such speech pattern is especially more pronounced in areas where arranged marriage are prominent and within households where the husband is considerably older than the wife.
2241:
High-strata children are expected to speak in krama inggil to both father and mother. This is less reinforced as the social strata descends, to the point of being near non-existent especially among the modern working class strata who may have the necessity of both parents working. At this point
1895:
When referring to one's relatives in formal situations, 敬称 (jìng chēng) is used. For example, when referring to one's brother, one would use 家弟/舍弟 (jiā dì/shě dì) "(my) house younger brother", whereas when referring to the listener's brother, one would use 令弟 (lìng dì) "(your) excellent younger
1855:
uses avoidance speech between genders. In
Mortlock culture, there are many restrictions and rules when interacting with people of the opposite gender, such as how only males are allowed to go fishing or how women are supposed to lower their posture in the presence of men. This avoidance speech
1766:
and its associated forms have fallen into disuse and are considered archaic, though it is often used in recreations of archaic-sounding speech. It has also survived in some dialect forms of
English, notably in some regions of Yorkshire, especially amongst the older and more rural populations.
751:
has three different words for "house" depending on the status level of the person spoken to. Referent honorifics express the status of the person being spoken about. In this type of honorific, both the referent (the person being spoken about) and the target (the person whose status is being
2642:
The construction of possessive classifiers depends on ownership, temporality, degrees of control, locative associations, and status. In addition to status-rising and status-lowering possessive classifiers, there are also common (non-status marked) possessive classifiers. Status-rising and
2598:
that are used in meetings and gatherings. In
English, some examples of formal greetings would be "good evening" or "it's a pleasure to meet you" or "how are you." These formal greetings not only use words, but also gestures. It is the combination of the words and gestures that create the
1557:
was then used to address multiple people or objects altogether. Later, after being in contact with foreigners, the second person plural pronoun acquired another function. Displaying respect and formality, it was used for addressing aristocrats – people of higher social status and power.
1315:
In addition, there are two different V forms within the honorific usage – the more formal and the less formal form. The less formal form is more colloquial and used in daily speech more frequently. The higher honorific level includes "compound" pronouns consisting of prefixal
1296:, but they may imply familiarity, especially in second person. Using a prefix with the first name is almost always considered familiar and possibly rude. Using the last name with a prefix in second person can still be considered impolite. Using the set phrase
1921:
honorific speech requires either honorific morphemes to be appended to verbs and some nouns or verbs and pronouns be replaced by words that mean the same but incorporate different honorific connotations. Japanese honorific speech is broadly referred to as
2724:
literally translates to 'you two', but can also be used as an honorific to address one. This communicates to the individual being spoken to is worth the respect of two individuals. It is undocumented if there are other honorifics greater than this one.
1831:
than the everyday style and typically employs only transitive verb roots whereas everyday style uses non-cognate transitive and intransitive roots. By using this mother-in-law language a speaker then indicates a deferential social relationship.
2695:. On Pohnpei, it is also important to follow a specific order of serving food. The higher-ranked people eat first, both in casual family settings and community events. The lower-status people receive the "leftovers" or the weaker portion.
1785:
Avoidance speech, or "mother-in-law language", is the most common example of a bystander honorific. In this honorific system, a speaker switches to a different variety of speech in the presence of an in-law or other relative for whom an
1102:
incorporates grammatical and lexical politeness. It uses grammatical category of honorifics within certain verbs and personal pronouns; this honorific system is namely split into two basic levels – the familiar (T) and the polite (V):
2876:
these.) In Gujarati, on the other hand, tū~ is a very familiar pronoun, whereas təme is used generally, covering the approximate domains of Hindi ap and tum; ap, if used, strikes the hearer as fawning. Marathi has a similar system.
2638:
Honorific speech is usually performed through the choice of verbs and possessive classifier. There are only status-raising nouns but none for status lowering; there are only status-lowering pronouns but none for status-raising.
772:
A fourth type, the Speaker/Situation honorific, does not concern the status of any participant or bystander, but the circumstances and environment in which the conversation is occurring. The classic example of this is
1879:
In modern Chinese, the informal second-person pronoun, 你 (nǐ), is most commonly used. Meanwhile, 您 (nín) which arose from the contraction of plural second-person pronoun 你们 (nǐ mén) is used in formal situations.
2534:. Another important aspect of Level IV is that it addresses the listener in 3rd person whereas Level I through III all use 2nd person forms. By using this 3rd person form, maximal social distance is achieved.
1451:
Historical factors played a major role in shaping the Polish usage of honorifics. Poland's history of nobility was the major source for Polish politeness, which explains how the honorific male-marked pronoun
2643:
status-lowering possessive classifiers have different properties of control and temporality. Common possessive classifiers are divided into three main categories – relatives, personal items, and food/drink.
2647:
best share of food is first distributed to the chief and people of higher status. In possessive constructions, food is linked to low-status possession, but not as heavily link to high-status possession.
1797:
and grammatical structure as the standard language they derived from, but are characterized by a smaller lexical inventory than the standard language. Avoidance speech of this sort is primarily found in
1418:
can be dropped, resulting in a form which is less formal, but still polite. Unlike the above, this can also precede a name (almost always last), but it is seldom used in second person. As with
2524:. Finally, Level IV is typically used between people who share a ritual kinship relationship (e.g., parent with godparent, godparent with godparent of the same child). Level IV is marked by a
2470:
rank". Comparatively, the non-honorific speech levels are typically used between intimates, in-group members, or in "downward directions of address by the speaker to his or her interlocutor."
777:, in which an elevated or "high form" of a language is used in situations where more formality is called for, and a vernacular or "low form" of a language is used in more casual situations.
780:
Politeness can be indicated by means other than grammar or marked vocabulary, such as conventions of word choice or by choosing what to say and what not to say. Politeness is one aspect of
842:
is used to express politeness and formality. T–V distinction is characteristic of many Indo-European languages, including Persian, Portuguese, Polish, and Russian, as detailed below.
1856:
showcases one of these restrictions/rules. This gender-restrictive vocabulary can only be used when speaking to people of the same gender. For men, this is sometimes referred to as
2079:
Comparatively, a more contemporary linguistic account by functional linguist Yasuto Kikuchi posits that honorific speech is governed by social factors and psychological factors.
964:). These forms are highly formal and used when speaking "upward" and always used in formal correspondence, such as in governmental letters, to authorities, customers and elders.
818:, respectively, were introduced by Brown and Gilman, whose 1960 study of them introduced the idea that the use of these forms was governed by "power and solidarity." The Latin
30:
This article is about systems of honorific speech in linguistics, which affect languages' word choice or grammar. For titles indicating honor or status (honorific titles), see
1732:
Modern English has no grammatical system of honorific speech, with formality and informality being conveyed entirely by register, word choice, tone, rhetorical strategy, etc.
