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that they vigorously shake their heads up and down while doing so. This vigorous motion of the head led many scientists to incorrectly conclude the storks were crushing shells. Freshly discarded shells have been collected in multiple studies and have always been found whole, therefore discrediting the hypothesis of the storks breaking the shells to obtain the mollusc meat. The
African openbill storks are believed to remove the snails from their shells by using their bills to pin the snails down long enough for the bird to severe the
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282:, although the males are slightly larger than the females and have a longer and heavier bill. The adult bill is between 135–196 mm (5.3–7.7 in) in length, brownish in color and has a gap between the upper and lower mandible. This gap is non-existent in juvenile birds and develops as the bird ages. It is because the two mandibles of the beak only meet at the tip and not in the middle that this stork genus received the name of “openbill”.
479:, but none of that is found in these parade feathers. Instead, the feathers have a single ribbon-shaped body and a few long, fine stems that disperse laterally from the flat part of the ribbon. This structure serves to create the iridescent colors observed on the feathers. The bottom part of the feathers presents the normal structure of feathers and serves for insulation purposes. It does not produce any color.
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633:. This is achieved by using the tip of the upper mandible to hold the snail on the ground and forcing the tip of the upper mandible under the operculum. Once the attachment point broken, the stork uses the tip of its bill to grasp onto the snail’s body and shakes its head sideways to release the meat from the shell. Finally, the stork swallows the body whole by tossing its head backwards.
565:). As the hippopotamus wades through the vegetation, it upturns it and exposes the multiple snails that cling to the undersides of the plants. The stork will then feed on these exposed snails that have become easy prey. The hippopotamus does not seem to mind the presences of the bird on its back and is not harmed by it in any way.
706:, scratching and stretching. In addition, they rub the crown of their heads on the feathers of their backs in a circular, rolling motion. Other comfort movements include adopting the spread wing posture while sunning. While in the spread wing posture, the African openbill stork will sometimes excrete on its. This is known as “
1115:. The poachers set up the decoy and then disturb flocks of storks so that they have no other choice than to settle near the decoy. The African openbill feed directly on the snails near the decoy which have been poisoned by the poachers. This method disproportionately affects the African openbill stork because they are a
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Overall, the display resembles the
Begging Display with a few exceptions. During this display, the feathers of the head, neck, breast and upper back are strongly erect, the wings are held farther out from the sides and the nestlings makes high pitched screams and gobbling sounds as they try to grab at their opponent.
1140:. This pesticide ends up in the environment and affects the local species. Studies have been carried out on the amount of DDT present in different African birds' eggs. They have found that the eggs of the African openbill had the highest means of DDT. The snails eaten by the storks live in sediments and
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To forage for snails, the
African openbill stands in shallow water, repeatedly dipping its beak in. They hold their bill slightly ajar and will snap it shut if they encounter a prey. Once they have a hold on the prey, they hold it with the tip of their mandibles and carry it back to shore. The storks
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The gap in the bill of the
African openbill was first hypothesized to serve as a nutcracker, crushing the shells of the snails this stork feeds on. Scientists later demonstrated that the bill does not serve this function. Rather the opening between the two mandibles facilitates grasping the shells of
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pairs and breeding colonies usually contain less than 60 pairs. These colonies can either be formed of only
African openbills or be mixed with cormorants, herons, African spoonbills, African darters and other storks. The breeding success of the African openbill stork is estimated to be less than one
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The nestlings of the
African openbill stork never voluntarily eat anything else than molluscs. Even when extremely hungry, the nestlings will not ingest other types of meat unless being force-fed. The nestlings have been observed as unaware of how to consume fish. When presented with them, the young
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These storks are smaller in stature than most of the other species in their family, which allows them to be much more agile in the air. This agility can be observed during their descents from high altitudes as they often perform steep dives and remarkable acrobatic manoeuvres. During their migration
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African openbill storks’ nest in tall trees and often favor the lowest branches of those trees. The nest which usually takes up to a week to build and both sexes contribute to the construction. The
African openbill builds a nest that is around 50 cm (20 in) wide, which is relatively small
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The males of a colony will select a nest spot and display on it. Females will move from tree to tree, trying to approach the male’s nest spots. The males repeatedly drive away the females. Violent fights can erupt between the potential pairs if the females approach the nest too quickly. Eventually,
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Few social interactions are observed when the storks are foraging. Flocks are even often seen foraging together. Sometimes hostile confrontations can occur between birds. In those situations, the dominant bird gives the
Forward Threat display which lasts for a few seconds. The subordinate bird will
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The adults either feed alone or in large group. If a colony has found a successful foraging area, they often return to it and piles of snail shells can be seen accumulating on the shores. During nesting season, the
African openbill adults will bring the food items back to their nest and these large
537:. They have been observed to also eat freshwater mussels. In different parts of their range, some individuals have been observed to eat terrestrial snails, frogs, crabs, fish, worms and large insects. It is important to note, that none of these are the preferred food choice of the African openbill.
