31:
1661:
1812:
928:
1023:
443:
752:
371:
390:. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar or crescent shaped and somewhat larger. The adrenal glands measure approximately 5 cm in length, 3 cm in width, and up to 1 cm in thickness. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.
1173:. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act by interacting with
1937:, "kidney", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney.
1349:
The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex,
1378:
capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart, as it is composed of two distinct zones: the inner "fetal" zone, which carries most of the hormone-producing activity, and the outer
454:
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal
985:
The layers of the adrenal gland differ by function, with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor. The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain, a reaction that forms
1006:. Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of
1783:, hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis. As cortisol cannot be synthesized, these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead. The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to
1441:
During early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low, but several years before puberty (from 6–8 years of age) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids
1258: in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the
538:. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant
1057:
system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the
578:) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown
3224:
Uhlén, Mathias; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Lindskog, Cecilia; Oksvold, Per; Mardinoglu, Adil; Sivertsson, Åsa; Kampf, Caroline; Sjöstedt, Evelina (23 January 2015). "Tissue-based map of the human proteome".
1731:
leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of
884:, which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy. Glucocorticoids also have effects unrelated to the regulation of blood sugar levels, including the suppression of the immune system and a potent
1675:
Addison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the
Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an
1540:
of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of
947:
is cholesterol uptake or synthesis. Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths. The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as
450:, showing its different layers. From the surface to the center: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, medulla. In the medulla, the central adrenomedullary vein is visible.
1560:
is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the
1576:
which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (
1217:(PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT.
1053:. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative
2007:
743:, such as failure of the kidneys to develop, or fused kidneys. The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex, or may develop in an unusual location.
4505:
4075:
3685:
3837:
2394:
678:
These blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands. Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands, carrying blood to them.
608:, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.
3325:
Barwick, T.D.; Malhotra, A.; Webb, J.A.W.; Savage, M.O.; Reznek, R.H. (September 2005). "Embryology of the adrenal glands and its relevance to diagnostic imaging".
998:. After the production of pregnenolone, specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it. Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and
919:
on cortisol. The reaction catalyzed by 11β-HSD is reversible, which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol, the biologically active hormone.
907:. Cortisol is not evenly released during the day – its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the
1066:
1728:
1645:
1034:
1027:
192:
1466:
layer of the cortex. Functionally, adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty.
1427:. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.
1177:
throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the
3668:
1232:
innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland. When activated, it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of
841:
are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume, which in turn influences
4041:
2609:
Zhou M, Gomez-Sanchez CE (July 1993). "Cloning and expression of a rat cytochrome P-450 11 beta-hydroxylase/aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) cDNA variant".
719:
The central adrenomedullary vein, in the adrenal medulla, is an unusual type of blood vessel. Its structure is different from the other veins in that the
4472:
1181:, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.
2592:
315:
suppression. The innermost layer of the cortex, the zona reticularis, produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the
1518:
secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.
1514:
produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that
3164:
GarcĂa, AG; GarcĂa de Diego, AM; GandĂa, L; Borges, R; GarcĂa Sancho, J (2006). "Calcium signaling and exocytosis in adrenal chromaffin cells".
4498:
4068:
1279:
1214:
979:
3276:
Bergman, Julia; Botling, Johan; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Djureinovic, Dijana; Uhlén, Mathias; Pontén, Fredrik (1 February 2017).
631:. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
3148:
2874:
2790:
2735:
2710:
2512:
2487:
2420:
2100:
2037:
1985:
1894:, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563–4. However, these publications were part of the
168:
916:
328:
4467:
3901:
30:
3821:
3112:
2916:
2656:
2542:
2244:
2150:
4491:
4061:
2378:
2330:
1972:
effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat
Addison's disease.
1660:
755:
Different hormones are produced in different zones of the cortex and medulla of the gland. Light microscopy at magnification Ă— 204.
763:
either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.
2751:
1113:. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as
1776:
1046:
829:
and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered
1756:
1447:
1007:
351:
2990:
1965:
956:
187:
1745:
1532:
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and
1262:
superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as
4526:
4396:
1800:
1515:
1498:. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the
1494:, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as
1407:
synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of
1003:
893:
515:
383:
1780:
1733:
1565:
1455:
1396:
1038:
967:, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.
900:
1684:
against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from
5227:
4257:
3699:"A survey on adrenal incidentaloma in Italy. Study Group on Adrenal Tumors of the Italian Society of Endocrinology"
2726:
Mirilas P, Skandalakis JE, Colborn GL, Weidman TA, Foster RS, Kingsnorth A, Skandalakis LJ, Skandalakis PN (2004).
1949:
1899:
1499:
1495:
1315:
1229:
1221:
668:
648:
624:
612:
87:
79:
1811:
5187:
3697:
Mantero, F; Terzolo, M; Arnaldi, G; Osella, G; Masini, AM; Alì, A; Giovagnetti, M; Opocher, G; Angeli, A (2000).
3665:
3140:
1961:
1842:
1768:
1283:
1074:
652:
530:
is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing
491:. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by
394:
4038:
at the SUNY Downstate
Medical Center – "Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands"
845:. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.
833:. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation.
5195:
1854:
1787:
deficiency. 21-hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, but not
1178:
899:
The adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to
818:
658:
323:, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the
151:
83:
4022:
4229:
4140:
2559:
1921:
952:
1695:
A complication seen in untreated
Addison's disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the
1423:
such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the
5318:
5121:
5026:
4878:
4252:
3002:
1846:
1527:
1443:
1130:
1110:
822:
793:
774:
are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named.
740:
563:
414:
199:
175:
163:
1089:
in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance, and upon binding they stimulate the release of
639:
The adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ: up to 60
4928:
3976:
3365:"Development and Function of the Human Fetal Adrenal Cortex: A Key Component in the Feto-Placental Unit"
1973:
1969:
1957:
1601:
1367:
1059:
970:
The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the
960:
712:
693:
543:
1905:
The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term "adrenal" comes from
1557:
1541:
343:
2560:"The product of the CYP11B2 gene is required for aldosterone biosynthesis in the human adrenal cortex"
5157:
4893:
4455:
4445:
4047:
3739:
3414:"Mechanisms of adrenal gland growth: signal integration by extracellular signal regulated kinases1/2"
1953:
1867:. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and
1669:
1641:
1331:
1198:
1086:
704:
628:
620:
511:
347:
4016:
3007:
5323:
4906:
4675:
4234:
4187:
4179:
4035:
1891:
1834:
1760:
1327:
1118:
830:
616:
5098:
4969:
4731:
4722:
4708:
4152:
4120:
4102:
3883:
3831:
3258:
3028:
2840:
2806:
2388:
1981:
1533:
1380:
1350:
which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about
1042:
948:
904:
697:
410:
127:
2171:"The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders"
1791:. Therefore, ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of
1613:
1454:, which has only been described in humans and some other primates. Adrenarche is independent of
3851:
Papadakis, Marios; Manios, Andreas; Schoretsanitis, Georgios; Trompoukis, Constantinos (2016).