627:
3435:
Hill, Jane H.; Hill, Kenneth C. (1978). "Honorific Usage in Modern Nahuatl: The Expression of Social Distance and Respect in the Nahuatl of the Malinche Volcano Area".
562:
2350:
typically used with close friends, by parents to their children, by a relatively older speaker to a child, by children to children, or by youngsters to the same-ages.
2999:'join together': A morphophonemic analysis of possessive suffix paradigms and a discourse-based ethnography of the elicitation session in Pakin Lukunosh Mortlockese
2092:
interpersonal relationships between the speaker, listener, and referent (i.e. positional relationships, relative familiarity, and in-group/out-group relationships).
1545:-address came from the Roman Empire and the French due to the influence of their language and culture on the Russian aristocracy. In many other European countries,
2055:, which means "word beautification" and is used to demonstrate the quality of the speaker's language. Each type of speech has its own vocabulary and verb endings.
2382:
typically used when the addressee is below the speaker in age or social rank (e.g. the speaker is at least thirty years old and the addressee is of college age)
2144:
Whenever two people meet they should ask themselves: "Who is this person? Who am I? What is this person to me? Balanced against one another on a scale: this is
2137:
important is an honorific vocabulary referring to the possessions, attributes, states and actions of persons, a vocabulary that includes honorific kin terms.
1500:
when speaking to a priest. The intimate T form is marked as neutral when used reciprocally between children, relatives, students, soldiers and young people.
1023:
In other Indo-Aryan languages, such as Gujarati and Marathi, while there ostensibly exists a three-way distinction in formality, in practice, the cognate of
730:, as an understanding of the context—in this case, the social status of the speaker relative to the other participants or bystanders—is crucial to its use.
952:(literally meaning "sir" and "madam", which are third-person references that are used in direct address (that would "normally" require the second person
1631:
formal by one or the other asking "on se tutoie?" (where "tutoyer" is the verb meaning to speak in the 'tu' register, its equivalent being "vouvoyer").
877:
769:
such as the "mother-in-law languages" of aboriginal Australia, where one changes one's speech in the presence of an in-law or other tabooed relative.
2296:
dynasty era, unlike today, on the Korean Peninsula, age was not considered as severe, so it was a culture of making friends within a small age gap.
3631:
1600:
forms as uneducated, offensive and uncultured. This leads to the conclusion that this honorific was not a Russian innovation. Instead, the use of
934:(more formal) fit the T–V pattern nicely, except that their use varies a great deal from region to region. For instance, in most parts of Brazil,
747:
Addressee honorifics express the social status of the person being spoken to (the hearer), regardless of what is being talked about. For example,
2546:
is an Austronesian language spoken primarily on the Mortlock islands in Micronesia. In Mortlock culture, there is a hierarchy with chiefs called
2281:
can be used (though some are archaic) to express the level of politeness and formality to the audience. Each has its own set of verb endings.
3600:
3581:
3562:
3543:
3251:
3129:
3082:
3029:
2518:, and an appropriate transitivizing suffix based on the verb stem. Verbs in Level III may additionally be marked with the reverential suffix
2463:
In some cases, speakers will switch between polite and formal styles depending on the situation and the atmosphere that one wishes to convey.
940:
is not used; whereas in the northern state of Maranhão and southern regions, it is. A third lexical option is added to the honorific scheme:
3792:
2858:
1567:-form. The Emperor is considered plural because he is the representation of the people. Likewise, the Emperor could refer to himself using
555:
2133:"The system is based on sets of precisely ranked or style-coded morphemes that are semantically equivalent but stylistically contrastive"
2418:
When semiformal style is used by young people, it also represents humorous sense, and is thought to be unsuitable for serious situations.
2385:
The familiar style generally implies the speaker is showing authority therefore typically requires the speaker to be sufficiently mature.
1209:
name alone is extremely rare and when it is employed, it is condescending, and used among school pupils and in the military. Also using
1020:), indicates increasing levels of formality or social status of the addressee. The verb changes accordingly to agree with the pronoun.
2924:
1612:
did not spread throughout the Russian population quickly; as a result, the usage was inconsistent until the eighteenth century, when
3506:
3382:
3226:
3172:
3105:
1719:
903:
2412:
A speaker will use semiformal style with a stranger whose social rank is clear but not particularly lower compared to the speaker.
3975:
2887:
Huszcza, Romuald. (2005). “Politeness in Poland: From ‘Titlemania’ to Grammaticalised Honorifics.” Politeness in Europe: 218–233
1081:
together, had been used to refer to formal form of second-male person single and also used alone for second-male person plural.
2611:(formal greeting). In English, a formal greeting like this would be like saying "nice to meet you" while offering a handshake.
1799:
548:
3850:
3337:
3201:
1606:
in both the singular and plural form is due to the exposure to the Latin historical and political developments. The usage of
881:
661:
2910:
2457:
commonly used in speeches delivered to large audiences, in news reports, radio broadcasts, business, and formal discussions.
1464:
is female-marked) was derived from the old word for "lord." There are separate honorific pronouns used to address a priest (
1701:
3246:. Papers in international studies Southeast Asia Series. Vol. 69. Ohio University Center for International Studies.
2528:(i.e., word that depends on the following word and works similarly to an affix, such as the word "a" or "an" in English)
1697:
1685:
3124:. Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language. Vol. 19. Cambridge University Press. pp. 84–88.
1913:
1057:(more formal form of second-person single and also used alone for second-person plural) fit the T–V pattern except that
917:
3624:
1134:, but it is not used when referring to people, except when the noun reference happens to be neuter, as in the case of
781:
524:
1436:(which can be translated "Minister, sir") can also be used for calling attention, although they are less common. The
866:
784:, which is a more general concept of choosing a particular variety of language for a particular purpose or audience.
259:
3675:
2718:
grammar, the honorific dual is used to convey respect, especially towards in-laws. The second person dual pronoun,
733:
There are three main types of honorifics, categorized according to the individual whose status is being expressed:
2140:
The Javanese perception of this is best summarized as per Errington's anecdote of an old Javanese man explaining:
1573:(we), to represent "I and my people". From the courts, the middle and lower classes gradually adopted this usage.
885:
870:
3960:
3398:
309:
196:
176:
1488:
when addressing a nurse, but it is unacceptable when speaking to a nun. Likewise, it is unacceptable to replace
752:
expressed) of the honorific expression are the same. This is exemplified by the T–V distinction present in many
3785:
3721:
1899:
Using indirect language and euphemisms (婉辭; wǎn cí) to show respect is still widely observed in all situations.