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The main display that nestlings exhibit towards their parents is called the
Begging Display. During this display, the nestlings drop down as the parent approach with their body almost horizontal. They then open their wings and pump them up and down rhythmically while giving weak and sporadic “yes”
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Opening mussels poses a bigger problem to the storks. Since the African openbill can’t open the mussel by itself, it will usually gather them up in large piles on the shore and wait for the sun to kill them. Once dead, the mussels release their hold on the shells leaving the meat accessible to the
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that lives year-round on the areas poisoned by the poachers. They are also preferentially poisoned because poachers can turn a greater profit from these birds. The stork isn’t currently at risk, but the continuation of this method of poaching could be detrimental to the populations. This practice
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Most of this procedure is done underwater or hidden in vegetation, therefore there is still a lot of unknowns surrounding how exactly the African Openbill removes the meat from the snail shells. Scientists know that the storks often submerge their head in the water while working on the shells and
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No investigation has been made yet on the impact of high DDT content in eggs. Since the effect of this high concentration of contaminants hasn't been researched yet, it is impossible to know the impact it might have on the stork population. The biggest risk is the thinning of the eggshells which
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The African openbill stork is considered out of danger worldwide as it is abundant in various portions of its range. There are no current estimate for the total population numbers, but they appear to be quite stable. Although they are not currently threatened, they remain a large bird with low
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African openbill nestling only perform one display towards other individuals, which is named the Nestling Defense display. It is used when any individual unknown to the nestling approaches too close to the nest. This can be other adults from the same colony or even birds of different species.
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Habitat loss, disturbances of feeding areas, pollution from pesticide used on mosquitoes and entanglement in fishing lines all pose potential threats to these birds. The African openbill does remain common in habitats suitable for them, but human activity could pose a danger to the species.
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African openbill storks live in every habitat where suitable mollusc prey can be found. Their preferred habitats remain long stretches of freshwater. They can sometimes be seen far from humid habitats, but only exceptionally. The place you are most likely to see them are on large freshwater
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when commuting to and from distant feeding areas. This allows them to travel long distances to obtain food without expending too much energy. In flight, these birds have their necks and head extended and their long, broad wings are spread out and perfect for soaring and gliding on the
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Bouwman, H., Yohannes, Y. B., Nakayama, S. M. M., Motohira, K., Ishizuka, M., Humphries, M. S., van der Schyff, V., du Preez, M., Dinkelmann, A., & Ikenaka, Y. (2019). Evidence of impacts from DDT in pelican, cormorant, stork, and egret eggs from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
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For the first 55 days of their life, the nestlings depend on their parents for everything. They are confined to the nest and rely on their parents for food and water. For the first few weeks of their life, they remain dependant on their parents for protection from predators.
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for the start of the dry period. They migrate in flocks and most of the reason and organisation behind these movements remain unknown. Some populations migrate while others are residents, migration in African openbill highly depends on the weather conditions.