2092:
5297:
5287:
4999:
4977:
4818:
4615:
4378:
4244:
4157:
4130:
3958:
3875:
3817:
3769:
3720:
3648:
3607:
3566:
3517:
3476:
3435:
3394:
3342:
3307:
3299:
3250:
3242:
3181:
3144:
3108:
3081:
3020:
2968:
2912:
2880:
2870:
2786:
2731:
2706:
2652:
2626:
2584:
2538:
2508:
2483:
2416:
2374:
2326:
2294:
2240:
2200:
2146:
2096:
2033:
1860:
1850:
1741:
1704:
1700:
1689:
1665:
1573:
1225:
931:
Steroidogenesis in the adrenal glands – different steps occur in different layers of the gland
885:
826:
810:
727:(the middle layer of the vessel) is arranged in conspicuous, longitudinally oriented bundles.
507:
406:
339:
280:
3905:
2053:
354:
is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of
5264:
4771:
4754:
4635:
4585:
4580:
4429:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4169:
4162:
4135:
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3638:
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3334:
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3234:
3173:
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2558:
Curnow KM, Tusie-Luna MT, Pascoe L, Natarajan R, Gu JL, Nadler JL, White PC (October 1991).
2284:
2276:
2190:
2182:
2084:
1940:
One of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of
1792:
1503:
1463:
1162:
1102:
908:
881:
685:
555:
527:
488:
332:
269:
265:
261:
99:
67:
4000:
3199:
2830:
Marieb Human
Anatomy & Physiology 9th edition, chapter:16, page:629, question number:14
927:
5272:
5220:
5172:
5103:
5093:
4690:
4518:
4312:
4304:
4197:
4192:
4110:
4093:
3755:
3672:
3278:"The Human Adrenal Gland Proteome Defined by Transcriptomics and Antibody-Based Profiling"
3132:
1864:
1838:
1737:
1400:
1323:
1303:
1302:
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the
1275:
1259:
1255:
1233:
1189:
Catecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland, from
971:
877:
662:
601:
597:
591:
571:
425:
379:
359:
276:
253:
249:
225:
3586:"The sympathoadrenal cell lineage: Specification, diversification, and new perspectives"
2450:
751:
442:
5149:
5039:
4883:
4861:
4834:
4680:
4535:
4361:
4276:
4207:
4125:
4115:
3953:
3928:
3764:
3561:
3536:
3389:
3364:
3128:
3076:
3051:
2963:
2936:
2699:
2289:
2264:
2195:
2170:
1945:
1784:
1716:
1696:
1633:
1511:
1487:
1420:
1319:
1287:
1245:
1174:
1146:
1082:
1022:
1011:
936:
861:
857:
842:
834:
771:
531:
460:
437:
421:
296:
284:
257:
245:
1644:
and genetic causes) directly affect the adrenal cortex. If a problem that affects the
1544:) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.
1358:
each. In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development.
5312:
5132:
4957:
4945:
4932:
4916:
4670:
4605:
4366:
4356:
4147:
3887:
3100:
3036:
2232:
2228:
2085:
1895:
1826:
1820:
1707:
and symptoms such as vomiting and fever. An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to
1371:
1311:
1194:
1158:
1154:
1073:, and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH. Sensors of blood pressure in the
975:
735:
The adrenal glands may not develop at all, or may be fused in the midline behind the
720:
605:
600:
is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The
539:
324:
312:
111:
3852:
3740:"Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: diagnosis, genetics, management, and treatment"
3032:
5277:
4600:
4548:
4450:
4416:
4406:
4344:
2002:
1977:
1872:
1830:
1685:
1677:
1581:
1491:
1475:
1459:
1339:
1251:
1114:
1050:
987:
814:
759:
The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by
724:
672:
575:
567:
398:
307:
are synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of
115:
62:
55:
4053:
4011:
3262:
978:. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by
420:
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer
3791:
2027:
409:
separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the
156:
5205:
5054:
5034:
4849:
4844:
4784:
4424:
4339:
4006:
3602:
3585:
3067:
1997:
1880:
1876:
1868:
1636:) occurs in about 5 in 10,000 in the general population. Diseases classified as
1617:
1605:
1597:
1537:
1291:
1170:
1142:
1090:
940:
873:
806:
779:
503:
468:
295:) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and
292:
233:
3944:
3338:
3177:
2347:
1740:. This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of
1395:
biosynthesis. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by
1254: includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these
342:
involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to
5113:
4982:
4952:
4901:
4806:
4514:
4401:
4386:
3643:
3626:
2785:(21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 768–778.
1451:
1436:
1307:
1150:
1081:
into the blood, which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of
889:
880:
from these amino acids in the liver. In addition, they increase the levels of
865:
708:
579:
492:
308:
229:
46:
3303:
3246:
1692:
of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.
459:
each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The
180:
5076:
4871:
4652:
4391:
4202:
3238:
2884:
1988:
for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones.
1942:
On the
Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule
1796:
1621:
1577:
1070:
999:
912:
838:
640:
496:
456:
447:
370:
304:
4483:
3962:
3879:
3773:
3724:
3715:
3698:
3652:
3611:
3570:
3521:
3471:
3454:
3439:
3398:
3346:
3311:
3254:
3185:
3085:
3024:
2972:
2622:
2579:
2298:
2204:
3480:
3455:"Developmental and Functional Biology of the Primate Fetal Adrenal Cortex"
3016:
2630:
2588:
1205:
in the first step of catecholamine synthesis. L-DOPA is then converted to
892:
to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the
860:
in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is played by
495:
of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide
5252:
5215:
5210:
5137:
5009:
4590:
4575:
4553:
4462:
4334:
3380:
3294:
3277:
2280:
2186:
1788:
1772:
1764:
1681:
1569:
1561:
1507:
1479:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1343:
1335:
1206:
1190:
1166:
1122:
1106:
1054:
964:
853:
786:
559:
535:
476:
472:
355:
300:
288:
237:
51:
3552:
3512:
3495:
3430:
3413:
2953:
1960:
and its related clinical manifestations. In 1894, English physiologists
1929:
643:
may enter each gland. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland:
5282:
5200:
5177:
5081:
5071:
5066:
5004:
4987:
4940:
4645:
4595:
4570:
4221:
3871:
3814:
The Human
Adrenal Cortex Pathology and Biology – An Integrated Approach
2937:"Early steps in steroidogenesis: intracellular cholesterol trafficking"
2781:
Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H., eds. (2010).
2371:
The Human
Adrenal Cortex Pathology and Biology – An Integrated Approach
1775:. In the HPA axis, cortisol (a glucocorticoid) inhibits the release of
1609:
1375:
1263:
1210:
991:
944:
869:
813:, which is important in the regulation of salt ("mineral") balance and
464:
320:
241:
2728:
Surgical
Anatomy: The Embryologic And Anatomic Basis Of Modern Surgery
2373:. Springer London. pp. Chapter 4: Structure of the adult cortex.
963:. Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low. In the
319:
and other target organs. The production of steroid hormones is called
205:
5237:
5232:
5167:
5162:
5108:
5044:
4992:
4911:
4801:
4789:
4744:
4703:
4698:
4640:
4565:
1708:
1585:
1564:
or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into
1483:
1408:
1267:
1202:
1014:, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.
760:
402:
387:
74:
1898:
and did not receive public attention, which was first received with
789:
influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose").
3816:. London: Springer London. pp. Chapter 2: Historical Aspects.
1703:
in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in
5247:
5242:
5127:
4854:
4761:
4662:
4620:
4610:
4559:
4351:
4326:
1925:
1916:
1910:
1906:
1659:
1608:(excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing
1126:
1078:
1021:
926:
750:
736:
441:
369:
316:
139:
122:
106:
1948:. In his monography, Addison described what the French physician
1490:
from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the
868:. As their name suggests, they increase the circulating level of
5014:
4749:
4625:
4543:
1712:
1424:
1271:
1193:, a non-essential amino acid derived from food or produced from
681:
455:
gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones". When
378:
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the
94:
4487:
4057:
3200:"The human proteome in adrenal gland – The Human Protein Atlas"
1715:. The management of adrenal crises includes the application of
1510:
salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs.
1045:. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of
5049:
4866:
4630:
2679:
Dunn R. B.; Kudrath W.; Passo S.S.; Wilson L.B. (2011). "10".
1220:
Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the
959:. The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell's
374:
Adrenal glands, anterior (left) and posterior (right) surface
4050:—Plastination Laboratory at the Medical University of Vienna
3105:
Guyton and Hall
Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th edition
2141:
Melmed, S; Polonsky, KS; Larsen, PR; Kronenberg, HM (2011).
2091:(6th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.
1883:, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.
872:. This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of
3666:
Hydrocortisone Emergency Factsheet for Ambulance Personnel
1968:
studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their
1213:, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme
1033:
Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the
3627:"Resolved and open issues in chromaffin cell development"
2029:
Adrenal Glands: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Evidence
1727:
In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the
1568:-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of
627:, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized
3052:"Recent advances involving the renin–angiotensin system"
2692:
2690:
2415:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 294, 298.
1383:
phase. The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal
358:
can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in
2535:
Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas
2346:
Antonio Carlos A. Westphalen and Bonnie N. Joe (2006).
2265:"Approach to the patient with an adrenal incidentaloma"
1334:
paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from
1314:
and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the
1065:
Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the
1041:(ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the
514:. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term
4032: – Histology Learning System at Boston University
2705:. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1771:
and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the
1767:
of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a
1278:
synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and
623:, from vertebrae T5–T11. Because it is innervated by
558:, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces
346:, whereas insufficient production is associated with
3703:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
2991:"Classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia and puberty"
2269:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
1462:
and correlates with a progressive thickening of the
1419:(female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially
1105:
of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or
982:
and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis.
943:
as a common precursor. Therefore, the first step in
782:
regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressure
5263:
5186:
5148:
5025:
4968:
4927:
4892:
4833:
4770:
4730:
4721:
4689:
4661:
4534:
4525:
4438:
4415:
4377:
4325:
4303:
4275:
4266:
4243:
4220:
4178:
4101:
4092:
4023:
Anatomy Atlases – Microscopic Anatomy, plate 15.292
3625:Unsicker K, Huber K, Schober A, Kalcheim C (2013).
2008:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
1616:). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and
1209:before it can be turned into noradrenaline. In the
915:is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme
186:
174:
162:
150:
138:
133:
121:
105:
93:
73:
61:
45:
40:
23:
2698:
1920:, "kidney". Similarly, "suprarenal", as termed by
1863:are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from
3684:Data and references for pie chart are located at
2989:Charmandari, E; Brook, CG; Hindmarsh, PC (2004).
1795:, which can lead to the development of ambiguous
1588:in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.
1354:at birth and develop to an adult weight of about
1246:Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
974:family that are located in the inner membrane of
604:of the medulla are the body's main source of the
3977:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1950"
2776:
2774:
2772:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
1956:, an eponym still used today for a condition of
1688:. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is
487:The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the
275:The adrenal cortex produces three main types of
2478:Whitehead, Saffron A.; Nussey, Stephen (2001).
2164:
2162:
2984:
2982:
2930:
2928:
2783:Davidson's principles and practice of medicine
1506:because they contain granules that stain with
1141:Primarily referred to in the United States as
1035:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) axis
864:instead. Glucocorticoids have many effects on
502:This layer is the main site for production of
4499:
4069:
3853:"Landmarks in the history of adrenal surgery"
3812:O'Hare, A. Munro Neville, Michael J. (2012).
2369:O'Hare, A. Munro Neville, Michael J. (1982).
2325:. Burlington: Elsevier Science. p. 241.
2235:; Hauser, S; Jameson, J; Loscalzo, J (2012).
1450:. These changes are part of a process called
260:itself is divided into three main zones: the
228:that produce a variety of hormones including
8:
3836:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3807:
3805:
3803:
2681:Kaplan USMLE Step 1 Physiology Lecture Notes
2473:
2471:
2393:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
1037:. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by
990:as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme
3686:file description page in Wikimedia Commons.
3496:"Adrenarche: a cell biological perspective"
3358:
3356:
2136:
2134:
2132:
1815:Incidences and prognoses of adrenal tumors.
1049:(CRH), which is released by neurons of the
401:, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak
4727:
4531:
4506:
4492:
4484:
4473:List of human endocrine organs and actions
4272:
4098:
4076:
4062:
4054:
3785:
3783:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2237:Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
1604:. Causes for this condition are bilateral
1596:When the zona glomerulosa produces excess
1502:. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called
1366:Adrenal cortex tissue is derived from the
1338:, whereas the medulla is derived from the
817:. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the
29:
3952:
3763:
3714:
3642:
3601:
3560:
3511:
3470:
3429:
3388:
3293:
3075:
3006:
2962:
2952:
2642:
2640:
2578:
2288:
2194:
2032:. Nova Science Publishers, New York, NY.
1632:Adrenal insufficiency (the deficiency of
1387:(male sex hormones) that are used by the
888:effect. Cortisol reduces the capacity of
4001:Adrenal gland at the Human Protein Atlas
3933:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
2911:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
2902:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2697:Sapru, Hreday N.; Siegel, Allan (2007).
2406:
2404:
2258:
2256:
2239:(18th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1810:
1294:synthesis and expressed in the medulla.
2867:Human physiology: from cells to systems
2730:. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing.
2537:(6th ed.). Elsevier. p. 329.
2507:. Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas.