1840:
606:
392:
335:
148:
96:
2808:
Comrie, Bernard (1976). "Linguistic politeness axes: Speaker-addressee, speaker-referent, speaker-bystander".
2552:. When speaking to these chiefs or to anyone of higher status, one must use honorifics (in Mortlockese called
1926:(literally "respectful language"), and includes three main categories according to Western linguistic theory:
2662:
is used for all categories of low-status possessives; however, the most widely used high-status classifier,
753:
502:
387:
340:
229:
3617:
2925:"Guide de rédaction de thèse - Ecole doctorale pratiques et théories du sens - ED 31 - Université Paris 8"
623:
507:
479:
440:
420:
375:
370:
239:
2436:
typically used when the addressee is a superior (e.g. by children to their parents, students to teachers)
2214:
and adapt their speech strata according to the highest level of formality, moving down to lower levels.
2058:
Japanese linguist Hatsutarō Ōishi distinguishes four sources of respect as the primary reasons for using
1448:
can also be dropped with some titles in the phrase, but it is even less common and can be inappropriate.
3887:
3002:
380:
143:
3746:
2543:
2444:
2423:
2396:
2362:
2337:
2309:
2278:
2258:
1884:
1852:
314:
304:
40:
2415:
It is generally used by senior citizens, getting out of used by most of people in everyday language.
2391:
Generally, it is used by senior citizens, getting out of use by most of people in everyday language.
1771:
usage can still be found in pockets of the east coast of North America, such as rural Newfoundland.
793:
679:
form that encodes the relative social status of the participants of the conversation. Distinct from
3970:
3965:
3901:
3820:
3778:
3470:
Keating, Elizabeth (June 1997). "Honorific Possession: Power and Language in Pohnpei, Micronesia".
2773:
2715:
1909:
472:
400:
64:
3357:. Series on contemporary Javanese life. Vol. 2. Free Press of Glencoe. pp. 19, 147, 152.
3309:
Scotton, C. M. (1988). "Code Switching as Indexical of Social Negotiations". In Heller, M. (ed.).
2328:
generally used in written language, but when it used in spoken language, it represents admiration.
2322:
signals more social distance between the speaker and addressee than that when using intimate style
1073:
used as more formal form of second-person single and also used alone for second-person plural and
3929:
3915:
3894:
3843:
3834:
3827:
3813:
3640:
3538:. Studies in interactional sociolinguistics. Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3452:
2620:
2586:
using respectful language. Along with the respectful language, there are formal greetings called
2479:
1874:
264:
244:
189:
165:
138:
3325:
3189:
2273:
can be added to nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and honorific styles of address may also be used.
3412:
Stauss, Susan; Jong Oh Eun (2005). "Indexicality and honorific speech level choice in Korean".
2677:
is not semantically connected to food. There are separate terms for food of high-status people—
3922:
3908:
3871:
3864:
3857:
3596:
3577:
3558:
3539:
3512:
3502:
3417:
3378:
3333:
3247:
3222:
3197:
3168:
3125:
3101:
3078:
3025:
2270:
2254:
2153:
2120:
1918:
1551:
initially was used to address any one person or object, regardless of age and social ranking.
467:
460:
450:
415:
405:
345:
279:
219:
201:
89:
1951:
raises the status of the addressee or referent (e.g. third person) in relation to the speaker
3878:
3479:
3444:
3276:
2485:
2226:
Husbands generally address their wives by their first name, pet name, or "younger sibling" (
1823:
1780:
1576:
The younger generation and commoners, with minimal education still address each other using
1509:
981:
716:
410:
274:
59:
2205:
All these categories are ranked according to age, rank, kinship relations, and "intimacy."
1328:
in conjunction with professional titles. Here are some examples (for males/females resp.):
3938:
3706:
3267:
Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono (1973). "Honorifics in Generative Semantics: A Case in Javanese".
2932:
2704:
2460:
in most of cases, books are written in plain style (herache), or formal style (hapshoche).
2274:
2263:
1807:
1803:
1643:
1627:
1099:
1090:
676:
455:
324:
286:
126:
108:
84:
79:
2497:
Level I is typically used by non-age-mates and non-intimates and is unmarked in terms of
3759:
3045:
1741:
519:
350:
269:
153:
74:
2388:
Women seldom use familiar style because it is commonly associated with male authority.
3954:
2066:
respecting those who have a higher social rank, extraordinary ability, or credentials
1811:
1762:, with the latter being used as an honorific regardless of the number of addressees.
632:
596:
234:
1802:
such as Dyirbal, but can also be found in some Native American languages, including
2778:
2210:
1888:
1752:
720:
616:
484:
319:
133:
101:
69:
17:
3609:
2900:
as a Form of Polite Address.” The Slavic and East European Journal 29 (3): 330–337
2245:
Women are considered the custodians of language and culture within the household.
1061:
is actually a modern Persian word originating from the old Avestan Persian words
3006:
2502:
2379:
signals that the speaker will treat the listener with consideration and courtesy
2289:
2285:
2242:
grandparents take the role of educating the children to correct language usage.
2208:
If a speaker is uncertain about the addressee's age or rank, they commence with
1787:
1094:
855:
653:
3280:
3115:
3113:
1512:
speakers usually know when to use the informal second person singular pronoun (
3754:
3516:
3483:
2788:
2783:
1736:
534:
529:
514:
445:
254:
160:
116:
3576:. Cambridge textbooks in linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3421:
1896:
brother". This is in contrast to the common term 弟弟 (dìdì) "younger brother".
1582:
with no connotation of disrespect, however. Certain Russians who are used to
1561:
Another theory suggests that in Russia, the Emperor first adopted the plural
3801:
2525:
2439:
This is the most common speech style and is commonly used between strangers.