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Adult African openbills have dark shiny feathers on their wings and chest that serve in parade and other types of signaling between individuals of the species. These special feathers do not follow the typical structure of feathers. Usually, feathers have a
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of 25–30 days. When taking care of the eggs, the parents can occasionally be seen regurgitating water over them. The exact nature of this behaviour remains unknown, but scientists believe it serves to cool down the eggs. Once the chicks have hatched,
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the snails. The convergent tips of the mandibles prevent the slipping forward of a spherical object being carried by the storks. The curve in the lower mandible allows the stork to have the perfect angle of attack to force its way under the
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The nodules act individually. The light passing through each nodule is dissipated by the melanin pigment. This attenuates the green and red portions of the visible light spectrum. The blue and yellow reflect with the light. The two
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The birds then move their head and neck slowly downwards until their bill almost touches the ground. A series of vocalizations with a high-pitch rasping quality are given through this downwards movement at 1-2 second intervals.
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from the parents. When eating, the nestlings bring their wings over their head in an attempt to protect their food from being stolen by competing nest mates. In nestlings, the sides of the lower mandible are flexible, and the
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continues in Kenya because of the social importance of eating wild bird meat. It has become a habit of the population as the people believe wild meat is the best available option, especially when it is not expensive.
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The bird erects the feathers on its neck, breast and upper back, as well as the ones on its crown which gives the appearance of a square head. The tail is usually slightly cocked, and the tip of the wings are lifted.
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The occurrence of the breeding season varies with distribution as the hatching of the nestling is timed to coincide with the emergence of snails. It can start either just before, at the beginning of or late in the
311:
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Odino, M. (2011). Measuring the conservation threat to birds in Kenya from deliberate pesticide poisoning: a case study of suspected carbofuran poisoning using Furadan in Bunyala Rice Irrigation Scheme.
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This display usually takes place between a bird on a nest and another on nearby branches. It is sometimes performed by pairs where the males will threaten each other, and the females will do the same.
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and release the molluscs from their shells. The bill of the African openbill storks closely evolved with the bird’s specialized diet, allowing for the perfect handling of snails and other molluscs.
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Birds use this display as a response to disturbing objects approaching the nest. This display most likely serves as a warning to the other members of the colony that a danger might be approaching.
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visually from afar. There are accounts of African openbill storks swooping down from their nest and immediately securing a prey. This behavior is extremely uncommon for the stork but does occur.
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Both sexes perform this display in succession as a greeting when one of the birds’ lands at the nest after a period of absence. As the breeding season progresses, this display is observed less.
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and abdomens. The juvenile plumage is usually less vibrant and browner in color with the feathers of the underparts having pale tips. The legs and feet are black. The eyes are grey with grey
620:, they carry their prey to shore for extraction and consumption of the meat. The African openbill are well known for removing the meat of the molluscs without breaking their fragile shells.
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is expandible and permits storage of food. The nestlings can ingest large quantities of food when available which allows them to survive relatively long periods of time with no food intake.
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nodules repeated periodically along planes inside the ribbon. These planes are parallel to each other. Scientists believe the dark green appearance of these feathers to be due to the low
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Vigneron, J. P., Lousse, V., Colomer Jean-François, Rassart, M., & Louette, M. (2006). Complex optical structure in the ribbon-like feathers of the african open-bill stork,
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The bird finally orients its bill at its opponent and advances. The bird will occasionally hold it bill slightly ajar and shake its head as it approaches the subordinate bird.
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The coloration is perceived on the outside of the ribbon structure and therefore the iridescence is produced by the external portion of the cortex. This cortex consists of
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would reduce the breeding success of the storks. This success being already very low, it would be dangerous for the survival of the species if it were to drop even lower.
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respond to that display by adopting the Upright Display. If this doesn’t terminate the threat from the dominant bird, the subordinate will stop its display and fly away.
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When performed by both mates, the male and female cross their necks as they reach for sticks, with the male usually crossing over the female due to its larger stature.
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African openbill would try to swallow them sideways or backwards as it is not instinctive to them how to consume those food items. The young feed in the nest through
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The bird then leans forward while arching its neck and peering intently at the disturbing object. Sometimes the bird will also per 90° away from the disturbance.
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flights, the African openbill storks will use sustained flapping flight with an average wing flap rate of 200–210 flaps/minute. They will also often soar on the
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The African openbill is a stork measuring 80–94 cm (31–37 in) and weighing 1–1.3 kg (2.2–2.9 lb). The species does not exhibit any major
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living on the island of Madagascar. Scientists distinguish between the two sub-species due to the more pronounced longitudinal ridges on the bills of adult
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Stalmans, M., Davies, G. B. P., Trollip, J., & Poole, G. (2014). A major waterbird breeding colony at Lake Urema, Gorongosa National Park, Moçambique.