2323:Endocrine Gland Development and Disease
2058:Medline Plus/Merriam-Webster Dictionary
2018:
393:The adrenal glands are surrounded by a
3829:
3537:"The steroid metabolome of adrenarche"
2651:(9th ed.). Pearson. p. 629.
2533:Young B, Woodford P, O'Dowd G (2013).
2386:
2078:
2076:
2074:
1680:condition, in which the body produces
1584:, depression, and most distinctively,
1215:phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
1010:develops as a result of deficiency of
980:steroidogenic acute regulatory protein
203:
20:
3756:10.1016/j.currproblcancer.2014.01.001
2480:Endocrinology: an integrated approach
2411:Moore KL, Dalley AF, Agur AM (2013).
1986:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1825:Adrenal tumors are commonly found as
611:The adrenal medulla is driven by the
7:
2598:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1845:, and in most cases they are benign
1744:, which are under regulation of the
1474:The adrenal medulla is derived from
1415:and precursor of both androgens and
1326:. These tissues come from different
1067:renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system
955:(LDL). LDL enters the cells through
876:from protein and the stimulation of
4048:Cross section image: pembody/body8a
2413:Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 7th ed
1729:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
1646:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
362:when searching for other diseases.
3418:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology
2907:Boron, WF.; Boulapep, EL. (2012).
2869:. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
2143:Williams Textbook of Endocrinology
1841:. They are seen in around 3.4% of
1648:arises outside the gland, it is a
1077:of the kidneys release the enzyme
825:by increasing the reabsorption of
739:. These are associated with other
684:is drained from the glands by the
554:The innermost cortical layer, the
428:, both of which produce hormones.
14:
3793:Medical Discoveries: Who and When
3050:Crowley, SD; Coffman, TM (2012).
2995:European Journal of Endocrinology
1379:"definitive" zone, which is in a
1370:. It first appears 33 days after
1318:. Surrounding the medulla is the
1109:, the most important of which is
4044:, from Colorado State University
3412:Hoeflich A, Bielohuby M (2009).
1857:of 1 case per million per year.
1165:that have a structure made of a
3738:Martucci, VL; Pacak, K (2014).
2503:Jefferies, William McK (2004).
2169:Miller, WL; Auchus, RJ (2011).
1723:Secondary adrenal insufficiency
1650:secondary adrenal insufficiency
1047:corticotropin-releasing hormone
446:Section of human adrenal gland
3902:"What Are The Adrenal Glands?"
2649:Human anatomy & physiology
2348:"CT and MRI of Adrenal Masses"
1879:. Surgery, especially adrenal
1757:Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
1752:Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
1322:, which produces a variety of
1008:congenital adrenal hyperplasia
688:, usually one for each gland:
510:, by the action of the enzyme
352:Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
327:, which function to produce a
291:. Mineralocorticoids (such as
1:
3363:Ishimoto H, Jaffe RB (2011).
2935:Miller, WL; Bose, HS (2011).
2647:Marieb, EN; Hoehn, K (2012).
2482:. Oxford: BIOS. p. 122.
1924:in 1629, is derived from the
1801:secondary sex characteristics
1638:primary adrenal insufficiency
1548:Corticosteroid overproduction
1330:precursors and have distinct
1125:(female sex hormones) in the
1069:(RAAS), the concentration of
1004:hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
957:receptor-mediated endocytosis
3929:"Thomas Addison (1793–1860)"
3541:The Journal of Endocrinology
3535:Rege, J; Rainey, WE (2012).
3500:The Journal of Endocrinology
3453:Mesiano S, Jaffe RB (1997).
1624:depletion sodium retention.
1399:, a hormone produced by the
544:smooth endoplasmic reticulum
516:regulation of blood pressure
463:is devoted to production of
88:inferior suprarenal arteries
3904:. About.com. Archived from
3603:10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.07.010
3068:10.1016/j.yexcr.2012.02.023
2865:Sherwood, Lauralee (2001).
2145:(12th ed.). Saunders.
2087:Histology: A Text and Atlas
1984:were then awarded the 1950
1944:, by the English physician
1734:adrenocorticotropic hormone
1240:Gene and protein expression
1039:adrenocorticotropic hormone
901:adrenocorticotropic hormone
805:The adrenal gland produces
778:Mineralocorticoids such as
240:. They are found above the
5340:
3945:10.1177/014107680409700615
3744:Current Problems in Cancer
3339:10.1016/j.crad.2005.04.006
3178:10.1152/physrev.00039.2005
3141:W. W. Norton & Company
3056:Experimental Cell Research
2611:Biochem Biophys Res Commun
2321:Thomas, Paul, ed. (2013).
2083:Ross M, Pawlina W (2011).
1902:'s illustrations in 1611.
1900:Caspar Bartholin the Elder
1818:
1525:
1500:sympathetic nervous system
1434:
1376:steroid hormone production
1316:sympathetic nervous system
1243:
1230:sympathetic nervous system
1222:sympathetic nervous system
1129:, acting in this way as a
669:inferior suprarenal artery
649:superior suprarenal artery
625:preganglionic nerve fibers
613:sympathetic nervous system
589:
435:
413:, and are attached to the
244:. Each gland has an outer
4030:Histology image: 14501loa
3671:24 September 2015 at the
3644:10.1016/j.mod.2012.11.004
3631:Mechanisms of Development
2941:Journal of Lipid Research
1769:glucocorticoid deficiency
1197:in the liver. The enzyme
1075:juxtaglomerular apparatus
1026:Negative feedback in the
819:distal convoluted tubules
661:, a direct branch of the
457:viewed under a microscope
198:
35:Position of adrenal gland
28:
4036:Anatomy photo:40:03-0105
4007:MedlinePlus Encyclopedia
3796:. Thomas. pp. 9–10.
3675:The Pituitary Foundation
1746:renin–angiotensin system
1572:Cushing's syndrome is a
1552:
1179:fight or flight response
953:low density lipoproteins
785:Glucocorticoids such as
741:congenital abnormalities
659:middle suprarenal artery
4141:Somatomammotrophic cell
4017:Adrenal gland histology
3239:10.1126/science.1260419
3131:, Alan J. Fridlund and
2026:Santulli G. MD (2015).
1922:Jean Riolan the Younger
1871:. Common signs include
1853:are very rare, with an
1655:
653:inferior phrenic artery
331:throughout the body in
4958:Lymphoid immune system
4527:Musculoskeletal system
3716:10.1210/jcem.85.2.6372
3472:10.1210/edrv.18.3.0304
2701:Essential Neuroscience
2623:10.1006/bbrc.1993.1792
2580:10.1210/mend-5-10-1513
1816:
1672:
1620:imbalance, increasing
1528:Adrenal gland disorder
1478:, which come from the
1236:in the cell membrane.