1794:
774:
680:
224:
121:
31:
2859:"Indo-Aryan languages - Characteristics of the modern Indo-Aryan languages"
2277:
may be dropped, or may be used in formal, familiar, or humble forms. Seven
1692:
absolute quantifiers ("no", "entirely") regarding Modern English honorifics
1675:
707:, deference, or respect through the choice of an alternate form such as an
1983:
humbles the status of the speaker in relation to the addressee or referent
1029:
is almost never used, and there is only a two-way distinction between the
3655:
2409:
used to address someone in an inferior position (e.g. age or social rank)
2015:
raises the status of the addressee or referent in relation to the speaker
1744:
once exhibited a T–V distinction between the 2nd person singular pronoun
1655:
1647:
1308:
is preferred (and polite) when drawing attention (in a way akin to using
249:
3593:
Politeness phenomena in England and Greece: a cross-cultural perspective
3296:
Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette
3150:
Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette
3716:
1659:
1221:
with surname in vocative form is rather impolite. The address in form "
672:
54:
27:
Social status and privilege as a grammatical function in many languages
3456:
1002:
in Hindi and Urdu, or their cognates in other languages (e.g. Bengali
2768:
2498:
2293:
2152:
The understanding of honorifics is heavily emphasized by speakers of
727:
712:
181:
3075:
Japanese Respect Language: When, Why, and How to Use it Successfully
1245:
can be used as a prefix to a first or last name, as in the example:
1128:(feminine): third-person singular, informal (there is also a neuter
798:
One common system of honorific speech is T–V distinction. The terms
3448:
3100:. University of Hawai’I Press. pp.3–4, 23, 29–30, 33, 39–41, 60–65
2234:) while wives generally address their husbands as "elder brother" (
2099:
Some examples of what Kikuchi considers psychological factors are:
3680:
3377:. State University of New York Press. pp. 224, 250, 253–263.
3122:
Shifting languages: interaction and identity in Javanese Indonesia
2454:
used to treat superiors with the most reserve and the most respect
1790:
1651:
973:
708:
2222:
is usually learned from interacting with peers at a younger age.
3736:
3731:
3690:
3685:
3665:
3660:
2083:
Some examples of what Kikuchi considers social factors include:
1746:
1588:-address may perceive the ones who do not differentiate between
977:
3774:
3613:
3311:
Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic Perspectives
2304:
The six commonly used speech styles from lowest to highest are:
3726:
3711:
3670:
1758:
1669:
849:
574:
3770:
1530:
while the practice of being formal and polite is referred to
1156:(used when referring to a group of men or a mixed-sex group)/
984:, have three instead of two levels of honorifics. The use of
2759:
This sentence can be used to speak with one or two people.
1176:(female-marked): second- and third-person singular, formal
3355:
The Javanese family: a study of kinship and socialization
2529:
2519:
2513:
2507:
1162:(when referring to a group of women): third-person plural
2840:
Foley, William (1997). "Language and Social Position".
2406:
more formal than familiar style with neutral politeness
1196:(mixed gender): second- and third-person plural, formal
719:, change in person or number, or an entirely different
1278:
Which are more formal than using the typical familiar
830:
refers to the V-form, which is usually plural-marked.
756:, in which a different second-person pronoun (such as
2896:
Popov, Paul (Autumn 1985). “On the Origin of Russian
2163:
Javanese speech is stratified. The three levels are:
2086:
the location and topic being discussed by the speaker
2129:
According to Wolfowitz, as quoted in Ingold (2002):
2105:
how relative distance in relationships is understood
3745:
3699:
3648:
2102:
the intention of the speaker in using polite speech
1696:Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
3368:
3366:
3364:
2325:generally used when writing for a general audience
2218:is usually learned from parents and teachers, and
3143:
3141:
3022:Politeness in historical and contemporary Chinese
2947:Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization
2853:
2851:
2606:
2600:
2593:
2587:
2581:
2575:
2559:
2553:
2547:
1077:which means for him or his. Therefore, the words
836:is used to express informality, and in contrast,
622:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate
2752:
2746:
2729:
2719:
1684:The factual accuracy of part of this article is
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
3152:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 11.
3092:
3090:
2690:
2684:
2678:
2663:
2648:
2069:respecting those who occupy a dominant position
824:refers to the singular T-form, while the Latin
3534:Brown, Penelope; Levinson, Stephen C. (1987).
3001:(PhD thesis). University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa.
2911:""Nous" à la place de "Je": Règles et accords"
1793:exists. These languages usually have the same
1524:). The practice of being informal is known as
3786:
3625:
3536:Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage
2489:
1618:became more prominent in secular literature.
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1568:
1562:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1015:
1009:
1003:
556:
8:
2973:Anthropological linguistics: An introduction
2842:Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction
1826:has a special avoidance speech style called
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1382:
1376:
1368:
1362:
1354:
1348:
1340:
1334:
1323:
1317:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1267:
1259:
1251:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1203:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1171:
1165:
1157:
1151:
1143:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1109:
2865:. Encyclopedia Britannica. 21 February 2023
1737:Honorifics § Modern English honorifics
1036:
1030:
1024:
997:
991:
985:
884:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
837:
831:
825:
819:
813:
807:
3793:
3779:
3771:
3632:
3618:
3610:
3501:(Thesis). University of Hawai'i at Manoa.
3332:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 884–890.
3196:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 882–883.
2178:is known as the polite and formal style.
1887:which occurred right after the end of the
1095:Polish name § Formal and informal use
1049:As an Indo-European language the pronouns
788:T–V distinction in Indo-European languages
563:
549:
36:
2844:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 305–333.
2108:how skilled the speaker is in expression.
1720:Learn how and when to remove this message
1539:It has been suggested that the origin of
904:Learn how and when to remove this message
683:, linguistic honorifics convey formality
3557:. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
2494:or "maximally social distant" Level IV.
2089:whether the context is written or spoken
2072:respecting those to whom one is indebted
2800:
806:to describe the second person pronouns
39:
3373:Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert (2000).
3330:Companion encyclopedia of anthropology
3194:Companion encyclopedia of anthropology
3020:Pan, Yuling; Kádár, Dániel Z. (2011).
2182:is divided into two other categories:
1700:. See the relevant discussion on the
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
1654:' (archaic) as formal pronouns, and '
972:Many Indo-Aryan languages, including
766:
726:Honorific speech is a type of social
7:
2629:status-lowering (humiliative) speech
882:adding citations to reliable sources
3298:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
2962:. Cambridge University Press. p. 19
2126:English and Western table manners.
2506:Level III is marked by the prefix
2121:Javanese language § Registers
1114:: second-person singular, informal
612:for transliterated languages, and
592:of its non-English content, using
25:
2005:to the teacher's place tomorrow.'
3326:"Social Aspects of Language Use"
3294:Errington, James Joseph (1988).
3148:Errington, James Joseph (1988).
3120:Errington, James Joseph (1998).
3053:Civil Service Bureau (Hong Kong)
2830:, Oxford University Press. p.164
2632:status-raising (exaltive) speech
2172:is the common "everyday" speech.
1860:or the speech of the cookhouse.
1674:
1148:: second-person plural, informal
854:
743:Bystander (or speaker/bystander)
579:
190:Singulative-Collective-Plurative
3221:. Basic Books. pp. 52–53.
1800:Australian Aboriginal languages
1476:). It is acceptable to replace
3190:"Understanding Sex and Gender"
2994:Lopez Odango, Emerson (2015).