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nods and occasional jerky “no” nods. They accompany these movements of nasal chittering vocalizations that are timed with the upwards motion of the head.
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This display is quite a subtle movement. It is most commonly used in the beginning of the breeding period as the pairs get used to each other’s presence.
242:. This species is considered common to locally abundant across its range, although it has a patchy distribution. Some experts consider there to be two
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The male might open and close its bill during this display, but the clattering sounds actually comes from the male’s bill striking the female’s.
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is the African openbill’s closest relative. The two species share the same notably large bill of a peculiar shape that gives them their name.
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The female African openbill will lay 3 to 4 eggs. These are oval and chalky white. Both parents will then care for the eggs through the
1023:. The bulk of the breeding season occurs during the rainy season and peaks in January–March. The rainy season lasts from August to May.
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The birds erect the feathers on their necks and heads and then quickly extend their necks to grab at their opponent with their bills.
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The bird stand in a normal posture in its nest, quickly lifts its bill slightly above the horizontal and snaps it audibly once.
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As the dominant bird is approaching, the subordinate will turn away and take evasive steps moving either sideways or backwards.
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will start slowly walking around and changing location, if they do not capture anything in the area they decided to forage in.
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The male shakes its head violently from side to side while slapping the bill of the female at a rate of ~4 times per second.
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1148:. The high amount of DDT in African openbill eggs can be explained by their consumption of highly contaminated snails.
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Many of the social displays of the African openbill stork are accompanied by bill clatters as is common in most of the
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The male steps onto the back of the female, hooks his feet over her shoulders and bends his legs for cloacal contact.
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for this medium-sized bird. The nest consists of a thin platform of sticks and twigs, lined with leaves, grasses,
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Dodman, T., & Diagana, C. (2007). Movements of waterbirds within africa and their conservation implications.
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Kasoma, P. M. B., & Pomeroy, D. E. (1987). The Status and Ecology of Storks and the Shoebill in East Africa.
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This is a common greeting display simultaneously given by both members of a pair, after one returns to the nest.
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The bill is pointed slightly upwards and gaped open, the wingtips are slightly lifted, and the tail is cocked.
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The comfort movements of the nestlings are exactly the same as those of the parents. They include the typical
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Two color-producing processes have been proposed to explain why these feathers have a green coloration:
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This display is most often performed by the males, although sometimes females might perform it as well.
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1036:. Overall, males dominate the mate selection process as they have the final say of who they mate with.
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Sometime the birds will also perform a loose shake of the head, before, during or after the greeting.
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continues to be shared by both parents and both the male and female will bring food and care for the
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The birds alternate their bill grabs in order to land damaging blows only rarely on the other bird.
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Some African openbill population are trans-equatorial migrants. Timing their migration to arrive in
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The wings are held open and sometimes flapped to help stay balanced and the bird’s tail is cocked.
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is loose and elastic which allows them to swallow large pieces of food relative to their size. The
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meaning that human activities affecting their habitat could have a big impact on the species.
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Sometimes both mates will perform this display together after completing the Up-Down display
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Luthin, C. S. (1987). Status of and conservation priorities for the world's stork species.
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Description of the displays observed between adult African Openbill storks while foraging
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the male accepts the female as a mate and allows her to come near into the nest spot for
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The bird then oscillates left to right, grabbing sticks at the end of each oscillation.
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for yellow and blue radiation. These mix in the eye to produce the impression of green.
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This display is performed during copulation which can last between 10 and 22 seconds.
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The African openbill uses the same comfort movements as seen in other storks such as
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The bird stands erect, having its neck extended upwards and its plumage compacted.
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The female opens her wings slightly and her bill between 45° and 90° downwards.
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Carbofuran and Wildlife Poisoning: Global Perspectives and Forensic Approaches.
1111:. They are being poisoned through a special baiting technique that uses a live
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DDT because they filter the contaminated water and feed on contaminated
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The bird stands erect and extends its neck up while arching it forward.
