42:
1672:
1823:
939:
1034:
454:
763:
382:
401:. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar or crescent shaped and somewhat larger. The adrenal glands measure approximately 5 cm in length, 3 cm in width, and up to 1 cm in thickness. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.
1184:. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act by interacting with
1948:, "kidney", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney.
1360:
The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex,
1389:
capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart, as it is composed of two distinct zones: the inner "fetal" zone, which carries most of the hormone-producing activity, and the outer
465:
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal
996:
The layers of the adrenal gland differ by function, with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor. The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain, a reaction that forms
1017:. Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of
1794:, hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis. As cortisol cannot be synthesized, these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead. The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to
1452:
During early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low, but several years before puberty (from 6–8 years of age) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids
1269: in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the
549:. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant
1068:
system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the
589:) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown
3235:
Uhlén, Mathias; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Lindskog, Cecilia; Oksvold, Per; Mardinoglu, Adil; Sivertsson, Åsa; Kampf, Caroline; Sjöstedt, Evelina (23 January 2015). "Tissue-based map of the human proteome".
1742:
leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of
895:, which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy. Glucocorticoids also have effects unrelated to the regulation of blood sugar levels, including the suppression of the immune system and a potent
1686:
Addison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the
Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an
1551:
of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of
958:
is cholesterol uptake or synthesis. Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths. The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as
461:, showing its different layers. From the surface to the center: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, medulla. In the medulla, the central adrenomedullary vein is visible.
1571:
is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the
1587:
which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (
1228:(PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT.
1064:. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative
2018:
754:, such as failure of the kidneys to develop, or fused kidneys. The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex, or may develop in an unusual location.
4516:
4086:
3696:
3848:
2405:
689:
These blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands. Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands, carrying blood to them.
619:, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.
3336:
Barwick, T.D.; Malhotra, A.; Webb, J.A.W.; Savage, M.O.; Reznek, R.H. (September 2005). "Embryology of the adrenal glands and its relevance to diagnostic imaging".
1009:. After the production of pregnenolone, specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it. Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and
930:
on cortisol. The reaction catalyzed by 11β-HSD is reversible, which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol, the biologically active hormone.
918:. Cortisol is not evenly released during the day – its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the
1077:
1739:
1656:
1045:
1038:
203:
1477:
layer of the cortex. Functionally, adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty.
1438:. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.
1188:
throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the
3679:
1243:
innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland. When activated, it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of
852:
are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume, which in turn influences
4052:
2620:
Zhou M, Gomez-Sanchez CE (July 1993). "Cloning and expression of a rat cytochrome P-450 11 beta-hydroxylase/aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) cDNA variant".
730:
The central adrenomedullary vein, in the adrenal medulla, is an unusual type of blood vessel. Its structure is different from the other veins in that the
4483:
1192:, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.
2603:
326:
suppression. The innermost layer of the cortex, the zona reticularis, produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the
1529:
secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.
1525:
produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that
3175:
GarcĂa, AG; GarcĂa de Diego, AM; GandĂa, L; Borges, R; GarcĂa Sancho, J (2006). "Calcium signaling and exocytosis in adrenal chromaffin cells".
4509:
4079:
1290:
1225:
990:
3287:
Bergman, Julia; Botling, Johan; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Djureinovic, Dijana; Uhlén, Mathias; Pontén, Fredrik (1 February 2017).
642:. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
3159:
2885:
2801:
2746:
2721:
2523:
2498:
2431:
2111:
2048:
1996:
1905:, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563–4. However, these publications were part of the
179:
927:
339:
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3912:
41:
3832:
3123:
2927:
2667:
2553:
2255:
2161:
4502:
4072:
2389:
2341:
1983:
effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat
Addison's disease.
1671:
766:
Different hormones are produced in different zones of the cortex and medulla of the gland. Light microscopy at magnification Ă— 204.
774:
either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.
2762:
1124:. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as
1787:
1057:
840:
and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered
1767:
1458:
1018:
362:
3001:
1976:
967:
198:
1756:
1543:
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and
1273:
superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as
4537:
4407:
1811:
1526:
1509:. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the
1505:, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as
1418:
synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of
1014:
904:
526:
394:
1791:
1744:
1576:
1466:
1407:
1049:
978:, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.
911:
1695:
against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from
5238:
4268:
3710:"A survey on adrenal incidentaloma in Italy. Study Group on Adrenal Tumors of the Italian Society of Endocrinology"
2737:
Mirilas P, Skandalakis JE, Colborn GL, Weidman TA, Foster RS, Kingsnorth A, Skandalakis LJ, Skandalakis PN (2004).
1960:
1910:
1510:
1506:
1326:
1240:
1232:
679:
659:
635:
623:
98:
90:
1822:
5198:
3708:
Mantero, F; Terzolo, M; Arnaldi, G; Osella, G; Masini, AM; Alì, A; Giovagnetti, M; Opocher, G; Angeli, A (2000).
3676:
3151:
1972:
1853:
1779:
1294:
1085:
663:
541:
is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing
502:. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by
405:
4049:
at the SUNY Downstate
Medical Center – "Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands"
856:. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.
844:. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation.
5206:
1865:
1798:
deficiency. 21-hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, but not
1189:
910:
The adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to
829:
669:
334:, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the
162:
94:
4033:
4240:
4151:
2570:
1932:
963:
1706:
A complication seen in untreated
Addison's disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the
1434:
such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the
5329:
5132:
5037:
4889:
4263:
3013:
1857:
1538:
1454:
1141:
1121:
833:
804:
785:
are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named.
751:
574:
425:
210:
186:
174:
1100:
in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance, and upon binding they stimulate the release of
650:
The adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ: up to 60
4939:
3987:
3376:"Development and Function of the Human Fetal Adrenal Cortex: A Key Component in the Feto-Placental Unit"
1984:
1980:
1968:
1612:
1378:
1070:
981:
The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the
971:
723:
704:
554:
1916:
The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term "adrenal" comes from
1568:
1552:
354:
2571:"The product of the CYP11B2 gene is required for aldosterone biosynthesis in the human adrenal cortex"
5168:
4904:
4466:
4456:
4058:
3750:
3425:"Mechanisms of adrenal gland growth: signal integration by extracellular signal regulated kinases1/2"
1964:
1878:. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and
1680:
1652:
1342:
1209:
1097:
715:
639:
631:
522:
358:
4027:
3018:
5334:
4917:
4686:
4245:
4198:
4190:
4046:
1902:
1845:
1771:
1338:
1129:
841:
627:
5109:
4980:
4742:
4733:
4719:
4163:
4131:
4113:
3894:
3842:
3269:
3039:
2851:
2817:
2399:
1992:
1544:
1391:
1361:
which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about
1053:
959:
915:
708:
421:
138:
2182:"The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders"
1802:. Therefore, ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of
1624:
1465:, which has only been described in humans and some other primates. Adrenarche is independent of
3862:
Papadakis, Marios; Manios, Andreas; Schoretsanitis, Georgios; Trompoukis, Constantinos (2016).