1662:' (sg.) as informal pronouns.
740:Referent (or speaker/referent)
691:, social distance, politeness
628:multilingual support templates
154:Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)
1:
3572:Levinson, Stephen C. (1983).
3499:Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary
3244:Javanese, a cultural approach
2188:: semi-polite and semi-formal
1986:encodes a feeling of humility
748:
737:Addressee (or speaker/hearer)
3313:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2751:is the shortened version of
2353:recently, many children use
1954:encodes a feeling of respect
1914:Honorific speech in Japanese
1864:Other examples of honorifics
918:Portuguese personal pronouns
3595:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3167:. Oxford University Press.
2445:formal or deferential style
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1569:
1563:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1016:
1010:
1004:
998:
992:
986:
270:Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)
3992:
3281:10.1177/003368827300400108
3219:Interpretation of Cultures
3096:Wetzel, Patricia J. 2004.
2958:Dixon, Robert M. W. 1994.
2949:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 97
2702:
2477:
2252:
2202:"Krama" is pronounced as
2118:
1907:
1872:
1778:
1750:and the 2nd person plural
1734:
1635:knowledge of the subject.
1088:
915:
791:
29:
3808:
3553:Frawley, William (1992).
3484:10.1017/S0047404500020923
3399:"조선 유교 사회…나이 서열? 오히려 없었다"
3324:Ingold, Tim, ed. (2002).
3217:Geertz, Clifford (1977).
3188:Ingold, Tim, ed. (2002).
3163:Koentjaraningrat (1985).
2574:using common language is
2397:semiformal or blunt style
2194:: fully polite and formal
1091:T-V distinction in Polish
3641:English social honorific
3591:Sifianou, Maria (1992).
3401:(in Korean). 2022-12-30.
3353:Geertz, Hildred (1961).
2027:Sensei ga sochira ni iki
1995:Asu sensei no tokoro ni
393:Serial verb construction
3976:Linguistics terminology
3497:Hafford, James (2015).
2945:Tsunoda, Tasaku. 2005.
2753:
2747:
2730:
2720:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2664:
2649:
2607:
2601:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2576:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2530:
2520:
2514:
2512:, the reflexive prefix
2508:
2043:Another subcategory of
1938:, humble language; and
1930:, respectful language;
754:Indo-European languages
331:Honorifics (politeness)
2975:. Blackwell. pp. 327–8
2971:Foley, William. 1997.
2738:Good Morning, you two.
2490:
2150:
2135:
1518:) or the formal form (
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1383:
1377:
1369:
1363:
1355:
1349:
1341:
1335:
1324:
1318:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1268:
1260:
1252:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1204:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1172:
1166:
1158:
1152:
1144:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1110:
960:
954:
948:
942:
936:
930:
924:
838:
832:
826:
820:
814:
808:
508:Polypersonal agreement
3242:Keeler, Ward (1984).
3098:Keigo in Modern Japan
3077:. Tuttle. pp. 15–41.
3073:O’Neill, P. G. 2008.
3024:. London: Continuum.
2810:Pragmatics Microfiche
2142:
2131:
1963:Sensei ga sochira ni
1735:Further information:
1690:The dispute is about
144:Genitive construction
3555:Linguistic semantics
3443:(1): 125, 130, 142.
2544:Mortlockese language
2433:informal but polite.
2279:Korean speech levels
2259:Korean speech levels
2160:: not yet Javanese.
2075:respect for humanity
1885:New Culture Movement
1853:Mortlockese language
1433:proszę pana ministra
968:Indo-Aryan languages
878:improve this section
846:Brazilian Portuguese
626:. Knowledge (XXG)'s
590:specify the language
588:This article should
397:Traditional grammar
365:Syntax relationships
41:Grammatical features
3375:The Korean Language
2929:sens.univ-paris8.fr
2913:. 17 December 2018.
2774:Hedge (linguistics)
1942:, polite language.
1910:Japanese honorifics
1470:), a nun or nurse (
1264:: Mrs./Ms. Kowalska
765:found primarily in
315:Comparison (degree)
65:Dative construction
18:Addressee honorific
2863:www.britannica.com
2826:Huang, Yan. 2007.
2480:Nahuatl honorifics
2021:example: 先生がそちらに行き
2018:encodes politeness
1989:example: 明日先生のところに
1875:Chinese honorifics
1190:(female-marked) /
265:Grammatical aspect
3948:
3947:
3768:
3767:
3602:978-0-19-823972-7
3583:978-0-521-22235-8
3564:978-0-8058-1074-5
3545:978-0-521-30862-5
3253:978-0-89680-121-9
3131:978-0-521-63448-9
3083:978-4-8053-0976-6
3031:978-1-8470-6275-8
2372:more formal than
2357:to their parents.
2271:Korean honorifics
2255:Korean honorifics
2148:- relative value
1957:example: 先生がそちらに
1730:
1729:
1722:
914:
913:
906:
650:
649:
630:may also be used.
573:
572:
468:Topic and Comment
451:Thematic relation
346:Reflexive pronoun
260:Tense–aspect–mood
220:Associated motion
202:Universal grinder
16:(Redirected from
3983:
3961:Sociolinguistics
3941:
3932:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3904:
3897:
3890:
3881:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3853:
3846:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3816:
3795:
3788:
3781:
3772:
3634:
3627:
3620:
3611:
3606:
3587:
3568:
3549:
3521:
3520:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3472:Language Society
3467:
3461:
3460:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3370:
3359:
3358:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3165:Javanese culture
3160:
3154:
3153:
3145:
3136:
3135:
3117:
3108:
3094:
3085:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3050:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3017:
3011:
3010:
2991:
2976:
2969:
2963:
2956:
2950:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2931:. Archived from
2921:
2915:
2914:
2907:
2901:
2894:
2888:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2872:
2870:
2855:
2846:
2845:
2837:
2831:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2805:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2723:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2610:
2604:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2533:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2493:
2486:Nahuatl language
1858:kapsen leefalang
1824:Dyirbal language
1781:Avoidance speech
1775:Avoidance speech
1725:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1705:
1698:reliably sourced
1678:
1670:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1572:
1566:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1430:phrases such as
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1386:
1380:
1372:
1366:
1358:
1352:
1344:
1338:
1327:
1321:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1271:
1263:
1255:
1244:
1238:
1233:" is preferred.