1131:metabolic intermediate
1030:
932:
894:gastrointestinal tract
794:dehydroepiandrosterone
756:
564:dehydroepiandrosterone
451:
415:crura of the diaphragm
375:
299:. The glucocorticoids
200:Anatomical terminology
4946:Myeloid immune system
4732:Cardiovascular system
3590:Developmental Biology
3166:Physiological Reviews
3017:10.1530/eje.0.151U077
2505:Safe uses of cortisol
1974:Edward Calvin Kendall
1958:adrenal insufficiency
1814:
1663:
1628:Adrenal insufficiency
1602:primary aldosteronism
1592:Primary aldosteronism
1522:Clinical significance
1368:intermediate mesoderm
1244:Further information:
1201:converts tyrosine to
1087:Angiotensin receptors
1060:inflammatory response
1025:
996:cholesterol desmolase
961:endoplasmic reticulum
930:
754:
713:inferior phrenic vein
707:drains into the left
694:right suprarenal vein
445:
417:by the renal fascia.
382:, above and slightly
373:
145:glandula suprarenalis
5298:Islets of Langerhans
5158:Genitourinary system
4894:Integumentary system
4456:Organ of Zuckerkandl
4446:Enteroendocrine cell
3790:Schmidt, JE (1959).
3494:Hornsby, PJ (2012).
3381:10.1210/er.2010-0001
3295:10.1210/en.2016-1758
3204:www.proteinatlas.org
2281:10.1210/jc.2010-0457
2187:10.1210/er.2010-0013
1664:Characteristic skin
1612:(a condition called
1332:prenatal development
1199:tyrosine hydroxylase
878:synthesis of glucose
705:left suprarenal vein
629:sympathetic ganglion
621:thoracic spinal cord
617:preganglionic fibers
512:aldosterone synthase
448:under the microscope
5188:Reproductive system
4907:Subcutaneous tissue
4676:Cartilaginous joint
4235:Parafollicular cell
3927:Pearce, JM (2004).
3553:10.1530/JOE-12-0183
3513:10.1530/JOE-12-0022
3431:10.1677/JME-08-0160
3039:on 4 February 2015.
2954:10.1194/jlr.R016675
2683:. pp. 263–289.
2263:Nieman, LK (2010).
1892:Bartolomeo Eustachi
1761:congenital diseases
1534:autoimmune diseases
1256:genes are expressed
911:of ACTH secretion.
831:glomerular filtrate
619:originating in the
397:and lie within the
297:electrolyte balance
4970:Respiratory system
4723:Circulatory system
4379:Islets of pancreas
4153:Corticotropic cell
3979:. Nobel Foundation
3908:on 29 October 2013
3872:10.1007/BF03401414
3327:Clinical Radiology
3001:(Suppl 3): 77–82.
2909:Medical Physiology
1982:Tadeusz Reichstein
1851:Adrenal carcinomas
1817:
1742:mineralocorticoids
1673:
1558:Cushing's syndrome
1553:Cushing's syndrome
1542:Cushing's syndrome
1476:neural crest cells
1043:anterior pituitary
1031:
949:cholesterol esters
933:
905:anterior pituitary
837:and extracellular
801:Mineralocorticoids
792:Androgens such as
757:
698:inferior vena cava
671:, a branch of the
651:, a branch of the
574:(the precursor to
452:
376:
344:Cushing's syndrome
340:endocrine diseases
281:mineralocorticoids
128:Lumbar lymph nodes
5306:
5305:
4829:
4828:
4819:Glymphatic system
4717:
4716:
4481:
4480:
4321:
4320:
4245:Parathyroid gland
4216:
4215:
4158:Gonadotropic cell
4131:Somatotropic cell
4026:– "Adrenal Gland"
3459:Endocrine Reviews
3369:Endocrine Reviews
3233:(6220): 1260419.
3150:978-0-393-97767-7
2947:(12): 2111–2135.
2876:978-0-534-56826-9
2845:TheFreeDictionary
2811:TheFreeDictionary
2792:978-0-7020-3085-7
2737:978-960-399-074-1
2712:978-0-7817-9121-2
2573:(10): 1513–1522.
2514:978-0-398-07500-2
2489:978-1-85996-252-7
2422:978-1-4511-8447-1
2175:Endocrine Reviews
2102:978-0-7817-7200-6
2039:978-1-63483-570-1
1954:Addison's disease
1952:would later name
1861:Pheochromocytomas
1793:adrenal androgens
1705:hypovolemic shock
1701:medical emergency
1690:hyperpigmentation
1670:Addison's disease
1666:hyperpigmentation
1656:Addison's disease
1642:Addison's disease
1574:pituitary adenoma
1306:, which produces
1226:Splanchnic nerves
886:anti-inflammatory
811:mineralocorticoid
508:mineralocorticoid
407:connective tissue
348:Addison's disease
232:and the steroids
222:suprarenal glands
214:
213:
209:
5331:
5265:Endocrine system
5027:Digestive system
4772:Lymphatic system
4755:Lymphatic vessel
4728:
4532:
4508:
4501:
4494:
4485:
4430:Corpora arenacea
4295:Zona reticularis
4290:Zona fasciculata
4285:Zona glomerulosa
4273:
4170:Chromophobe cell
4163:Thyrotropic cell
4099:
4086:endocrine system
4078:
4071:
4064:
4055:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3956:
3924:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3857:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3835:
3827:
3809:
3798:
3797:
3787:
3778:
3777:
3767:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3718:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3676:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3646:
3637:(6–8): 324–329.
3622:
3616:
3615:
3605:
3584:Huber K (2006).
3581:
3575:
3574:
3564:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3515:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3433:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3392:
3360:
3351:
3350:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3297:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3172:(4): 1093–1131.
3161:
3155:
3154:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3079:
3062:(9): 1049–1056.