2103:
5308:
5298:
5010:
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4829:
4626:
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4255:
4168:
4141:
3969:
3886:
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3780:
3731:
3659:
3618:
3577:
3528:
3487:
3446:
3405:
3353:
3318:
3310:
3261:
3253:
3192:
3155:
3119:
3092:
3031:
2979:
2923:
2891:
2881:
2797:
2742:
2717:
2663:
2637:
2595:
2549:
2519:
2494:
2427:
2385:
2337:
2305:
2251:
2211:
2157:
2107:
2044:
1871:
1861:
1752:
1715:
1711:
1700:
1676:
1584:
1236:
942:
Steroidogenesis in the adrenal glands – different steps occur in different layers of the gland
896:
837:
821:
738:(the middle layer of the vessel) is arranged in conspicuous, longitudinally oriented bundles.
518:
417:
350:
291:
3916:
2064:
365:
is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of
5275:
4782:
4765:
4646:
4596:
4591:
4440:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4180:
4173:
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3245:
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Curnow KM, Tusie-Luna MT, Pascoe L, Natarajan R, Gu JL, Nadler JL, White PC (October 1991).
2295:
2287:
2201:
2193:
2095:
1951:
One of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of
1803:
1514:
1474:
1173:
1113:
919:
892:
696:
566:
538:
499:
343:
280:
276:
272:
110:
78:
4011:
3210:
2841:
Marieb Human
Anatomy & Physiology 9th edition, chapter:16, page:629, question number:14
938:
5283:
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5183:
5114:
5104:
4701:
4529:
4323:
4315:
4208:
4203:
4121:
4104:
3766:
3683:
3289:"The Human Adrenal Gland Proteome Defined by Transcriptomics and Antibody-Based Profiling"
3143:
1875:
1849:
1748:
1411:
1334:
1314:
1313:
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the
1286:
1270:
1266:
1244:
1200:
Catecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland, from
982:
888:
673:
612:
608:
602:
582:
436:
390:
370:
287:
264:
260:
236:
3597:"The sympathoadrenal cell lineage: Specification, diversification, and new perspectives"
2461:
762:
453:
5160:
5050:
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4872:
4845:
4691:
4546:
4372:
4287:
4218:
4136:
4126:
3964:
3939:
3775:
3572:
3547:
3400:
3375:
3139:
3087:
3062:
2974:
2947:
2710:
2300:
2275:
2206:
2181:
1956:
1795:
1727:
1707:
1644:
1522:
1498:
1431:
1330:
1298:
1256:
1185:
1157:
1093:
1033:
1022:
947:
872:
868:
853:
845:
782:
542:
471:
448:
432:
307:
295:
268:
256:
1655:
and genetic causes) directly affect the adrenal cortex. If a problem that affects the
1555:) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.
1369:
each. In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development.
5323:
5143:
4968:
4956:
4943:
4927:
4681:
4616:
4377:
4367:
4158:
3898:
3111:
3047:
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2239:
2096:
1906:
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1718:
and symptoms such as vomiting and fever. An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to
1382:
1322:
1205:
1169:
1165:
1084:, and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH. Sensors of blood pressure in the
986:
746:
The adrenal glands may not develop at all, or may be fused in the midline behind the
731:
616:
611:
is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The
550:
335:
323:
122:
3863:
3751:"Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: diagnosis, genetics, management, and treatment"
3043:
5288:
4611:
4559:
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4427:
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4355:
2013:
1988:
1883:
1841:
1696:
1688:
1592:
1502:
1486:
1470:
1350:
1262:
1125:
1061:
998:
825:
770:
The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by
735:
683:
586:
578:
409:
318:
are synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of
126:
73:
66:
4064:
4022:
3273:
989:. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by
431:
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer
3802:
2038:
420:
separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the
167:
5216:
5065:
5045:
4860:
4855:
4795:
4435:
4350:
4017:
3613:
3596:
3078:
2008:
1891:
1887:
1879:
1647:) occurs in about 5 in 10,000 in the general population. Diseases classified as
1628:
1616:
1608:
1548:
1302:
1181:
1153:
1101:
951:
884:
817:
790:
514:
479:
306:) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and
303:
244:
3955:
3349:
3188:
2358:
1751:. This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of
1406:
biosynthesis. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by
1265: includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these
353:
involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to
5124:
4993:
4963:
4912:
4817:
4525:
4412:
4397:
3654:
3637:
2796:(21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 768–778.
1462:
1447:
1318:
1161:
1092:
into the blood, which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of
900:
891:
from these amino acids in the liver. In addition, they increase the levels of
876:
719:
590:
503:
319:
240:
57:
3314:
3257:
1703:
of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.
470:
each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The
191:
5087:
4882:
4663:
4402:
4213:
3249:
2895:
1999:
for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones.
1953:
On the
Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule
1807:
1632:
1588:
1081:
1010:
923:
849:
651:
507:
467:
458:
381:
315:
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3973:
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3784:
3735:
3726:
3709:
3663:
3622:
3581:
3532:
3482:
3465:
3450:
3409:
3357:
3322:
3265:
3196:
3096:
3035:
2983:
2633:
2590:
2309:
2215:
3491:
3466:"Developmental and Functional Biology of the Primate Fetal Adrenal Cortex"
3027:
2641:
2599:
1216:
in the first step of catecholamine synthesis. L-DOPA is then converted to
903:
to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the
871:
in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is played by
506:
of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide
5263:
5226:
5221:
5148:
5020:
4601:
4586:
4564:
4473:
4345:
3391:
3305:
3288:
2291:
2197:
1799:
1783:
1775:
1692:
1580:
1572:
1518:
1490:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1354:
1346:
1217:
1201:
1177:
1133:
1117:
1065:
975:
864:
797:
570:
546:
487:
483:
366:
311:
299:
248:
62:
3563:
3523:
3506:
3441:
3424:
2964:
1971:
and its related clinical manifestations. In 1894, English physiologists
1940:
654:
may enter each gland. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland:
5293:
5211:
5188:
5092:
5082:
5077:
5015:
4998:
4951:
4656:
4606:
4581:
4232:
3882:
3825:
The Human
Adrenal Cortex Pathology and Biology – An Integrated Approach
2948:"Early steps in steroidogenesis: intracellular cholesterol trafficking"
2792:
Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H., eds. (2010).
2382:
The Human
Adrenal Cortex Pathology and Biology – An Integrated Approach
1786:. In the HPA axis, cortisol (a glucocorticoid) inhibits the release of
1620:
1386:
1274:
1221:
1002:
955:
880:
824:, which is important in the regulation of salt ("mineral") balance and
475:
331:
252:
17:
2739:
Surgical
Anatomy: The Embryologic And Anatomic Basis Of Modern Surgery
2384:. Springer London. pp. Chapter 4: Structure of the adult cortex.
974:. Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low. In the
330:
and other target organs. The production of steroid hormones is called
216:
5248:
5243:
5178:
5173:
5119:
5055:
5003:
4922:
4812:
4800:
4755:
4714:
4709:
4651:
4576:
1719:
1596:
1575:
or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into
1494:
1419:
1278:
1213:
1025:, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.
771:
413:
398:
85:
1909:
and did not receive public attention, which was first received with
800:
influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose").
3827:. London: Springer London. pp. Chapter 2: Historical Aspects.
1714:
in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in
5258:
5253:
5138:
4865:
4772:
4673:
4631:
4621:
4570:
4362:
4337:
1936:
1927:
1921:
1917:
1670:
1619:(excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing
1137:
1089:
1032:
937:
761:
747:
452:
380:
327:
150:
133:
117:
1959:. In his monography, Addison described what the French physician
1501:
from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the
879:. As their name suggests, they increase the circulating level of
5025:
4760:
4636:
4554:
1723:
1435:
1282:
1204:, a non-essential amino acid derived from food or produced from
692:
466:
gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones". When
389:
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the
105:
4498:
4068:
3211:"The human proteome in adrenal gland – The Human Protein Atlas"
1726:. The management of adrenal crises includes the application of
1521:
salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs.
1056:. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of
5060:
4877:
4641:
2690:
Dunn R. B.; Kudrath W.; Passo S.S.; Wilson L.B. (2011). "10".
1231:
Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the
970:. The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell's
385:
Adrenal glands, anterior (left) and posterior (right) surface
4061:—Plastination Laboratory at the Medical University of Vienna
3116:
Guyton and Hall
Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th edition
2152:
Melmed, S; Polonsky, KS; Larsen, PR; Kronenberg, HM (2011).
2102:(6th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.
1894:, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.
883:. This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of
3677:
Hydrocortisone Emergency Factsheet for Ambulance Personnel
1979:
studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their
1224:, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme
1044:
Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the
3638:"Resolved and open issues in chromaffin cell development"
2040:
Adrenal Glands: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Evidence
1738:
In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the
1579:-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of
638:, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized
3063:"Recent advances involving the renin–angiotensin system"
2703:
2701:
2426:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 294, 298.
1394:
phase. The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal
369:
can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in
2546:
Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas
2357:
Antonio Carlos A. Westphalen and Bonnie N. Joe (2006).
2276:"Approach to the patient with an adrenal incidentaloma"
1345:
paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from
1325:
and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the
1076:
Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the
1052:(ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the
525:. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term
4043: – Histology Learning System at Boston University
2716:. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1782:
and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the
1778:
of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a
1289:
synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and
634:, from vertebrae T5–T11. Because it is innervated by
569:, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces
357:, whereas insufficient production is associated with
3714:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
3002:"Classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia and puberty"
2280:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
1473:
and correlates with a progressive thickening of the
1430:(female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially
1116:
of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or
993:
and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis.
954:
as a common precursor. Therefore, the first step in
793:
regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressure
5274:
5197:
5159:
5036:
4979:
4938:
4903:
4844:
4781:
4741:
4732:
4700:
4672:
4545:
4536:
4449:
4426:
4388:
4336:
4314:
4286:
4277:
4254:
4231:
4189:
4112:
4103:
4034:
Anatomy Atlases – Microscopic Anatomy, plate 15.292
3636:Unsicker K, Huber K, Schober A, Kalcheim C (2013).
2019:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
1627:). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and
1220:before it can be turned into noradrenaline. In the
926:is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme
197:
185:
173:
161:
149:
144:
132:
116:
104:
84:
72:
56:
51:
34:
2709:
1931:, "kidney". Similarly, "suprarenal", as termed by
1874:are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from
3695:Data and references for pie chart are located at
3000:Charmandari, E; Brook, CG; Hindmarsh, PC (2004).
1806:, which can lead to the development of ambiguous
1599:in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.
1365:at birth and develop to an adult weight of about
1257:Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
985:family that are located in the inner membrane of
615:of the medulla are the body's main source of the
3988:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1950"
2787:
2785:
2783:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
1967:, an eponym still used today for a condition of
1699:. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is
498:The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the
286:The adrenal cortex produces three main types of
2489:Whitehead, Saffron A.; Nussey, Stephen (2001).
2175:
2173:
2995:
2993:
2941:
2939:
2794:Davidson's principles and practice of medicine
1517:because they contain granules that stain with
1152:Primarily referred to in the United States as
1046:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) axis
875:instead. Glucocorticoids have many effects on
513:This layer is the main site for production of
4510:
4080:
3864:"Landmarks in the history of adrenal surgery"
3823:O'Hare, A. Munro Neville, Michael J. (2012).
2380:O'Hare, A. Munro Neville, Michael J. (1982).
2336:. Burlington: Elsevier Science. p. 241.
2246:; Hauser, S; Jameson, J; Loscalzo, J (2012).
1461:. These changes are part of a process called
271:itself is divided into three main zones: the
239:that produce a variety of hormones including
8:
3847:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3818:
3816:
3814:
2692:Kaplan USMLE Step 1 Physiology Lecture Notes
2484:
2482:
2404:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2327:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
1048:. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by
1001:as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme
3697:file description page in Wikimedia Commons.
3507:"Adrenarche: a cell biological perspective"
3369:
3367:
2147:
2145:
2143:
1826:Incidences and prognoses of adrenal tumors.
1060:(CRH), which is released by neurons of the
412:, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak
4738:
4542:
4517:
4503:
4495:
4484:List of human endocrine organs and actions
4283:
4109:
4087:
4073:
4065:
3796:
3794:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2248:Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
2141:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
1615:. Causes for this condition are bilateral
1607:When the zona glomerulosa produces excess
1513:. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called
1377:Adrenal cortex tissue is derived from the
1349:, whereas the medulla is derived from the
828:. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the
40:
3963:
3774:
3725:
3653:
3612:
3571:
3522:
3481:
3440:
3399:
3304:
3086:
3017:
2973:
2963:
2653:
2651:
2589:
2299:
2205:
2043:. Nova Science Publishers, New York, NY.
1643:Adrenal insufficiency (the deficiency of
1398:(male sex hormones) that are used by the
899:effect. Cortisol reduces the capacity of
4012:Adrenal gland at the Human Protein Atlas
3944:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
2922:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
2913:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2708:Sapru, Hreday N.; Siegel, Allan (2007).
2417:
2415:
2269:
2267:
2250:(18th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1821:
1305:synthesis and expressed in the medulla.
2878:Human physiology: from cells to systems
2741:. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing.
2548:(6th ed.). Elsevier. p. 329.
2518:. Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas.
2334:Endocrine Gland Development and Disease
2069:Medline Plus/Merriam-Webster Dictionary
2029:
404:The adrenal glands are surrounded by a
3840:
3548:"The steroid metabolome of adrenarche"
2662:(9th ed.). Pearson. p. 629.
