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pressures on bushmeat populations are growing more rapidly than national population statistics suggest. Over time the hunting of bushmeat has morphed from traditional subsistence to commercial trade. An increasing population and spread of urbanization has been thought to be one of the leading causes of increases in commercial bushmeat sales. Hunting bushmeat in West Africa is also an important part of the livelihood for many people who live there. It is also a big part of the culture in
Central and West Africa because bushmeat is their most important source of protein. Important as this is for the humans who rely on the bushmeat, it puts the survival of many species of vultures found in West Africa at risk.
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495:, are seen as spiritual agents. In a study measuring the reactions of people towards the vultures, it was shown that due to traditions and cultural teachings, females and the elderly had stronger beliefs and values concerning vultures. Due to British colonial rule, the use of animal parts in fetish traditional practices has declined greatly in Ghana, and vulture parts are, for the most part, unavailable. Some Yoruba women traders from Nigeria may bring bird parts to fetish markets, which were hunted in Nigeria and brought by these traders.
611:. Vultures are notorious scavengers and this hurts them doubly in this scenario. With a sharp increase in rhino and elephant poaching over the last few years poachers have been poisoning the carcasses to kill any circling vultures which might reveal their position to the local authorities. Additionally many pastoralists in Africa poison carcasses to kill marauding lions, hyenas, and wild dogs. These poisoning incidents can kill upwards of 40 vultures per carcass as well as a plethora of other nearby animals.
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be killed and harvested with a single poisoned carcass. There are vast differences in the prevalence of vulture belief use between the various countries and populations in West Africa, due to cultural differences and different political regulations and policies. In some markets, the trade of animal parts for fetish practices have been completely banned, while in others there is a flourishing market and high demand for vultures. Specifically, vulture consumption and belief use is associated with
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intelligence". Approximately 160 vultures are sold per year in eastern South Africa alone, contributing to an estimated 59,000 consumption events of various vulture parts. The harvesting of vultures for the traditional medicine market on this scale significantly impacts vulture species population numbers. White-headed and Lappet-faced vultures could disappear entirely in approximately 27 years if drastic changes are not made to increase protective measures for these birds.
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111:. This attracts the vultures to feed, as they are obligate scavengers. The birds eat the poisoned meat and die, making the harvest easy. However, the poisons the vultures ingest are passed along through the food chain which places the humans that consume these birds also at risk for poisoning. The two leading causes for vulture deaths are poisoning and trade in traditional medicine, these two causes make up 90% of reported deaths.
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228:. Of these western countries, some have fairly stable vulture populations such as the Hooded Vultures of The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau. On the other hand, there are countries like Senegal which has regions that have faced 80% vulture decline in the last half century. The trade of vultures for bushmeat, as well as belief use, is the primary factor for the decline of vulture population in West Africa.
75:, with both national and international trade occurring. Vultures are sometimes specifically targeted for bushmeat consumption or traditional belief use. Poachers also target vultures, even when they are not harvesting the vultures for bushmeat or belief use purposes. Since vultures circle over carcasses, they can be used as sentinels, alerting wildlife authorities of poaching events.
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don't inhabit these areas are the ones that might be seeing a decline in populations. The known cases of vulture deaths in Zambia generally happen right outside of national parks and in South
Luangwa National Park these deaths were linked to belief use of vultures. Many of these dead vultures are said to have their heads removed for use in rituals.
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few times a year. However the specific use of vultures for bushmeat is not often discussed. The existing literature points to the existence of wildlife ranches in South Africa that contribute to the local economy, privately owned game ranches and
Transfrontier Conservation Areas as a possible contributors to this gap.
454:, and East African witchcraft. Cultural taboos also differ between these regions. For example, some groups within Kenya believe vultures to be unclean and ugly, while others associate them with death and view them as bad omens. Such perceptions may result in limited use and market demand for vulture species.