3047:
3041:
3040:
3035:. Archived from
3010:
2986:
2977:
2976:
2966:
2956:
2932:
2923:
2922:
2904:
2889:
2888:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2841:"Corticosteroid"
2837:
2831:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2807:"Corticosteroid"
2803:
2797:
2796:
2778:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2704:
2694:
2685:
2684:
2676:
2663:
2662:
2644:
2635:
2634:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2582:
2564:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2530:
2519:
2518:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2475:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2451:"Adrenal Glands"
2446:
2427:
2426:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2384:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2318:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2224:
2209:
2208:
2198:
2166:
2157:
2156:
2138:
2107:
2106:
2090:
2080:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2023:
1950:George Trousseau
1865:chromaffin cells
1600:, the result is
1504:chromaffin cells
1464:zona reticularis
1403:that stimulates
1357:
1353:
1324:steroid hormones
1234:calcium channels
1161:, water-soluble
1103:zona reticularis
994:, also known as
909:circadian rhythm
903:(ACTH) from the
882:free fatty acids
823:collecting ducts
696:drains into the
686:suprarenal veins
602:chromaffin cells
556:zona reticularis
550:Zona reticularis
528:zona fasciculata
522:Zona fasciculata
489:zona glomerulosa
483:Zona glomerulosa
277:steroid hormones
270:zona reticularis
266:zona fasciculata
262:zona glomerulosa
250:steroid hormones
226:endocrine glands
206:edit on Wikidata
100:Suprarenal veins
68:Endocrine system
33:
21:
5339:
5338:
5334:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5329:
5328:
5309:
5308:
5307:
5302:
5259:
5221:Seminal vesicle
5182:
5144:
5094:Small intestine
5021:
4964:
4923:
4888:
4825:
4766:
4713:
4691:Muscular system
4685:
4657:
4536:Skeletal system
4521:
4512:
4482:
4477:
4434:
4411:
4373:
4317:
4313:Chromaffin cell
4299:
4262:
4239:
4230:Follicular cell
4212:
4193:Median eminence
4174:
4111:Pars intermedia
4094:Pituitary gland
4088:
4084:Anatomy of the
4082:
3997:
3992:
3982:
3980:
3975:
3974:
3970:
3926:
3925:
3921:
3911:
3909:
3900:
3899:
3895:
3855:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3828:
3824:
3811:
3810:
3801:
3789:
3788:
3781:
3737:
3736:
3732:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3673:Wayback Machine
3664:
3660:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3493:
3492:
3488:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3362:
3361:
3354:
3324:
3323:
3319:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3208:
3206:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3151:
3133:Daniel Reisberg
3127:
3126:
3122:
3115:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3008:10.1.1.613.6853
2988:
2987:
2980:
2934:
2933:
2926:
2919:
2906:
2905:
2892:
2877:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2849:
2847:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2793:
2780:
2779:
2770:
2760:
2758:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2713:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2678:
2677:
2666:
2659:
2646:
2645:
2638:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2595:
2567:Mol. Endocrinol
2562:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2532:
2531:
2522:
2515:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2477:
2476:
2469:
2459:
2457:
2448:
2447:
2430:
2423:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2385:
2381:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2320:
2319:
2306:
2262:
2261:
2254:
2247:
2226:
2225:
2212:
2168:
2167:
2160:
2153:
2140:
2139:
2110:
2103:
2082:
2081:
2072:
2062:
2060:
2054:"Adrenal gland"
2052:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2016:
1994:
1933:, "above", and
1889:
1839:medical imaging
1823:
1809:
1759:is a family of
1754:
1738:pituitary gland
1725:
1658:
1634:glucocorticoids
1630:
1614:Conn's syndrome
1594:
1555:
1550:
1530:
1524:
1512:Glucocorticoids
1472:
1439:
1433:
1421:glucocorticoids
1401:pituitary gland
1364:
1355:
1351:
1304:adrenal medulla
1300:
1276:steroid hormone
1260:cytochrome P450
1248:
1242:
1175:adrenoreceptors
1139:
1099:
972:cytochrome P450
945:steroidogenesis
939:hormones share
849:Glucocorticoids
772:Corticosteroids
769:
767:Corticosteroids
749:
733:
663:abdominal aorta
637:
598:adrenal medulla
594:
592:Adrenal medulla
588:
572:androstenedione
552:
532:glucocorticoids
524:
485:
440:
434:
380:retroperitoneum
368:
360:medical imaging
321:steroidogenesis
285:glucocorticoids
248:which produces
220:(also known as
210:
36:
17:
16:Endocrine gland
12:
11:
5:
5337:
5335:
5327:
5326:
5321:
5311:
5310:
5304:
5303:
5301:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5269:
5267:
5261:
5260:
5258:
5257:
5256:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5192:
5190:
5184:
5183:
5181:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5154:
5152:
5150:Urinary system
5146:
5145:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5118:
5117:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5086:
5085:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5072:Laryngopharynx
5069:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5040:Salivary gland
5031:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5012:
5007:
4997:
4996:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4974:
4972:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4950:
4949:
4948:
4937:
4935:
4933:immune systems
4929:Haematopoietic
4925:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4909:
4904:
4898:
4896:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4886:
4881:
4879:Somatic system
4876:
4875:
4874:
4869:
4862:Sensory system
4859:
4858:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4839:
4837:
4835:Nervous system
4831:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4821:
4814:CNS equivalent
4811:
4810:
4809:
4804:
4794:
4793:
4792:
4787:
4776:
4774:
4768:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4759:
4758:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4736:
4734:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4695:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4681:Synovial joint
4678:
4673:
4667:
4665:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4655:
4650:
4649:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4557:
4551:
4540:
4538:
4529:
4523:
4522:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4503:
4496:
4488:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4448:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4421:
4419:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4383:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4369:
4364:
4362:Granulosa cell
4359:
4349:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4331:
4329:
4323:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4309:
4307:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4281:
4279:
4270:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4260:
4255:
4249:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4238:
4237:
4232:
4226:
4224:
4218:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4211:
4210:
4208:Herring bodies
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4184:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4172:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4145:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4136:Prolactin cell
4133:
4126:Acidophil cell
4123:
4118:
4116:Pars tuberalis
4113:
4107:
4105:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4073:
4066:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4045:
4039:
4033:
4027:
4019:
4014:
4003:
3996:
3995:External links
3993:
3991:
3990:
3968:
3939:(6): 297–300.
3919:
3893:
3866:(1): 136–141.
3843:
3823:978-1447113171
3822:
3799:
3779:
3730:
3709:(2): 637–644.
3689:
3677:
3658:
3617:
3596:(2): 335–343.
3576:
3547:(2): 133–143.
3527:
3506:(2): 113–119.
3486:
3465:(3): 378–403.
3445:
3424:(3): 191–203.
3404:
3375:(3): 317–355.
3352:
3333:(9): 953–959.
3317:
3288:(2): 239–251.
3268:
3216:
3191:
3156:
3149:
3139:(6 ed.).
3129:Henry Gleitman
3120:
3114:978-1416045748
3113:
3091:
3042:
2978:
2924:
2918:978-1437717532
2917:
2890:
2875:
2857:
2832:
2823:
2798:
2791:
2768:
2752:"OpenStax CNX"
2743:
2736:
2718:
2711:
2686:
2664:
2658:978-0321743268
2657:
2636:
2617:(1): 112–117.
2601:
2550:
2544:978-0702047473
2543:
2520:
2513:
2495:
2488:
2467:
2449:Kay, Saundra.
2428:
2421:
2400:
2379:
2361:
2338:
2331:
2304:
2275:(9): 4106–13.