2544:Young B, Woodford P, O'Dowd G (2013).
2397:
2089:
2087:
2085:
1691:condition, in which the body produces
1595:, depression, and most distinctively,
1226:phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
1021:develops as a result of deficiency of
991:steroidogenic acute regulatory protein
214:
31:
3767:10.1016/j.currproblcancer.2014.01.001
2491:Endocrinology: an integrated approach
2422:Moore KL, Dalley AF, Agur AM (2013).
1997:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1836:Adrenal tumors are commonly found as
622:The adrenal medulla is driven by the
7:
2609:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1856:, and in most cases they are benign
1755:, which are under regulation of the
1485:The adrenal medulla is derived from
1426:and precursor of both androgens and
1337:. These tissues come from different
1078:renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system
966:(LDL). LDL enters the cells through
887:from protein and the stimulation of
4059:Cross section image: pembody/body8a
2424:Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 7th ed
1740:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
1657:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
373:when searching for other diseases.
3429:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology
2918:Boron, WF.; Boulapep, EL. (2012).
2880:. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
2154:Williams Textbook of Endocrinology
1852:. They are seen in around 3.4% of
1659:arises outside the gland, it is a
1088:of the kidneys release the enzyme
836:by increasing the reabsorption of
750:. These are associated with other
695:is drained from the glands by the
565:The innermost cortical layer, the
439:, both of which produce hormones.
25:
3804:Medical Discoveries: Who and When
3061:Crowley, SD; Coffman, TM (2012).
3006:European Journal of Endocrinology
1390:"definitive" zone, which is in a
1381:. It first appears 33 days after
1329:. Surrounding the medulla is the
1120:, the most important of which is
4055:, from Colorado State University
3423:Hoeflich A, Bielohuby M (2009).
1868:of 1 case per million per year.
1176:that have a structure made of a
3749:Martucci, VL; Pacak, K (2014).
2514:Jefferies, William McK (2004).
2180:Miller, WL; Auchus, RJ (2011).
1734:Secondary adrenal insufficiency
1661:secondary adrenal insufficiency
1058:corticotropin-releasing hormone
457:Section of human adrenal gland
3913:"What Are The Adrenal Glands?"
2660:Human anatomy & physiology
2359:"CT and MRI of Adrenal Masses"
1890:. Surgery, especially adrenal
1768:Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
1763:Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
1333:, which produces a variety of
1019:congenital adrenal hyperplasia
699:, usually one for each gland:
521:, by the action of the enzyme
363:Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
338:, which function to produce a
302:. Mineralocorticoids (such as
1:
3374:Ishimoto H, Jaffe RB (2011).
2946:Miller, WL; Bose, HS (2011).
2658:Marieb, EN; Hoehn, K (2012).
2493:. Oxford: BIOS. p. 122.
1935:in 1629, is derived from the
1812:secondary sex characteristics
1649:primary adrenal insufficiency
1559:Corticosteroid overproduction
1341:precursors and have distinct
1136:(female sex hormones) in the
1080:(RAAS), the concentration of
1015:hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
968:receptor-mediated endocytosis
3940:"Thomas Addison (1793–1860)"
3552:The Journal of Endocrinology
3546:Rege, J; Rainey, WE (2012).
3511:The Journal of Endocrinology
3464:Mesiano S, Jaffe RB (1997).
1635:depletion sodium retention.
1410:, a hormone produced by the
555:smooth endoplasmic reticulum
527:regulation of blood pressure
474:is devoted to production of
99:inferior suprarenal arteries
3915:. About.com. Archived from
3614:10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.07.010
3079:10.1016/j.yexcr.2012.02.023
2876:Sherwood, Lauralee (2001).
2156:(12th ed.). Saunders.
2098:Histology: A Text and Atlas
1995:were then awarded the 1950
1955:, by the English physician
1745:adrenocorticotropic hormone
1251:Gene and protein expression
1050:adrenocorticotropic hormone
912:adrenocorticotropic hormone
816:The adrenal gland produces
789:Mineralocorticoids such as
251:. They are found above the
5351:
3956:10.1177/014107680409700615
3755:Current Problems in Cancer
3350:10.1016/j.crad.2005.04.006
3189:10.1152/physrev.00039.2005
3152:W. W. Norton & Company
3067:Experimental Cell Research
2622:Biochem Biophys Res Commun
2332:Thomas, Paul, ed. (2013).
2094:Ross M, Pawlina W (2011).
1913:'s illustrations in 1611.
1911:Caspar Bartholin the Elder
1829:
1536:
1511:sympathetic nervous system
1445:
1387:steroid hormone production
1327:sympathetic nervous system
1254:
1241:sympathetic nervous system
1233:sympathetic nervous system
1140:, acting in this way as a
680:inferior suprarenal artery
660:superior suprarenal artery
636:preganglionic nerve fibers
624:sympathetic nervous system
600:
446:
424:, and are attached to the
255:. Each gland has an outer
4041:Histology image: 14501loa
3682:24 September 2015 at the
3655:10.1016/j.mod.2012.11.004
3642:Mechanisms of Development
2952:Journal of Lipid Research
1780:glucocorticoid deficiency
1208:in the liver. The enzyme
1086:juxtaglomerular apparatus
1037:Negative feedback in the
830:distal convoluted tubules
672:, a direct branch of the
468:viewed under a microscope
209:
46:Position of adrenal gland
39:
4047:Anatomy photo:40:03-0105
4018:MedlinePlus Encyclopedia
3807:. Thomas. pp. 9–10.
3686:The Pituitary Foundation
1757:renin–angiotensin system
1583:Cushing's syndrome is a
1563:
1190:fight or flight response
964:low density lipoproteins
796:Glucocorticoids such as
752:congenital abnormalities
670:middle suprarenal artery
4152:Somatomammotrophic cell
4028:Adrenal gland histology
3250:10.1126/science.1260419
3142:, Alan J. Fridlund and
2037:Santulli G. MD (2015).
1933:Jean Riolan the Younger
1882:. Common signs include
1864:are very rare, with an
1666:
664:inferior phrenic artery
342:throughout the body in
4969:Lymphoid immune system
4538:Musculoskeletal system
3727:10.1210/jcem.85.2.6372
3483:10.1210/edrv.18.3.0304
2712:Essential Neuroscience
2634:10.1006/bbrc.1993.1792
2591:10.1210/mend-5-10-1513
1827:
1683:
1631:imbalance, increasing
1539:Adrenal gland disorder
1489:, which come from the
1247:in the cell membrane.