509:. The Ogoni tolerate vultures due to them being a symbol of their ancestors. Due their respect for it, the Ogoni do not attempt to hurt or kill the bird. If one comes across a deceased vulture, they will bury it in similar fashion to the way they bury people. A 1992 study found Nigerian farmers use the
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Ground-Hornbills themselves, 18% acquired them opportunistically, and 64% are supplied by hunters. Seven main uses were expressed by market salesman: fighting or revenge, to eliminate bad spirits, protection, strength, achieving dreams or goals, preventing theft, and to bring ancestral spirits to young
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There is a scarcity in the literature regarding the use of vultures as bushmeat in
Southern Africa. Mentions of bushmeat consumption in Southern Africa do exist in the literature, as families in the region are reported as saying in a study on the use of natural resources, that they consume bushmeat a
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is traditionally buried in the ground before the construction of a new house, because it is believed to bring good luck. At fetish markets, vultures are the most valuable birds, but their populations have severely decreased and so they are becoming very rare in most markets. However, in
Nigeria, the
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have been known to promote the consumption of vulture parts at their markets for decades. Most vultures that are killed for traditional belief use are deliberately poisoned. Carcasses of other animals are laced with poison, which the vultures then feed on, so that many vultures and other raptors can
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Much like its neighboring country South Africa, in
Lesotho, vultures are believed to have supernatural powers and to personify insight and power. In a study done by Beilis and Esterhuizen, parts used for belief use ranged from vulture eyes and hearts to feathers and bones. It was observed that wings
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and the market for vulture meat is growing. Due to the great vulnerability of vultures increasing “prosecutions and hunting pressures” in
Central Africa has led to a heavy decline of the vulture populations and increase of vulture bushmeat in Central African markets. Although vultures are used for a
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Although vulture trade and consumption is a large threat to vultures, it is not the largest. A whopping 61% of vultures are killed by poisonings, intentional or unintentional. This is compounded by another 9% dying from being electrocuted by exposed wiring. In comparison, 29% were killed for use in
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In
Liberia, when conducting the experiment to test out the theory of socio-economic factors for bushmeat consumption, it was found that monthly income, years of education, and literacy were all factors that led to the purchases. Due to the lack of knowledge and monetary funds, poor income families
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Though there exists a lack of knowledge on the current status of vulture populations in Zambia, very few occurrences of vulture poisoning have been recorded. Zambia's vultures are predominantly sited in protected areas and game management areas and are believed to be healthy. The populations that
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The literature also indicates that the region of
Southern Africa is a hub for illegal wildlife trafficking and the illegal wildlife market. Birds are mentioned as one of the groups of animals most significantly impacted by the illegal wildlife trade. This indicates that while there is no specific
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in traditional medicinal practices. A survey of the fetish markets in
Nigeria showed that the numbers of vultures had actually doubled overall, compared to earlier surveys. The trading of vultures in Nigeria is mostly handled by Yoruba women. There is an increasing pressure on hunters to obtain
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Only 11% of the 318 registered traditional healers in the capital of Lesotho sold vulture parts in 1998. Healers that were interviewed testified to the fact that they only used one vulture a year, which would translate to 35 vultures being killed in a year. But this does not bring into account
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virus. Human life is another risk due to bushmeat being eaten when it is known to be a non dietary supplement of solid food. There is a link between education and income status that evaluates why consumers in Africa are choosing bushmeat specifically. There is no large scale regional effort to
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are threatened by human-wildlife conflict. A study done throughout the continent found that although vulture losses could be seen everywhere, the highest total loss per year were in West and East Africa. The killing of many species is an integral part of human livelihood in the region. Human
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people. In his study of muthi and its impacts on vultures, McKean explains some of the reasoning provided for vulture use. "Research confirms that vultures are used... for a range of purposes, but are believed to be most effective for providing clairvoyant powers, foresight, and increased
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There are many impacts associated with the vulture bushmeat market. Some purchasers believe that vulture parts would help them be cured from any diseases or illness they are enduring. Impacts on the environment are also a result of bushmeat acquisition in West Africa. Specifically habitat
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are used for physical, mental diseases, bring good fortune, improve success in gambling and betting in business ventures. Sorcery and witchcraft are the top use, and this use stems from Nigeria. The most common way to kill the vultures for traditional medicine is poisoning them through a
412:
In Zimbabwe, the Southern Ground-Hornbill's population has dropped significantly outside of designated protection areas, and is now a national concern. A study at a Zimbabwe market was conducted to evaluate the sale and use of the Southern Ground-Hornbill. 18% of the traders caught the
337:, and witchcraft. As with bushmeat harvests, African vultures sold for belief use are usually hunted using poisoned baits. Therefore, when belief use practitioners consume the vulture or vulture parts as part of their activities, they also ingest the poisons used to kill the vulture.