2252:
2246:978-0071748896
2245:
2210:
2158:
2152:978-1437703245
2151:
2108:
2101:
2070:
2045:
2038:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1993:
1990:
1966:Edward Schafer
1946:Thomas Addison
1914:, "near", and
1888:
1885:
1827:incidentalomas
1819:Main article:
1808:
1807:Adrenal tumors
1805:
1785:21-hydroxylase
1753:
1750:
1736:(ACTH) by the
1724:
1721:
1717:hydrocortisone
1697:adrenal crisis
1657:
1654:
1629:
1626:
1593:
1590:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1526:Main article:
1523:
1520:
1486:. These cells
1471:
1468:
1435:Main article:
1432:
1429:
1363:
1360:
1342:, which is of
1299:
1296:
1241:
1238:
1187:
1186:
1159:catecholamines
1147:norepinephrine
1138:
1137:Catecholamines
1135:
1098:
1095:
1083:angiotensin II
1020:
1019:
1012:21-hydroxylase
937:corticosteroid
925:
924:
862:corticosterone
858:glucocorticoid
851:
850:
843:blood pressure
835:Angiotensin II
803:
802:
798:
797:
790:
783:
768:
765:
748:
745:
732:
729:
717:
716:
701:
676:
675:
665:
655:
641:small arteries
636:
633:
606:catecholamines
590:Main article:
587:
584:
570:(DHEA-S), and
551:
548:
542:and a complex
523:
520:
484:
481:
461:adrenal cortex
438:Adrenal cortex
436:Main article:
433:
432:Adrenal cortex
430:
424:and the inner
422:adrenal cortex
367:
364:
329:rapid response
325:catecholamines
258:adrenal cortex
218:adrenal glands
212:
211:
202:
196:
195:
190:
184:
183:
178:
172:
171:
166:
160:
159:
154:
148:
147:
142:
136:
135:
131:
130:
125:
119:
118:
109:
103:
102:
97:
91:
90:
77:
71:
70:
65:
59:
58:
49:
43:
42:
38:
37:
34:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5336:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5319:Adrenal gland
5317:
5316:
5314:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5262:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5230:
5229:
5226:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5194:
5193:
5191:
5189:
5185:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5147:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5133:Biliary tract
5131:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5087:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5060:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5028:
5024:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4971:
4967:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4954:
4951:
4947:
4944:
4943:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4918:
4917:Mammary gland
4915:
4914:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4891:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4863:
4860:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4836:
4832:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4815:
4812:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4773:
4769:
4763:
4760:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4738:
4737:
4735:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4720:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4671:Fibrous joint
4669:
4668:
4666:
4664:
4660:
4654:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4515:Human systems
4509:
4504:
4502:
4497:
4495:
4490:
4489:
4486:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4376:
4368:
4367:Corpus luteum
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4357:Theca interna
4355:
4354:
4353:
4350:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4328:
4324:
4314:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4302:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4268:Adrenal gland
4265:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4246:
4242:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4171:
4168:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4149:
4148:Basophil cell
4146:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4121:Pars distalis
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4079:
4074:
4072:
4067:
4065:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4049:
4046:
4043:
4042:Adrenal Gland
4040:
4037:
4034:
4031:
4028:
4025:
4024:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4008:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3978:
3972:
3969:
3964:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3923:
3920:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3894:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3844:
3839:
3833:
3825:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3795:
3794:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3734:
3731:
3726:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3690:
3687:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3662:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3621:
3618:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3531:
3528:
3523:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3490:
3487:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3282:Endocrinology
3279:
3272:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3220:
3217:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3160:
3157:
3152:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3116:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3046:
3043:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2920:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2858:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2794:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2682:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2650:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2602:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2536:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2510:
2506:
2499:
2496:
2491:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2390:
2382:
2380:9781447113171
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2332:9780123914545
2328:
2324:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2181:(1): 81–151.
2180:
2176:
2172:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2046:
2041:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2022:
2019:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:George Oliver
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1896:papal library
1893:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1829:, unexpected
1828:
1822:
1821:Adrenal tumor
1813:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1586:stretch marks
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1529:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1482:layer of the
1481:
1477:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1460:gonadotropins
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1381:proliferative
1377:
1373:
1372:fertilisation
1369:
1361:
1359:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:embryological
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:noradrenaline
1309:
1305:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1288:noradrenaline
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1195:phenylalanine
1192:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1169:group and an
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1155:noradrenaline
1152:
1148:
1144:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1024:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
983:
981:
977:
973:
968:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
929:
922:
921:
920:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
897:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
848:
847:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
800:
799:
795:
791:
788:
784:
781:
777:
776:
775:
773:
766:
764:
762:
753:
746:
744:
742:
738:
730:
728:
726:
722:
721:smooth muscle
714:
710:
706:
702:
699:
695:
691:
690:
689:
687:
683:
679:
674:
670:
666:
664:
660:
656:
654:
650:
646:
645:
644:
642:
634:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
607:
603:
599:
593:
585:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
549:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
521:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
500:
498:
494:
490:
482:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
449:
444:
439:
431:
429:
427:
423:
418:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
395:fatty capsule
391:
389:
385:
381:
372:
365:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
313:immune system
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
252:and an inner
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
207:
201:
197:
194:
191:
189:
185:
182:
179:
177:
173:
170:
167:
165:
161:
158:
155:
153:
149:
146:
143:
141:
137:
132:
129:
126:
124:
120:
117:
113:
110:
108:
104:
101:
98:
96:
92:
89:
85:
81:
78:
76:
72:
69:
66:
64:
60:
57:
53:
50:
48:
44:
39:
32:
27:
24:Adrenal gland
22:
19:
5292:
5120:
5088:
5061:
4813:
4796:
4779:
4739:
4417:Pineal gland
4407:Epsilon cell
4345:Sertoli cell
4267:
4258:Oxyphil cell
4188:Pars nervosa
4021:
4005:
3981:. Retrieved
3971:
3936:
3932:
3922:
3912:18 September
3910:. Retrieved
3906:the original
3896:
3863:
3859:
3846:
3813:
3792:
3747:
3743:
3733:
3706:
3702:
3692:
3680:
3661:
3634:
3630:
3620:
3593:
3589:
3579:
3544:
3540:
3530:
3503:
3499:
3489:
3462:
3458:
3448:
3421:
3417:
3407:
3372:
3368:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3285:
3281:
3271:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3209:21 September
3207:. Retrieved
3203:
3194:
3169:
3165:
3159:
3136:
3123:
3107:. Saunders.
3104:
3094:
3059:
3055:
3045:
3037:the original
2998:
2994:
2944:
2940:
2908:
2866:
2860:
2850:23 September
2848:. Retrieved
2844:
2835:
2826:
2816:23 September
2814:. Retrieved
2810:
2801:
2782:
2759:. Retrieved
2755:
2746:
2727:
2721:
2700:
2680:
2648:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2570:
2566:
2553:
2534:
2504:
2498:
2479:
2458:. Retrieved
2454:
2412:
2370:
2364:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2322:
2272:
2268:
2236:
2178:
2174:
2142:
2086:
2061:. Retrieved
2057:
2048:
2028:
2021:
2003:Adrenochrome
1978:Philip Hench
1941:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1915:
1909:
1904:
1890:
1873:hypertension
1869:palpitations
1859:
1831:asymptomatic
1824:
1755:
1726:
1719:injections.