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The neck is partially retracted, and the body is held almost horizontal
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Kahl, M. P. (1971). Food and feeding behavior of openbill storks.
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piles of shells can be seen accumulating under the colony’s tree.
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The African openbill sometimes forages by standing on the back of
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The bird stand erect with its bill closed and plumage compacted.
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1492:"Anastomus lamelligerus (African openbill, Openbilled stork)"
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Kahl, M. P. (1987). An overview of the storks of the world.
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An adult African openbill foraging for snails in the water
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These birds primarily feed on aquatic snails of the genus
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414:). The eggs of the African openbill are preyed on by the
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African openbill holding a snail with the tip of its bill
954:, scratching and stretching as well as the spread-wing
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The bird bends forward and lightly grasps nest-sticks.
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with nearby tall trees or shrubs for them to nest in.
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Each cycle of greeting lasts between 5 and 7 seconds.
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1971:
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568:Lastly, very few individuals have been observed to
1349:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1972.tb01736.x
1193:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697664A132274733.en
802:After grabbing, the bill is often snapped loudly.
1640:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.03.043
693:African openbill in a spread wing sunning posture
368:species. This bird also croaks and honks loudly.
1256:Kahl, M. P. (1972). Comparative ethology of the
1082:. After 50–55 days in the nest, the chicks will
1587:https://doi.org/10.2989/OSTRICH.2007.78.2.7.87
402:The adult African openbill does not have many
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1335:Kahl, M. P. (1972). A revision of the family
406:, although the species is preyed upon by the
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450:Iridescent feathers of the African openbill
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1579:Ostrich - Journal of African Ornithology
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497:The nodules act collectively to produce
1600:Durban Natural Science Museum Novitates
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1260:: part 5. The Openbill Storks (genus
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509:then mix in the eye to produce green.
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1566:https://www.jstor.org/stable/1521261
1528:https://www.jstor.org/stable/1521258
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2328:IUCN Red List least concern species
2018:Twenty extant species in six genera
1666:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1179:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1462:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01644077
1274:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01640497
301:and no distinct coloration of the
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1300:https://doi.org/10.1117/12.682250
988:Displays toward other individuals
250:distributed on the continent and
490:levels of the melanin nodules.
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1321:https://doi.org/10.2307/1521251
1168:BirdLife International (2018).
1048:An African openbill in its nest
293:green feathers on their backs,
718:Social displays while foraging
234:. It is widely distributed in
1:
1494:. 2011-10-03. Archived from
1001:African openbill storks are
2343:Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
1850:African woolly-necked stork
760:Social displays at the nest
2364:
1136:remains in use to control
939:Nestling specific behavior
616:Once the storks capture a
581:Nestlings feeding behavior
375:African openbill in flight
2016:
1840:Asian woolly-necked stork
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1296:Proceedings of SPIE, 6320
1186:: e.T22697664A132274733.
1010:young per pair per year.
790:Forward clattering threat
499:constructive interference
329:Juvenile African openbill
230:of stork from the family
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82:Scientific classification
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37:
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1454:Journal FĂĽr Ornithologie
1266:Journal FĂĽr Ornithologie
975:Displays towards parents
2348:Birds described in 1823
685:Adult specific behavior
238:and western regions of
2305:Anastomus-lamelligerus
2084:Anastomus_lamelligerus
2070:Anastomus lamelligerus
2040:Anastomus lamelligerus
1657:Anastomus lamelligerus
1298:, 632014-1–632014-10.
1172:Anastomus lamelligerus
1049:
1003:opportunistic breeders
855:Nature of the display
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655:
603:Adult feeding behavior
563:Hippopotamus amphibius
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451:
376:
289:is overall black with
256:A. l. madagascariensis
252:A. l. madagascariensis
223:Anastomus lamelligerus
191:Anastomus lamelligerus
2274:Paleobiology Database
1409:www.oiseaux-birds.com
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916:Copulation clattering
890:Swaying twig-grasping
778:Nature of the display
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548:
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424:African marsh-harrier
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1086:and leave the nest.