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1207:
1195:
1189:
1184:(male-marked) /
1183:
1175:
1170:(male-marked) /
1169:
1161:
1155:
1147:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
963:
957:
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
909:
902:
898:
895:
889:
858:
850:
841:
835:
829:
823:
817:
811:
767:avoidance speech
717:grammatical case
706:
705:
698:
697:
690:
689:
681:honorific titles
670:
669:
645:
642:
636:
621:
615:
611:
605:
601:
595:
583:
582:
575:
565:
558:
551:
299:General features
214:Related to verbs
49:Related to nouns
37:
21:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3951:
3950:
3949:
3944:
3937:
3928:
3921:
3914:
3907:
3900:
3893:
3886:
3877:
3870:
3863:
3856:
3849:
3842:
3833:
3826:
3819:
3812:
3804:
3799:
3769:
3764:
3741:
3695:
3644:
3638:
3603:
3590:
3584:
3571:
3565:
3552:
3546:
3533:
3530:
3525:
3524:
3509:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3469:
3468:
3464:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3372:
3371:
3362:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3308:
3307:
3303:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3266:
3265:
3261:
3254:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3229:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3187:
3186:
3182:
3175:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3147:
3146:
3139:
3132:
3119:
3118:
3111:
3095:
3088:
3072:
3068:
3058:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3019:
3018:
3014:
2993:
2992:
2979:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2953:
2944:
2940:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2909:
2908:
2904:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2868:
2866:
2857:
2856:
2849:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2825:
2821:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2765:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2712:
2707:
2705:Thai honorifics
2701:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2617:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2540:
2482:
2476:
2275:Korean pronouns
2261:
2253:Main articles:
2251:
2123:
2117:
1916:
1908:Main articles:
1906:
1877:
1871:
1866:
1849:
1841:Guugu-Yimidhirr
1837:
1835:Guugu-Yimidhirr
1820:
1808:Bantu languages
1783:
1777:
1739:
1726:
1715:
1709:
1706:
1695:
1679:
1668:
1641:
1624:
1506:
1272:: Mrs./Ms. Anna
1097:
1087:
1053:(informal) and
1047:
970:
928:(informal) and
920:
910:
899:
893:
890:
875:
859:
848:
796:
794:T–V distinction
790:
701:
700:
693:
692:
685:
684:
677:morphosyntactic
665:
664:
646:
640:
637:
631:
619:
613:
609:
607:transliteration
603:
599:
593:
584:
580:
569:
540:
539:
498:
490:
489:
436:
428:
427:
366:
358:
357:
327:(verbal number)
325:Pluractionality
300:
292:
291:
215:
207:
206:
186:
127:Collective noun
109:Construct state
50:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3989:
3987:
3979:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3953:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3942:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3919:
3912:
3905:
3898:
3891:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3868:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3824:
3817:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3800:
3798:
3797:
3790:
3783:
3775:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3762:
3757:
3751:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3652:
3650:
3646:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3601:
3588:
3582:
3569:
3563:
3550:
3544:
3529:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3507:
3489:
3478:(2): 247–268.
3462:
3449:10.2307/413001
3427:
3404:
3390:
3383:
3360:
3345:
3338:
3316:
3301:
3286:
3259:
3252:
3234:
3227:
3209:
3202:
3180:
3173:
3155:
3137:
3130:
3109:
3086:
3066:
3037:
3030:
3012:
2977:
2964:
2951:
2938:
2935:on 2021-05-12.
2916:
2902:
2889:
2880:
2847:
2832:
2819:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2764:
2761:
2731:Mafufuo, meru.
2711:
2708:
2703:Main article:
2700:
2697:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2630:
2616:
2613:
2580:, while it is
2555:kapas pwéteete
2539:
2536:
2478:Main article:
2475:
2474:Modern Nahuatl
2472:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2363:familiar style
2360:
2359:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2338:intimate style
2331:
2330:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2306:
2305:
2250:
2247:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2189:
2173:
2119:Main article:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2019:
2016:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1987:
1984:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1955:
1952:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1897:
1873:Main article:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1848:
1845:
1836:
1833:
1819:
1816:
1779:Main article:
1776:
1773:
1742:Middle English
1728:
1727:
1682:
1680:
1673:
1667:
1664:
1640:
1637:
1623:
1620:
1505:
1502:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1374:
1360:
1346:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1265:
1257:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1177:
1163:
1149:
1141:
1122:(masculine) /
1115:
1086:
1083:
1046:
1043:
1041:-equivalents.
969:
966:
916:Main article:
912:
911:
862:
860:
853:
847:
844:
792:Main article:
789:
786:
745:
744:
741:
738:
648:
647:
587:
585:
578:
571:
570:
568:
567:
560:
553:
545:
542:
541:
538:
537:
532:
527:
522:
520:Empty category
517:
512:
511:
510:
499:
496:
495:
492:
491:
488:
487:
482:
477:
476:
475:
465:
464:
463:
458:
448:
443:
437:
434:
433:
430:
429:
426:
425:
424:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
395:
390:
385:
384:
383:
378:
367:
364:
363:
360:
359:
356:
355:
354:
353:
351:Reflexive verb
348:
338:
333:
328:
322:
317:
312:
307:
301:
298:
297:
294:
293:
290:
289:
284:
283:
282:
277:
272:
267:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
216:
213:
212:
209:
208:
205:
204:
199:
194:
193:
192:
187:
185:
184:
179:
174:
170:
163:
158:
157:
156:
151:
141:
136:
131:
130:
129:
124:
119:
111:
106:
105:
104:
94:
93:
92:
87:
82:
77:
75:Quirky subject
72:
67:
57:
51:
48:
47:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3988:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3940:
3936:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3917:
3913:
3910:
3906:
3903:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3831:
3829:
3825:
3822:
3818:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3791:
3789:
3784:
3782:
3777:
3776:
3773:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3635:
3630:
3628:
3623:
3621:
3616:
3615:
3612:
3604:
3598:
3594:
3589:
3585:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3560:
3556:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3531:
3527:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3508:9781321965919
3504:
3500:
3493:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3463:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3428:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3394:
3391:
3386:
3384:0-7914-4831-2
3380:
3376:
3369:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3341:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3317:
3312:
3305:
3302:
3297:
3290:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3263:
3260:
3255:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3235:
3230:
3228:0-465-09719-7
3224:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3181:
3176:
3174:0-19-582542-X
3170:
3166:
3159:
3156:
3151:
3144:
3142:
3138:
3133:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3106:0-8248-2602-7
3103:
3099:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3067:
3054:
3047:
3041:
3038:
3033:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3013:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2997:Affeu fangani
2996:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2920:
2917:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2843:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2823:
2820:
2815:
2811:
2804:
2801:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2732:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2709:
2706:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2687:
2681:
2666:
2651:
2644:
2640:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2603:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2545:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2492:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2471:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2147:
2146:unggah-unggah
2141:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2114:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2033:'The teacher
2032:
2030:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1998:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1969:'The teacher
1968:
1966:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1854:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1782:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1724:
1721:
1713:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1671:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1658:' (pl.) and '
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1511:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1385:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1370:Pani kierowca
1365:
1361:
1357:
1356:Pani dyrektor
1351:
1347:
1343:
1342:Pani minister
1337:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1313:
1312:in English).