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Little is known regarding vulture belief use in Eastern Africa. It is unclear whether this dearth of information indicates limited use, or rather a lack of research conducted within the region. Scholars have called for increased examination, particularly within the countries of
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Vultures in sub-Saharan Africa are known for their tremendous eyesight, and many believe their body parts can be used to see into the future. Some South African belief users inhale smoke from burned vulture brains to improve cognitive abilities or to improve their luck.
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unregistered healers or the high demand that exists during elections or significant events of that nature. Beilis and Esterhuizen found that if each healer used one more vulture, it would have the potential to disrupt the breeding process of vultures the country.
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The few studies that have been conducted suggest notable differences between East Africa and more prominent vulture-using regions such as Southern and West Africa. These include differences in traditional, spiritual, and medicinal practices associated with
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The limited reporting of vultures used as bushmeat may indicate the minimal numbers of vultures sold for food or represent a lack of published research on this topic in East Africa. This is similar to the lack of documentation available in Southern Africa.
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Wildlife-based medicinal products are sold commercially in an urban, traditional market. The trade in vultures in markets have contributed considerably to the decline of the vultures and other raptors. Approximately half of the vultures sold are on the
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in West Africa. In this traditional belief system, all birds are believed to help against weaknesses in the body. Large vultures are believed to help against mental illnesses and disturbances, epileptic health concerns, and to cure bad eyesight. The
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Wageningen University. “Raptors in West and Central Africa threatened by trade for bushmeat and fetish.” Phys.org - News and Articles on Science and Technology, Oryx, 24 Aug. 2015, phys.org/news/2015-08-raptors-west-central-africa-threatened.html.
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are sold each year which is approximately 12,000 tonnes of terrestrial vertebrates. 8.42 tonnes of that was bird bushmeat, and vultures made up most of that. Most of the vultures found in the study were being sold in rural areas of Cameroon.
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disturbance, level of protection, hunting pressure, and distance to market have reduced forests throughout the region. The consumption of bushmeat has also affected the wildlife population, but has also raised deadly diseases known as the
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There are several instances in Central Africa were dealers are selling vulture heads for traditional medicine. Vulture head was sold in Maroua, in Garoua 10-12 vultures heads were sold, another set of legs and a head sold in the market.
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Mullié, W. C., Couzi, F. X., Diop, M. S., Piot, B., Peters, T., Reynaud, P. A., & Thiollay, J. M. (2017). The decline of an urban Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus population in Dakar, Senegal, over 50 years. Ostrich, 88(2),
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Fa, John E.; Seymour, Sarah; Dupain, Jef; Amin, Rajan; Albrechtsen, Lise; MacDonald, David (2006-05-01). "Getting to grips with the magnitude of exploitation: Bushmeat in the Cross–Sanaga rivers region, Nigeria and Cameroon".
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Willcock, S., Hooftman, D., Sitas, N., O’Farrell, P., Hudson, M. D., Reyers, B., . . . Bullock, J. M. (2016). Do ecosystem service maps and models meet stakeholders’ needs? A preliminary survey across sub-Saharan Africa.