1694:
1686:tuberculosis
1674:
1649:
1637:
1631:
1595:
1582:osteoporosis
1556:
1531:
1492:dorsal aorta
1473:
1440:
1365:
1356:4 grams
1348:
1340:neural crest
1301:
1286:involved in
1274:involved in
1252:human genome
1249:
1219:
1188:
1140:
1115:testosterone
1100:
1064:
1051:hypothalamus
1032:
995:
988:pregnenolone
984:
976:mitochondria
969:
934:
898:
856:is the main
852:
815:blood volume
804:
770:
758:
734:
725:tunica media
718:
711:or the left
682:Venous blood
680:
677:
673:renal artery
638:
635:Blood supply
610:
595:
576:testosterone
568:DHEA sulfate
553:
540:mitochondria
525:
501:
493:thin strands
486:
453:
419:
399:renal fascia
392:
377:
338:A number of
337:
335:situations.
274:
221:
217:
215:
169:A11.5.00.001
144:
116:renal plexus
56:neural crest
18:
5288:Parathyroid
4988:Nasopharynx
4850:Spinal cord
4785:Bone marrow
4554:Collar bone
4468:Development
4451:Paraganglia
4425:Pinealocyte
4340:Leydig cell
3983:10 February
3750:(1): 7–41.
2358:(8): 10–26.
2352:Appl Radiol
2063:11 February
1998:Adrenopause
1881:laparoscopy
1877:tachycardia
1640:(including
1618:electrolyte
1606:hyperplasia
1598:aldosterone
1538:side effect
1352:1 gram
1298:Development
1171:amine group
1143:epinephrine
1091:aldosterone
941:cholesterol
890:osteoblasts
874:amino acids
807:aldosterone
780:aldosterone
731:Variability
504:aldosterone
497:capillaries
469:aldosterone
293:aldosterone
234:aldosterone
134:Identifiers
5324:Adrenaline
5313:Categories
5067:Oropharynx
4807:Lymph node
4740:peripheral
4586:Metatarsus
4581:Metacarpus
4560:Thigh bone
4556:(clavicle)
4402:Delta cell
4387:Alpha cell
4253:Chief cell
3137:Psychology
2227:Longo, D;
2014:References
1682:antibodies
1678:autoimmune
1570:endogenous
1536:, or as a
1452:adrenarche
1437:Adrenarche
1431:Adrenarche
1344:ectodermal
1308:adrenaline
1292:adrenaline
1151:adrenaline
1018:Regulation
1002:P450s and
1000:microsomal
866:metabolism
709:renal vein
580:lipofuscin
405:(wall) of
309:metabolism
230:adrenaline
5273:Pituitary
5122:accessory
5077:Esophagus
4797:secondary
4709:Diaphragm
4653:Cartilage
4601:Phalanges
4392:Beta cell
4203:Pituicyte
4180:Posterior
3888:195290802
3832:cite book
3304:0013-7227
3247:0036-8075
3101:Guyton AC
3099:Hall JE,
3003:CiteSeerX
2389:cite book
2233:Kasper, D
1855:incidence
1797:genitalia
1789:androgens
1765:mutations
1763:in which
1748:instead.
1622:potassium
1578:hirsutism
1417:estrogens
1385:androgens
1250:The
1185:Formation
1163:compounds
1123:estrogens
1107:androgens
1101:Cells in
1097:Androgens
1071:potassium
923:Formation
913:Cortisone
839:potassium
582:pigment.
562:, mainly
560:androgens
477:androgens
467:, namely
411:diaphragm
366:Structure
305:cortisone
289:androgens
47:Precursor
5253:Placenta
5216:Testicle
5211:Prostate
5138:Pancreas
5099:Appendix
5089:lower GI
5062:upper GI
5010:Bronchus
4953:Lymphoid
4636:Vertebra
4591:Ossicles
4576:Mandible
4463:Placenta
4335:Testicle
4103:Anterior
3963:15173338
3880:26732166
3860:Hormones
3774:24636754
3725:10690869
3669:Archived
3653:23220335
3612:16928368
3571:22715193
3522:22573830
3440:19052254
3399:21051591
3347:16124976
3312:27901589
3255:25613900
3186:17015485
3135:(2004).
3103:(2010).
3086:22410251
3033:27083986
3025:15554890
2973:21976778
2885:43702042
2761:1 August
2593:Archived
2460:1 August
2455:Medscape
2299:20823463
2229:Fauci, A
2205:21051590
1992:See also
1847:adenomas
1843:CT scans
1773:HPA axis
1610:adenomas
1562:HPA axis
1508:chromium
1480:ectoderm
1413:androgen
1405:cortisol
1393:estrogen
1389:placenta
1374:, shows
1346:origin.
1336:mesoderm
1207:dopamine
1191:tyrosine
1167:catechol
1055:feedback
1028:HPA axis
965:lysosome
854:Cortisol
821:and the
787:cortisol
747:Function
566:(DHEA),
536:cortisol
534:such as
473:cortisol
465:hormones
301:cortisol
268:and the
238:cortisol
80:Superior
52:Mesoderm
5293:Adrenal
5283:Thyroid
5201:Scrotum
5178:Urethra
5173:Bladder
5082:Stomach
5005:Trachea
4941:Myeloid
4780:primary
4646:Sternum
4596:Patella
4571:Humerus
4562:(femur)
4397:PP cell
4305:Medulla
4222:Thyroid
3954:1079500
3765:3992879
3562:4041616
3481:9183569
3390:3365797
3227:Science
3077:3625040
2964:3283258
2756:cnx.org
2631:8333830
2589:1775135
2290:2936073
2196:3365799
2095:, 780.
1970:pressor
1887:History
1837:during
1833:tumors
1488:migrate
1470:Medulla
1264:CYP11A1
1228:of the
1211:cytosol
992:P450scc
951:within
917:11β-HSD
870:glucose
761:enzymes
723:in its
586:Medulla
426:medulla
388:kidneys
386:to the
254:medulla
242:kidneys
157:D000311
41:Details
5278:Pineal
5238:Vagina
5233:Uterus
5228:Female
5168:Ureter
5163:Kidney
5109:Rectum
5045:Tongue
4993:Larynx
4912:Breast
4884:Tissue
4802:Spleen
4790:Thymus
4745:Artery
4704:Tendon
4699:Muscle
4663:Joints
4641:Pelvis
4616:Tarsus
4606:Radius
4566:Fibula
4549:Carpus
4519:organs
4327:Gonads
4277:Cortex
4012:002219
3961:
3951:
3886:
3878:
3820:
3772:
3762:
3723:
3651:
3610:
3569:
3559:
3520:
3479:
3438:
3397:
3387:
3345:
3310:
3302:
3263:802377
3261:
3253:
3245:
3184:
3147:
3111:
3084:
3074:
3031:
3023:
3005:
2971:
2961:
2915:
2883:
2873:
2789:
2734:
2709:
2655:
2629:
2587:
2541:
2511:
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