1311:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:Pani Kowalska
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1206:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1018:
1012:
1006:
1000:
994:
988:
983:
979:
975:
967:
965:
962:
956:
950:
944:
938:
932:
926:
922:The pronouns
919:
908:
905:
897:
887:
883:
879:
873:
872:
868:
863:This section
861:
857:
852:
851:
845:
843:
840:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
805:
801:
795:
787:
785:
783:
778:
776:
770:
768:
763:
759:
755:
750:
742:
739:
736:
735:
734:
731:
729:
724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
704:
696:
688:
682:
678:
674:
668:
663:
659:
655:
644:
634:
629:
625:
618:
608:
598:
591:
586:
577:
576:
566:
561:
559:
554:
552:
547:
546:
544:
543:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
525:Incorporation
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
509:
506:
505:
504:
501:
500:
494:
493:
486:
483:
481:
478:
474:
471:
470:
469:
466:
462:
459:
457:
454:
453:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
438:
432:
431:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
398:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
382:
379:
377:
374:
373:
372:
369:
368:
362:
361:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
302:
296:
295:
288:
285:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
262:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
235:Evidentiality
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
217:
211:
210:
203:
200:
198:
195:
191:
188:
183:
180:
178:
175:
172:
171:
169:
168:
167:
164:
162:
159:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
113:Countability
112:
110:
107:
103:
100:
99:
98:
95:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
71:
68:
66:
63:
62:
61:
58:
56:
53:
52:
46:
45:
42:
38:
33:
19:
3592:
3573:
3554:
3535:
3498:
3492:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3413:
3407:
3393:
3374:
3354:
3348:
3329:
3319:
3310:
3304:
3295:
3289:
3272:
3269:RELC Journal
3268:
3262:
3243:
3237:
3218:
3212:
3193:
3183:
3164:
3158:
3149:
3121:
3097:
3074:
3069:
3057:. Retrieved
3052:
3040:
3021:
3015:
2998:
2995:
2972:
2967:
2959:
2954:
2946:
2941:
2933:the original
2928:
2919:
2905:
2897:
2892:
2883:
2874:
2867:. Retrieved
2862:
2841:
2835:
2827:
2822:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2779:Indexicality
2758:
2744:
2727:
2713:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2618:
2561:kapas amáfel
2541:
2496:
2483:
2468:
2448:
2427:
2424:polite style
2400:
2373:
2366:
2354:
2341:
2333:
2313:
2298:
2283:
2269:
2262:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:krama inggil
2209:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2192:Krama Inggil
2191:
2185:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2162:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2078:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2042:
2034:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2010:
2002:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1978:
1970:
1965:oide ni naru
1964:
1962:
1958:
1946:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1889:Qing dynasty
1882:
1878:
1857:
1850:
1838:
1827:
1821:
1810:, including
1784:
1768:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1740:
1731:
1716:
1707:
1691:
1683:
1642:
1633:
1625:
1575:
1560:
1538:
1507:
1450:
1392:
1364:Pan kierowca
1350:Pan dyrektor
1336:Pan minister
1314:
1309:
1277:
1201:
1098:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1048:
1022:
971:
921:
900:
891:
876:Please help
864:
803:
799:
797:
779:
771:
761:
757:
746:
732:
725:
721:lexical item
702:
694:
686:
666:
657:
651:
638:
624:ISO 639 code
620:}}
614:{{
610:}}
604:{{
600:}}
594:{{
589:
485:Veridicality
376:Transitivity
330:
320:Egophoricity
134:Definiteness
102:Measure word
90:Instrumental
70:Dative shift
3416:: 613–614.
3414:Linguistics
3055:. p. 5
2816:(7): A3–B1.
2657:food/eating
2538:Mortlockese
2503:suffixation
2499:prefixation
2491:compadrazgo
2310:plain style
2290:North Korea
2286:South Korea
2186:Krama Madya
2158:durung Jawa
2053:bika-hyōgen
1883:Before the
1847:Mortlockese
1806:, and some
1384:Pani doktor
1305:proszę pani
1299:proszę pana
1256:: Mr. Karol
1224:proszę Pana
699:, humility
673:grammatical
662:abbreviated
654:linguistics
421:Predicative
341:Reciprocity
310:Boundedness
230:Conjugation
197:Specificity
3971:Honorifics
3966:Pragmatics
3955:Categories
3888:Indonesian
3802:Honorifics
3574:Pragmatics
3528:References
3517:1257963345
3339:0415286042
3203:0415286042
3059:18 October
3007:1714372047
2960:Ergativity
2828:Pragmatics
2789:Politeness
2784:Pragmatics
2710:Wuvulu-Aua
2665:sapwelline
1756:and later
1378:Pan doktor
1359:: Director
1345:: Minister
1202:Sometimes
1089:See also:
535:Markedness
530:Inflection
515:Declension
446:Mirativity
255:Mirativity
161:Noun class
149:Possession
117:Count noun
97:Classifier
85:Comitative
80:Nominative
3700:Masculine
3422:1613-396X
3275:: 86–97.
2672:land/hand
2621:Pohnpeian
2615:Pohnpeian
2526:proclitic
2449:hapshoche
1795:phonology
1710:July 2022
1702:talk page
1269:Pani Anna
1253:Pan Karol
949:a senhora
894:July 2024
865:does not
775:diglossia
658:honorific
641:July 2024
503:Agreement
497:Phenomena
435:Semantics
401:Predicate
388:Branching
225:Clusivity
122:Mass noun
32:Honorific
3902:Japanese
3851:Filipino
3821:Canadian
3676:Mistress
3656:Goodwife
3649:Feminine
3437:Language
3003:ProQuest
2869:22 April
2763:See also
2451:or 합쇼체)
2430:or 해요체)
2428:haeyoche
2403:or 하오체)
2369:or 하게체)
2347:informal
2316:or 해라체)
2314:haerache
2232:mbak lik
2154:Javanese
2115:Javanese
2035:is going
2011:Teineigo
2001:'I will
1971:is going
1947:Sonkeigo
1940:teineigo
1932:kensongo
1928:sonkeigo
1919:Japanese
1904:Japanese
1686:disputed
1403:profesor
1387:: doctor
1373:: driver
1140:, child)
943:o senhor
782:register
749:Javanese
480:Volition
441:Contrast
371:Argument
336:Polarity
250:Telicity
240:Modality
173:Singular
3930:Russian
3916:Sinhala
3895:Italian
3844:English
3835:Hokkien
3828:Chinese
3814:Burmese
3747:Neutral
3717:Esquire
3707:Goodman
2754:amurua.