1005:. The species forms
852:Name of the display
521:reproductive success
514:Conservation concern
416:African harrier-hawk
173:A. lamelligerus
1935:Saddle-billed stork
1750:Yellow-billed stork
1558:Colonial Waterbirds
1520:Colonial Waterbirds
1313:Colonial Waterbirds
1099:Pesticide poisoning
773:Name of the display
728:
612:Opening of mollusks
52:Conservation status
38:On the bank of the
1925:Black-necked stork
1405:"African Openbill"
1341:Journal of Zoology
1050:
726:
695:
656:
654:Freshwater wetland
551:
452:
420:Polyboroides typus
377:
264:Anastomus oscitans
248:A. l. lamelligerus
236:Sub-Saharan Africa
2315:
2314:
2032:Taxon identifiers
2023:
2022:
1071:incubation period
1040:Nest construction
946:Comfort movements
936:
935:
842:
841:
765:Primarily hostile
757:
756:
710:” and serves for
698:Comfort movements
280:sexual dimorphism
214:
213:
75:
24:African openbill
2355:
2308:
2307:
2295:
2294:
2282:
2281:
2269:
2268:
2256:
2255:
2243:
2242:
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2217:
2216:
2204:
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2191:
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2178:
2177:
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2152:
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2139:
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2125:
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2112:
2100:
2099:
2097:0F14ECE44F616F74
2087:
2086:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2027:
1993:Greater adjutant
1916:Ephippiorhynchus
1805:African openbill
1696:
1689:
1682:
1673:
1643:
1627:
1621:
1613:
1607:
1596:
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1292:
1277:
1254:
1205:
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1202:
1200:
1195:
1165:
1117:flocking species
964:thermoregulation
849:
845:Primarily sexual
769:
747:Upright Display
729:
712:thermoregulatory
576:Feeding behavior
476:
468:
460:
442:Special feathers
428:Circus ranivorus
338:
326:
317:Close up of head
314:
218:African openbill
210:
193:
90:
89:
69:
64:
63:
33:
21:
16:Species of stork
2363:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2338:Birds of Africa
2318:
2317:
2316:
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2298:
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2285:
2277:
2272:
2264:
2261:Observation.org
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2077:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2034:
2024:
2019:
2012:
1983:Lesser adjutant
1967:
1944:
1939:E. senegalensis
1909:
1814:
1809:A. lamelligerus
1779:
1764:M. leucocephala
1724:
1720:List of species
1705:
1700:
1651:
1646:
1628:
1624:
1614:
1610:
1597:
1593:
1576:
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1310:
1306:
1293:
1280:
1255:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1142:bio-concentrate
1126:
1101:
1092:
1067:
1042:
1029:
1016:
1014:Breeding season
999:
990:
977:
972:
970:Social displays
948:
941:
908:
896:
847:
828:Anxiety stretch
767:
762:
732:Forward Threat
720:
700:
687:
682:
669:
648:
639:
626:
614:
605:
583:
578:
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529:
516:
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444:
432:monitor lizards
400:
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362:
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318:
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201:
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176:
84:
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54:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2361:
2359:
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2350:
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2320:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2296:
2283:
2270:
2257:
2244:
2231:
2218:
2205:
2192:
2179:
2166:
2153:
2140:
2127:
2114:
2101:
2088:
2075:
2060:
2044:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1990:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1954:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1932:
1921:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1897:
1887:
1880:Oriental stork
1877:
1867:
1857:
1854:C. microscelis
1847:
1837:
1826:
1824:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1802:
1795:Asian openbill
1791:
1789:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1767:
1757:
1747:
1736:
1734:
1726:
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1669:
1659:Temminck, 1823
1650:
1649:External links
1647:
1645:
1644:
1622:
1608:
1591:
1585:(2), 149–154.
1570:
1564:(2), 221–228.
1532:
1526:(2), 181–202.
1508:
1466:
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1353:
1325:
1319:(2), 131–131.
1304:
1278:
1272:(2), 121–137.