1142:metabolic intermediate
1041:
943:
905:gastrointestinal tract
805:dehydroepiandrosterone
767:
575:dehydroepiandrosterone
462:
426:crura of the diaphragm
386:
310:. The glucocorticoids
211:Anatomical terminology
4957:Myeloid immune system
4743:Cardiovascular system
3601:Developmental Biology
3177:Physiological Reviews
3028:10.1530/eje.0.151U077
2516:Safe uses of cortisol
1985:Edward Calvin Kendall
1969:adrenal insufficiency
1825:
1674:
1639:Adrenal insufficiency
1613:primary aldosteronism
1603:Primary aldosteronism
1533:Clinical significance
1379:intermediate mesoderm
1255:Further information:
1212:converts tyrosine to
1098:Angiotensin receptors
1071:inflammatory response
1036:
1007:cholesterol desmolase
972:endoplasmic reticulum
941:
765:
724:inferior phrenic vein
718:drains into the left
705:right suprarenal vein
456:
428:by the renal fascia.
393:, above and slightly
384:
156:glandula suprarenalis
5309:Islets of Langerhans
5169:Genitourinary system
4905:Integumentary system
4467:Organ of Zuckerkandl
4457:Enteroendocrine cell
3801:Schmidt, JE (1959).
3505:Hornsby, PJ (2012).
3392:10.1210/er.2010-0001
3306:10.1210/en.2016-1758
3215:www.proteinatlas.org
2292:10.1210/jc.2010-0457
2198:10.1210/er.2010-0013
1675:Characteristic skin
1623:(a condition called
1343:prenatal development
1210:tyrosine hydroxylase
889:synthesis of glucose
716:left suprarenal vein
640:sympathetic ganglion
632:thoracic spinal cord
628:preganglionic fibers
523:aldosterone synthase
459:under the microscope
5199:Reproductive system
4918:Subcutaneous tissue
4687:Cartilaginous joint
4246:Parafollicular cell
3938:Pearce, JM (2004).
3564:10.1530/JOE-12-0183
3524:10.1530/JOE-12-0022
3442:10.1677/JME-08-0160
3050:on 4 February 2015.
2965:10.1194/jlr.R016675
2694:. pp. 263–289.
2274:Nieman, LK (2010).
1903:Bartolomeo Eustachi
1772:congenital diseases
1545:autoimmune diseases
1267:genes are expressed
922:of ACTH secretion.
842:glomerular filtrate
630:originating in the
408:and lie within the
308:electrolyte balance
4981:Respiratory system
4734:Circulatory system
4390:Islets of pancreas
4164:Corticotropic cell
3990:. Nobel Foundation
3919:on 29 October 2013
3883:10.1007/BF03401414
3338:Clinical Radiology
3012:(Suppl 3): 77–82.
2920:Medical Physiology
1993:Tadeusz Reichstein
1862:Adrenal carcinomas
1828:
1753:mineralocorticoids
1684:
1569:Cushing's syndrome
1564:Cushing's syndrome
1553:Cushing's syndrome
1487:neural crest cells
1054:anterior pituitary
1042:
960:cholesterol esters
944:
916:anterior pituitary
848:and extracellular
812:Mineralocorticoids
803:Androgens such as
768:
709:inferior vena cava
682:, a branch of the
662:, a branch of the
585:(the precursor to
463:
387:
355:Cushing's syndrome
351:endocrine diseases
292:mineralocorticoids
139:Lumbar lymph nodes
5317:
5316:
4840:
4839:
4830:Glymphatic system
4728:
4727:
4492:
4491:
4332:
4331:
4256:Parathyroid gland
4227:
4226:
4169:Gonadotropic cell
4142:Somatotropic cell
4037:– "Adrenal Gland"
3470:Endocrine Reviews
3380:Endocrine Reviews
3244:(6220): 1260419.
3161:978-0-393-97767-7
2958:(12): 2111–2135.
2887:978-0-534-56826-9
2856:TheFreeDictionary
2822:TheFreeDictionary
2803:978-0-7020-3085-7
2748:978-960-399-074-1
2723:978-0-7817-9121-2
2584:(10): 1513–1522.
2525:978-0-398-07500-2
2500:978-1-85996-252-7
2433:978-1-4511-8447-1
2186:Endocrine Reviews
2113:978-0-7817-7200-6
2050:978-1-63483-570-1
1965:Addison's disease
1963:would later name
1872:Pheochromocytomas
1804:adrenal androgens
1716:hypovolemic shock
1712:medical emergency
1701:hyperpigmentation
1681:Addison's disease
1677:hyperpigmentation
1667:Addison's disease
1653:Addison's disease
1585:pituitary adenoma
1317:, which produces
1237:Splanchnic nerves
897:anti-inflammatory
822:mineralocorticoid
519:mineralocorticoid
418:connective tissue
359:Addison's disease
243:and the steroids
233:suprarenal glands
225:
224:
220:
16:(Redirected from
5342:
5276:Endocrine system
5038:Digestive system
4783:Lymphatic system
4766:Lymphatic vessel
4739:
4543:
4519:
4512:
4505:
4496:
4441:Corpora arenacea
4306:Zona reticularis
4301:Zona fasciculata
4296:Zona glomerulosa
4284:
4181:Chromophobe cell
4174:Thyrotropic cell
4110:
4097:endocrine system
4089:
4082:
4075:
4066:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3995:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3967:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3868:
3859:
3853:
3852:
3846:
3838:
3820:
3809:
3808:
3798:
3789:
3788:
3778:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3729:
3705:
3699:
3693:
3687:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3657:
3648:(6–8): 324–329.
3633:
3627:
3626:
3616:
3595:Huber K (2006).
3592:
3586:
3585:
3575:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3526:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3485:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3444:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3403:
3371:
3362:
3361:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3308:
3284:
3278:
3277:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3183:(4): 1093–1131.
3172:
3166:
3165:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3090:
3073:(9): 1049–1056.