2686:pwenieu
2680:koanoat
2650:Tungoal
2583:saipash
2549:samwool
2521:-tzinōa
2367:hageche
2344:or 해체)
2037:there.'
1979:Kenjōgo
1973:there.'
1936:kenjōgo
1869:Chinese
1828:Jalnguy
1818:Dyirbal
1788:affinal
1666:English
1533:výkan’e
1527:týkan’e
1510:Russian
1508:Native
1504:Russian
1479:siostra
1473:siostra
1406:), the
1193:państwo
1181:panowie
1137:dziecko
1045:Persian
982:Bengali
886:removed
871:sources
671:) is a
633:See why
461:Patient
416:Adjunct
406:Subject
381:Valency
55:Animacy
3923:Slavic
3909:Korean
3872:Indian
3865:German
3858:French
3722:Master
3643:titles
3599:
3580:
3561:
3542:
3515:
3505:
3457:413001
3455:
3420:
3381:
3336:
3250:
3225:
3200:
3171:
3128:
3104:
3081:
3046:"謙稱敬稱"
3028:
3005:
2769:Deixis
2745:Note:
2721:amurua
2716:Wuvulu
2689:, and
2602:tiirou
2589:tiirou
2401:haoche
2374:banmal
2355:banmal
2342:haeche
2334:banmal
2319:formal
2294:Joseon
2264:Korean
2249:Korean
2049:bikago
1997:ukagau
1959:お出でになる
1804:Navajo
1650:' or '
1644:German
1639:German
1628:French
1622:French
1491:ksiądz
1467:ksiądz
1397:doktor
1394:(e.g.
1100:Polish
1085:Polish
1079:shê-Va
1065:where
1063:shê-Va
1035:- and
804:V-form
800:T-form
728:deixis
713:clitic
411:Object
305:Affect
245:Person
182:Plural
166:Number
139:Gender
3879:Tamil
3681:Madam
3453:JSTOR
3049:(PDF)
2795:Notes
2608:fairo
2595:fairo
2569:sleep
2376:style
2220:Ngoko
2216:Krama
2180:Krama
2176:Krama
2170:Ngoko
2060:keigo
2045:keigo
1924:keigo
1791:taboo
1646:has '
1494:with
1482:with
1205:panna
1187:panie
1059:Shoma
1055:Shoma
1017:aapni
974:Hindi
709:affix
656:, an
473:Focus
456:Agent
287:Voice
280:Tense
3939:Thai
3737:Lord
3732:Sire
3691:Lady
3686:Dame
3666:Miss
3597:ISBN
3578:ISBN
3559:ISBN
3540:ISBN
3513:OCLC
3503:ISBN
3418:ISSN
3379:ISBN
3334:ISBN
3248:ISBN
3223:ISBN
3198:ISBN
3169:ISBN
3126:ISBN
3102:ISBN
3079:ISBN
3061:2022
3026:ISBN
2871:2023
2748:Meru
2728:Ex.
2699:Thai
2577:maúr
2542:The
2484:The
2288:and
2257:and
2228:dhik
2029:masu
1912:and
1851:The
1822:The
1812:Zulu
1764:Thou
1747:thou
1594:and
1485:pani
1461:pani
1445:pani
1427:pani
1415:pani
1325:pani
1242:Pani
1230:Pani
1218:Pani
1173:pani
1093:and
1014:and
1011:tumi
996:and
980:and
978:Urdu
961:você
946:and
931:você
869:any
867:cite
812:and
802:and
762:vous
687:FORM
597:lang
275:Mood
177:Dual
60:Case
3727:Sir
3661:Mrs
3480:doi
3445:doi
3277:doi
2714:In
2692:sak
2619:In
2605:or
2592:or
2558:or
2515:mo-
2509:on-
2501:or
2336:or
2284:In
2238:).
2236:mas
2230:or
2051:or
2047:is
1993:。
1961:。
1934:or
1839:In
1759:you
1656:ihr
1652:Ihr
1648:Sie
1626:In
1570:vos
1497:pan
1455:pan
1439:pan
1421:pan
1409:pan
1322:or
1319:pan
1310:sir
1293:ona
1236:Pan
1212:Pan
1167:pan
1159:one
1153:oni
1131:ono
1125:ona
1075:shê
1069:or
1038:tum
1026:aap
1005:tui
999:aap
993:tum
958:or
880:by
839:vos
827:vos
815:vos
760:or
703:HBL
695:POL
675:or
667:HON
652:In
617:IPA
3957::
3760:Dr
3755:Mx
3712:Mr
3671:Ms
3511:.
3476:26
3474:.
3451:.
3441:54
3439:.
3363:^
3328:.
3271:.
3192:.
3140:^
3112:^
3089:^
3051:.
2980:^
2927:.
2898:vy
2873:.
2861:.
2850:^
2812:.
2683:,
2531:ma
2062::
2025:。
2023:ます
2003:go
1991:伺う
1814:.
1769:Ye
1753:ye
1660:du
1615:Vy
1609:vy
1603:vy
1597:vy
1591:ty
1585:vy
1579:ty
1564:vy
1554:Vy
1548:ty
1542:vy
1536:.
1521:vy
1515:ty
1400:,
1381:/
1367:/
1353:/
1339:/
1302:,
1287:on
1281:ty
1145:wy
1119:on
1111:ty
1071:Ve
1067:Va
1051:to
1032:tu
1008:,
990:,
987:tu
976:,
955:tu
937:tu
925:tu
833:Tu
821:tu
809:tu
758:tu
715:,
711:,
602:,
3794:e
3787:t
3780:v
3633:e
3626:t
3619:v
3605:.
3586:.
3567:.
3548:.
3519:.
3486:.
3482::
3459:.
3447::
3424:.
3387:.
3342:.
3283:.
3279::
3273:4
3256:.
3231:.
3206:.
3177:.
3134:.
3063:.
3034:.
3009:.
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2735:'
2675:'
2669:'
2660:'
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2572:'
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2399:(
2365:(
2340:(
2312:(
2031:.
1999:.
1967:.
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1717:(
1712:)
1708:(
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1688:.
1458:(
1442:/
1424:/
1412:/
1290:/
1284:/
1239:/
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907:)
901:(
896:)
892:(
888:.
874:.
660:(
643:)
639:(
635:.
564:e
557:t
550:v
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