1206:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1125:
1124:Impacts of DDT
1122:
1100:
1097:
1091:
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1066:
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1059:aquatic plants
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1038:
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1027:Pair formation
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260:Asian openbill
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2015:
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2007:L. crumenifer
2004:
2003:Marabou stork
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1870:Maguari stork
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1860:Storm's stork
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1760:Painted stork
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1498:on 2011-10-03
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588:regurgitation
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183:
182:Binomial name
179:
175:
174:
169:
166:
165:
162:
161:
157:
154:
153:
150:
147:
144:
143:
140:
139:Ciconiiformes
137:
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114:
113:
110:
107:
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83:
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73:
68:
67:Least Concern
57:
53:
48:
45:
41:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2039:
2006:
1996:
1987:L. javanicus
1986:
1972:
1961:
1949:
1938:
1929:E. asiaticus
1928:
1914:
1903:
1893:
1883:
1873:
1863:
1853:
1844:C. episcopus
1843:
1833:
1819:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1784:
1774:M. americana
1773:
1763:
1753:
1743:
1729:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1617:
1611:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1561:
1557:
1523:
1519:
1500:. Retrieved
1496:the original
1460:(1), 21–35.
1457:
1453:
1412:. Retrieved
1408:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1295:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1197:. Retrieved
1183:
1177:
1171:
1163:
1150:
1130:South Africa
1127:
1102:
1093:
1068:
1051:
1030:
1021:rainy season
1017:
1000:
991:
982:
978:
949:
942:
930:
927:
921:
915:
907:
904:
898:
895:
889:
882:
878:
875:
869:
863:
836:
827:
817:
812:Snap display
811:
804:
801:
795:
789:
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777:
772:
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740:
736:
721:
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670:
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584:
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556:
552:
532:
530:
517:
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453:
435:
427:
419:
412:Aquila rapax
411:
401:
392:air currents
383:
363:
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284:
277:
263:
255:
251:
247:
222:
221:
217:
215:
190:
188:
172:
171:
159:
18:
2196:iNaturalist
2064:Wikispecies
1974:Leptoptilos
1962:J. mycteria
1900:Black stork
1890:White stork
1884:C. boyciana
1799:A. oscitans
1740:Milky stork
1638:, 647–658.
1632:Chemosphere
1347:, 451–461.
1199:14 November
960:urohidrosis
708:urohidrosis
673:West Africa
488:reflectance
408:tawny eagle
274:Description
266:) found in
244:sub-species
2322:Categories
2300:Xeno-canto
1894:C. ciconia
1874:C. maguari
1834:C. abdimii
1770:Wood stork
1744:M. cinerea
1502:2021-11-11
1414:2021-11-11
1337:Ciconiidae
1258:Ciconiidae
1156:References
1080:hatchlings
1057:and other
1034:copulation
1007:monogamous
858:Execution
714:purposes.
593:gular skin
366:Ciconiidae
347:Bill shape
291:iridescent
285:The adult
240:Madagascar
232:Ciconiidae
149:Ciconiidae
2333:Anastomus
1997:L. dubius
1864:C. stormi
1786:Anastomus
1262:Anastomus
783:Execution
667:Migration
631:operculum
597:esophagus
404:predators
398:Predators
354:operculum
167:Species:
160:Anastomus
105:Kingdom:
99:Eukaryota
2240:22697664
2214:10191124
2162:45518776
2110:22697664
2105:BirdLife
2049:Wikidata
1904:C. nigra
1731:Mycteria
1620:, 53-70.
1606:, 54–57.
1339:(Aves).
1146:plankton
1109:poachers
997:Breeding
952:preening
704:preening
680:Behavior
661:wetlands
541:Foraging
475:barbules
387:thermals
303:eye-ring
198:Temminck
145:Family:
119:Chordata
115:Phylum:
109:Animalia
95:Domain:
72:IUCN 3.1
44:Zimbabwe
2253:2696508
2188:5229411
2149:afrope1
2123:afrope1
2092:Avibase
1821:Ciconia
1754:M. ibis
1713:Order:
1664:at the
1138:malaria
1090:Threats
956:sunning
864:Up-down
646:Habitat
642:birds.
637:Mussels
618:mollusc
484:melanin
436:Varanus
434:(genus
422:), the
295:coverts
287:plumage
228:species
226:) is a
155:Genus:
135:Order:
125:Class:
70: (
40:Zambezi
2292:212706
2279:373510
2227:174903
2170:EURING
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