3058:
3052:
3051:
3046:. Archived from
3021:
2997:
2988:
2987:
2977:
2967:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2915:
2900:
2899:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2852:"Corticosteroid"
2848:
2842:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2818:"Corticosteroid"
2814:
2808:
2807:
2789:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2715:
2705:
2696:
2695:
2687:
2674:
2673:
2655:
2646:
2645:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2593:
2575:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2541:
2530:
2529:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2486:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2462:"Adrenal Glands"
2457:
2438:
2437:
2419:
2410:
2409:
2403:
2395:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2329:
2314:
2313:
2303:
2271:
2262:
2261:
2235:
2220:
2219:
2209:
2177:
2168:
2167:
2149:
2118:
2117:
2101:
2091:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2034:
1961:George Trousseau
1876:chromaffin cells
1611:, the result is
1515:chromaffin cells
1475:zona reticularis
1414:that stimulates
1368:
1364:
1335:steroid hormones
1245:calcium channels
1172:, water-soluble
1114:zona reticularis
1005:, also known as
920:circadian rhythm
914:(ACTH) from the
893:free fatty acids
834:collecting ducts
707:drains into the
697:suprarenal veins
613:chromaffin cells
567:zona reticularis
561:Zona reticularis
539:zona fasciculata
533:Zona fasciculata
500:zona glomerulosa
494:Zona glomerulosa
288:steroid hormones
281:zona reticularis
277:zona fasciculata
273:zona glomerulosa
261:steroid hormones
237:endocrine glands
217:edit on Wikidata
111:Suprarenal veins
79:Endocrine system
44:
32:
21:
5350:
5349:
5345:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5340:
5339:
5320:
5319:
5318:
5313:
5270:
5232:Seminal vesicle
5193:
5155:
5105:Small intestine
5032:
4975:
4934:
4899:
4836:
4777:
4724:
4702:Muscular system
4696:
4668:
4547:Skeletal system
4532:
4523:
4493:
4488:
4445:
4422:
4384:
4328:
4324:Chromaffin cell
4310:
4273:
4250:
4241:Follicular cell
4223:
4204:Median eminence
4185:
4122:Pars intermedia
4105:Pituitary gland
4099:
4095:Anatomy of the
4093:
4008:
4003:
3993:
3991:
3986:
3985:
3981:
3937:
3936:
3932:
3922:
3920:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3866:
3861:
3860:
3856:
3839:
3835:
3822:
3821:
3812:
3800:
3799:
3792:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3707:
3706:
3702:
3694:
3690:
3684:Wayback Machine
3675:
3671:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3594:
3593:
3589:
3545:
3544:
3540:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3463:
3462:
3458:
3422:
3421:
3417:
3373:
3372:
3365:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3219:
3217:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3144:Daniel Reisberg
3138:
3137:
3133:
3126:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3019:10.1.1.613.6853
2999:
2998:
2991:
2945:
2944:
2937:
2930:
2917:
2916:
2903:
2888:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2860:
2858:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2826:
2824:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2804:
2791:
2790:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2749:
2736:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2707:
2706:
2699:
2689:
2688:
2677:
2670:
2657:
2656:
2649:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2606:
2578:Mol. Endocrinol
2573:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2543:
2542:
2533:
2526:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2488:
2487:
2480:
2470:
2468:
2459:
2458:
2441:
2434:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2396:
2392:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2344:
2331:
2330:
2317:
2273:
2272:
2265:
2258:
2237:
2236:
2223:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2151:
2150:
2121:
2114:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2073:
2071:
2065:"Adrenal gland"
2063:
2062:
2058:
2051:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2005:
1944:, "above", and
1900:
1850:medical imaging
1834:
1820:
1770:is a family of
1765:
1749:pituitary gland
1736:
1669:
1645:glucocorticoids
1641:
1625:Conn's syndrome
1605:
1566:
1561:
1541:
1535:
1523:Glucocorticoids
1483:
1450:
1444:
1432:glucocorticoids
1412:pituitary gland
1375:
1366:
1362:
1315:adrenal medulla
1311:
1287:steroid hormone
1271:cytochrome P450
1259:
1253:
1186:adrenoreceptors
1150:
1110:
983:cytochrome P450
956:steroidogenesis
950:hormones share
860:Glucocorticoids
783:Corticosteroids
780:
778:Corticosteroids
760:
744:
674:abdominal aorta
648:
609:adrenal medulla
605:
603:Adrenal medulla
599:
583:androstenedione
563:
543:glucocorticoids
535:
496:
451:
445:
391:retroperitoneum
379:
371:medical imaging
332:steroidogenesis
296:glucocorticoids
259:which produces
231:(also known as
221:
47:
28:
27:Endocrine gland
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5348:
5346:
5338:
5337:
5332:
5322:
5321:
5315:
5314:
5312:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5280:
5278:
5272:
5271:
5269:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5203:
5201:
5195:
5194:
5192:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5165:
5163:
5161:Urinary system
5157:
5156:
5154:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5129:
5128:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5083:Laryngopharynx
5080:
5070:
5069:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5051:Salivary gland
5042:
5040:
5034:
5033:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5008:
5007:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4985:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4961:
4960:
4959:
4948:
4946:
4944:immune systems
4940:Haematopoietic
4936:
4935:
4933:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4920:
4915:
4909:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4890:Somatic system
4887:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4873:Sensory system
4870:
4869:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4850:
4848:
4846:Nervous system
4842:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4832:
4825:CNS equivalent
4822:
4821:
4820:
4815:
4805:
4804:
4803:
4798:
4787:
4785:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4769:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4747:
4745:
4736:
4730:
4729:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4706:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4695:
4694:
4692:Synovial joint
4689:
4684:
4678:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4568:
4562:
4551:
4549:
4540:
4534:
4533:
4524:
4522:
4521:
4514:
4507:
4499:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4470:
4469:
4459:
4453:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4443:
4438:
4432:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4394:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4375:
4373:Granulosa cell
4370:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4353:
4342:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4320:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4292:
4290:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4260:
4258:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4248:
4243:
4237:
4235:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4219:Herring bodies
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4195:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4156:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4147:Prolactin cell
4144:
4137:Acidophil cell
4134:
4129:
4127:Pars tuberalis
4124:
4118:
4116:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4084:
4077:
4069:
4063:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4044:
4038:
4030:
4025:
4014:
4007:
4006:External links
4004:
4002:
4001:
3979:
3950:(6): 297–300.
3930:
3904:
3877:(1): 136–141.
3854:
3834:978-1447113171
3833:
3810:
3790:
3741:
3720:(2): 637–644.
3700:
3688:
3669:
3628:
3607:(2): 335–343.
3587:
3558:(2): 133–143.
3538:
3517:(2): 113–119.
3497:
3476:(3): 378–403.
3456:
3435:(3): 191–203.
3415:
3386:(3): 317–355.
3363:
3344:(9): 953–959.
3328:
3299:(2): 239–251.
3279:
3227:
3202:
3167:
3160:
3150:(6 ed.).
3140:Henry Gleitman
3131:
3125:978-1416045748
3124:
3102:
3053:
2989:
2935:
2929:978-1437717532
2928:
2901:
2886:
2868:
2843:
2834:
2809:
2802:
2779:
2763:"OpenStax CNX"
2754:
2747:
2729:
2722:
2697:
2675:
2669:978-0321743268
2668:
2647:
2628:(1): 112–117.
2612:
2561:
2555:978-0702047473
2554:
2531:
2524:
2506:
2499:
2478:
2460:Kay, Saundra.
2439:
2432:
2411:
2390:
2372:
2349:
2342:
2315:
2286:(9): 4106–13.
2263:
2257:978-0071748896
2256:
2221:
2169:
2163:978-1437703245
2162:
2119:
2112:
2081:
2056:
2049:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2004:
2001:
1977:Edward Schafer
1957:Thomas Addison
1925:, "near", and
1899:
1896:
1838:incidentalomas
1830:Main article:
1819:
1818:Adrenal tumors
1816:
1796:21-hydroxylase
1764:
1761:
1747:(ACTH) by the
1735:
1732:
1728:hydrocortisone
1708:adrenal crisis
1668:
1665:
1640:
1637:
1604:
1601:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1537:Main article:
1534:
1531:
1497:. These cells
1482:
1479:
1446:Main article:
1443:
1440:
1374:
1371:
1353:, which is of
1310:
1307:
1252:
1249:
1198:
1197:
1170:catecholamines
1158:norepinephrine
1149:
1148:Catecholamines
1146:
1109:
1106:
1094:angiotensin II
1031:
1030:
1023:21-hydroxylase
948:corticosteroid
936:
935:
873:corticosterone
869:glucocorticoid
862:
861:
854:blood pressure
846:Angiotensin II
814:
813:
809:
808:
801:
794:
779:
776:
759:
756:
743:
740:
728:
727:
712:
687:
686:
676:
666:
652:small arteries
647:
644:
617:catecholamines
601:Main article:
598:
595:
581:(DHEA-S), and
562:
559:
553:and a complex
534:
531:
495:
492:
472:adrenal cortex
449:Adrenal cortex
447:Main article:
444:
443:Adrenal cortex
441:
435:and the inner
433:adrenal cortex
378:
375:
340:rapid response
336:catecholamines
269:adrenal cortex
229:adrenal glands
223:
222:
213:
207:
206:
201:
195:
194:
189:
183:
182:
177:
171:
170:
165:
159:
158:
153:
147:
146:
142:
141:
136:
130:
129:
120:
114:
113:
108:
102:
101:
88:
82:
81:
76:
70:
69:
60:
54:
53:
49:
48:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5347:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5330:Adrenal gland
5328:
5327:
5325:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5273:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5240:
5237:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5200:
5196:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5166:
5164:
5162:
5158:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5144:Biliary tract
5142:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5135:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5101:
5098:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5041:
5039:
5035:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5009:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4986:
4984:
4982:
4978:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4965:
4962:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4953:
4950:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4929:
4928:Mammary gland
4926:
4925:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4831:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4823:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4809:
4806:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4792:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4774:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4699:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4682:Fibrous joint
4680:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4671:
4665:
4662:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4548:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4526:Human systems
4520:
4515:
4513:
4508:
4506:
4501:
4500:
4497:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4448:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4425:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4387:
4379:
4378:Corpus luteum
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4368:Theca interna
4366:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4348:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4339:
4335:
4325:
4322:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4313:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4279:Adrenal gland
4276:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4253:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4234:
4230:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4179:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4159:Basophil cell
4157:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4132:Pars distalis
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4090:
4085:
4083:
4078:
4076:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4060:
4057:
4054:
4053:Adrenal Gland
4051:
4048:
4045:
4042:
4039:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4020:
4019:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4005:
3989:
3983:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3934:
3931:
3918:
3914:
3908:
3905:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3865:
3858:
3855:
3850:
3844:
3836:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3817:
3815:
3811:
3806:
3805:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3704:
3701:
3698:
3692:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3678:
3673:
3670:
3665:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3632:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3591:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3542:
3539:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3501:
3498:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3457:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3416:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3293:Endocrinology
3290:
3283:
3280:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3228:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3171:
3168:
3163:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3132:
3127:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2931:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2879:
2872:
2869:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2838:
2835:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2805:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2768:
2764:
2758:
2755:
2750:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2565:
2562:
2557:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2510:
2507:
2502:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2467:
2463:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2401:
2393:
2391:9781447113171
2387:
2383:
2376:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2350:
2345:
2343:9780123914545
2339:
2335:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2192:(1): 81–151.
2191:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2052:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2033:
2030:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1973:George Oliver
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1912:
1908:
1907:papal library
1904:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1840:, unexpected
1839:
1833:
1832:Adrenal tumor
1824:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1597:stretch marks
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1493:layer of the
1492:
1488:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1471:gonadotropins
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1392:proliferative
1388:
1384:
1383:fertilisation
1380:
1372:
1370:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1339:embryological
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1323:noradrenaline
1320:
1316:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1299:noradrenaline
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1206:phenylalanine
1203:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1180:group and an
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:noradrenaline
1163:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1035:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
994:
992:
988:
984:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
940:
933:
932:
931:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
859:
858:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
811:
810:
806:
802:
799:
795:
792:
788:
787:
786:
784:
777:
775:
773:
764:
757:
755:
753:
749:
741:
739:
737:
733:
732:smooth muscle
725:
721:
717:
713:
710:
706:
702:
701:
700:
698:
694:
690:
685:
681:
677:
675:
671:
667:
665:
661:
657:
656:
655:
653:
645:
643:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
618:
614:
610:
604:
596:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
560:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
532:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
493:
491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
460:
455:
450:
442:
440:
438:
434:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
406:fatty capsule
402:
400:
396:
392:
383:
376:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
324:immune system
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
263:and an inner
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
218:
212:
208:
205:
202:
200:
196:
193:
190:
188:
184:
181:
178:
176:
172:
169:
166:
164:
160:
157:
154:
152:
148:
143:
140:
137:
135:
131:
128:
124:
121:
119:
115:
112:
109:
107:
103:
100:
96:
92:
89:
87:
83:
80:
77:
75:
71:
68:
64:
61:
59:
55:
50:
43:
38:
35:Adrenal gland
33:
30:
19:
5303:
5131:
5099:
5072:
4824:
4807:
4790:
4750:
4428:Pineal gland
4418:Epsilon cell
4356:Sertoli cell
4278:
4269:Oxyphil cell
4199:Pars nervosa
4032:
4016:
3992:. Retrieved
3982:
3947:
3943:
3933:
3923:18 September
3921:. Retrieved
3917:the original
3907:
3874:
3870:
3857:
3824:
3803:
3758:
3754:
3744:
3717:
3713:
3703:
3691:
3672:
3645:
3641:
3631:
3604:
3600:
3590:
3555:
3551:
3541:
3514:
3510:
3500:
3473:
3469:
3459:
3432:
3428:
3418:
3383:
3379:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3220:21 September
3218:. Retrieved
3214:
3205:
3180:
3176:
3170:
3147:
3134:
3118:. Saunders.
3115:
3105:
3070:
3066:
3056:
3048:the original
3009:
3005:
2955:
2951:
2919:
2877:
2871:
2861:23 September
2859:. Retrieved
2855:
2846:
2837:
2827:23 September
2825:. Retrieved
2821:
2812:
2793:
2770:. Retrieved
2766:
2757:
2738:
2732:
2711:
2691:
2659:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2581:
2577:
2564:
2545:
2515:
2509:
2490:
2469:. Retrieved
2465:
2423:
2381:
2375:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2333:
2283:
2279:
2247:
2189:
2185:
2153:
2097:
2072:. Retrieved
2068:
2059:
2039:
2032:
2014:Adrenochrome
1989:Philip Hench
1952:
1950:
1945:
1939:
1926:
1920:
1915:
1901:
1884:hypertension
1880:palpitations
1870:
1842:asymptomatic
1835:
1766:
1737:
1730:injections.
1705:
1697:tuberculosis
1685:
1660:
1648:
1642:
1606:
1593:osteoporosis
1567:
1542:
1503:dorsal aorta
1484:
1451:
1376:
1367:4 grams
1359:
1351:neural crest
1312:
1297:involved in
1285:involved in
1263:human genome
1260:
1230:
1199:
1151:
1126:testosterone
1111:
1075:
1062:hypothalamus
1043:
1006:
999:pregnenolone
995:
987:mitochondria
980:
945:
909:
867:is the main
863:
826:blood volume
815:
781:
769:
745:
736:tunica media
729:
722:or the left
693:Venous blood
691:
688:
684:renal artery
649:
646:Blood supply
621:
606:
587:testosterone
579:DHEA sulfate
564:
551:mitochondria
536:
512:
504:thin strands
497:
464:
430:
410:renal fascia
403:
388:
349:A number of
348:
346:situations.
285:
232:
228:
226:
180:A11.5.00.001
155:
127:renal plexus
67:neural crest
29:
5299:Parathyroid
4999:Nasopharynx
4861:Spinal cord
4796:Bone marrow
4565:Collar bone
4479:Development
4462:Paraganglia
4436:Pinealocyte
4351:Leydig cell
3994:10 February
3761:(1): 7–41.
2369:(8): 10–26.
2363:Appl Radiol
2074:11 February
2009:Adrenopause
1892:laparoscopy
1888:tachycardia
1651:(including
1629:electrolyte
1617:hyperplasia
1609:aldosterone
1549:side effect
1363:1 gram
1309:Development
1182:amine group
1154:epinephrine
1102:aldosterone
952:cholesterol
901:osteoblasts
885:amino acids
818:aldosterone
791:aldosterone
742:Variability
515:aldosterone
508:capillaries
480:aldosterone
304:aldosterone
245:aldosterone
145:Identifiers
5335:Adrenaline
5324:Categories
5078:Oropharynx
4818:Lymph node
4751:peripheral
4597:Metatarsus
4592:Metacarpus
4571:Thigh bone
4567:(clavicle)
4413:Delta cell
4398:Alpha cell
4264:Chief cell
3148:Psychology
2238:Longo, D;
2025:References
1693:antibodies
1689:autoimmune
1581:endogenous
1547:, or as a
1463:adrenarche
1448:Adrenarche
1442:Adrenarche
1355:ectodermal
1319:adrenaline
1303:adrenaline
1162:adrenaline
1029:Regulation
1013:P450s and
1011:microsomal
877:metabolism
720:renal vein
591:lipofuscin
416:(wall) of
320:metabolism
241:adrenaline
5284:Pituitary
5133:accessory
5088:Esophagus
4808:secondary
4720:Diaphragm
4664:Cartilage
4612:Phalanges
4403:Beta cell
4214:Pituicyte
4191:Posterior
3899:195290802
3843:cite book
3315:0013-7227
3258:0036-8075
3112:Guyton AC
3110:Hall JE,
3014:CiteSeerX
2400:cite book
2244:Kasper, D
1866:incidence
1808:genitalia
1800:androgens
1776:mutations
1774:in which
1759:instead.
1633:potassium
1589:hirsutism
1428:estrogens
1396:androgens
1261:The
1196:Formation
1174:compounds
1134:estrogens
1118:androgens
1112:Cells in
1108:Androgens
1082:potassium
934:Formation
924:Cortisone
850:potassium
593:pigment.
573:, mainly
571:androgens
488:androgens
478:, namely
422:diaphragm
377:Structure
316:cortisone
300:androgens
58:Precursor
5264:Placenta
5227:Testicle
5222:Prostate
5149:Pancreas
5110:Appendix
5100:lower GI
5073:upper GI
5021:Bronchus
4964:Lymphoid
4647:Vertebra
4602:Ossicles
4587:Mandible
4474:Placenta
4346:Testicle
4114:Anterior
3974:15173338
3891:26732166
3871:Hormones
3785:24636754
3736:10690869
3680:Archived
3664:23220335
3623:16928368
3582:22715193
3533:22573830
3451:19052254
3410:21051591
3358:16124976
3323:27901589
3266:25613900
3197:17015485
3146:(2004).
3114:(2010).
3097:22410251
3044:27083986
3036:15554890
2984:21976778
2896:43702042
2772:1 August
2604:Archived
2471:1 August
2466:Medscape
2310:20823463
2240:Fauci, A
2216:21051590
2003:See also
1858:adenomas
1854:CT scans
1784:HPA axis
1621:adenomas
1573:HPA axis
1519:chromium
1491:ectoderm
1424:androgen
1416:cortisol
1404:estrogen
1400:placenta
1385:, shows
1357:origin.
1347:mesoderm
1218:dopamine
1202:tyrosine
1178:catechol
1066:feedback
1039:HPA axis
976:lysosome
865:Cortisol
832:and the
798:cortisol
758:Function
577:(DHEA),
547:cortisol
545:such as
484:cortisol
476:hormones
312:cortisol
279:and the
249:cortisol
91:Superior
63:Mesoderm
5304:Adrenal
5294:Thyroid
5212:Scrotum
5189:Urethra
5184:Bladder
5093:Stomach
5016:Trachea
4952:Myeloid
4791:primary
4657:Sternum
4607:Patella
4582:Humerus
4573:(femur)
4408:PP cell
4316:Medulla
4233:Thyroid
3965:1079500
3776:3992879
3573:4041616
3492:9183569
3401:3365797
3238:Science
3088:3625040
2975:3283258
2767:cnx.org
2642:8333830
2600:1775135
2301:2936073
2207:3365799
2106:, 780.
1981:pressor
1898:History
1848:during
1844:tumors
1499:migrate
1481:Medulla
1275:CYP11A1
1239:of the
1222:cytosol
1003:P450scc
962:within
928:11β-HSD
881:glucose
772:enzymes
734:in its
597:Medulla
437:medulla
399:kidneys
397:to the
265:medulla
253:kidneys
168:D000311
52:Details
18:Adrenal
5289:Pineal
5249:Vagina
5244:Uterus
5239:Female
5179:Ureter
5174:Kidney
5120:Rectum
5056:Tongue
5004:Larynx
4923:Breast
4895:Tissue
4813:Spleen
4801:Thymus
4756:Artery
4715:Tendon
4710:Muscle
4674:Joints
4652:Pelvis
4627:Tarsus
4617:Radius
4577:Fibula
4560:Carpus
4530:organs
4338:Gonads
4288:Cortex
4023:002219
3972:
3962:
3897:
3889:
3831:
3783:
3773:
3734:
3662:
3621:
3580:
3570:
3531:
3490:
3449:
3408:
3398:
3356:
3321:
3313:
3274:802377
3272:
3264:
3256:
3195:
3158:
3122:
3095:
3085:
3042:
3034:
3016:
2982:
2972:
2926:
2894:
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