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declines in Africa may be due to a combination of poisoning and illegal wildlife trade for medicinal use and/or bushmeat. All trade of African vultures is illegal, as these birds are protected by international laws.
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Nielsen, Martin Reinhardt. "Importance, cause and effect of bushmeat hunting in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania: Implications for community based wildlife management." Biological conservation 128, no. 4 (2006):
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Adeola, M. (1992). Importance of Wild Animals and Their Parts in the Culture, Religious Festivals, and Traditional Medicine, of Nigeria. Environmental Conservation, 19(2), 125-134. doi:10.1017/S0376892900030605
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Regions of Africa used to describe trends in bushmeat and traditional belief use of vultures. Pink is West Africa, purple is Central Africa, green is East Africa, blue is Southern Africa, and yellow is North
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variety of reasons in Central Africa, most are used as bushmeat and sold at bushmeat markets. Most bushmeat markets sell large bodied vultures which are mainly killed by poison. In a study done in areas of
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The current conservation status of the Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri in Zimbabwe. In: Kemp, A.C. & Kemp, M.I. (eds). The Active Management of Hornbills and their Habitats for conservation pp.
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Ordaz-Ne´meth I, Arandjelovic M, Boesch L, Gatiso T, Grimes T, Kuehl HS, et al. (2017) The socio-economic drivers of bushmeat consumption during the West African Ebola crisis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 11(3):
374:. Many South Africans do not view traditional medicine as a secondary choice to Western medicine, but rather a better or parallel treatment for ailments that Western medicines do not adequately treat.
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is meat harvested from non-domesticated animals including mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. Poachers target vulture species in sub-Saharan Africa for bushmeat harvest and consumption.
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Thiollay, J. (2006). Severe decline of large birds in the Northern Sahel of West Africa: A long-term assessment. Bird Conservation International, 16(4), 353-365. doi:10.1017/S0959270906000487
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Ogada, D., Shaw, P., Beyers, R. L., Buij, R., Murn, C., Thiollay, J. M., ... & Krüger, S. C. (2016). Another continental vulture crisis: Africa's vultures collapsing toward extinction.
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breeding range. Approximately half of the vultures sold at bushmeat markets are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List for threatened and endangered species.
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A survey of vulture parts in markets throughout West Africa showed that the vulture trade is most prevalent in Nigeria. Within the Southeast region of Nigeria, there is a group called;
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Saale, L. B. (2017). Vulture significance in Ogoni Culture. AFRREV LALIGENS: An International Journal of Language, Literature and Gender Studies, 6(2), 104. doi:10.4314/laligens.v6i2.9
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CMS Raptors (2017) Multi-Species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures (Vulture MsAP), Summary. UN Environment, Convention on Migratory Species Office - Abu Dhabi.
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and feathers were least popular while parts such as brains and eyes were more desirable to consumers. The parts sold by healers seemed to only be Cape Griffon vulture parts.
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have experienced high rates of bird deaths from poisoning related to bush meat trade, with over 3,000 deaths reported in a 10-month period. Countries in East Africa, such as
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D L Ogada & R Buij (2011) Large declines of the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus across its African range, Ostrich, 82:2, 101-113, DOI: 10.2989/00306525.2011.603464
148:, have seen increased bushmeat consumption due to a need for protein and income. However, there is no specific data regarding the sale of vultures in Tanzania's markets.
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mention of consumption of vultures as bushmeat, birds are still being moved throughout the region and consumption or use elsewhere is still a driver for the activity.
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McKean, S., Mander, M., Diederichs, N., Ntuli, L., Mavundla, K., Williams, V., & Wakelin, J. (2013). The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa.
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is highly valued, and their market price is competitive. The high pressure to hunt these increasingly rare birds is pushing their population towards extinction.
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While other regions of Africa have higher incidence of poisoning for bushmeat consumption, the practice also exists in East Africa. Specific countries, such as
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traditional medicine, and 1% for food. The main reason vulture poisonings are so prevalent is a by product of another broader problem endemic to Africa,
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Campbell, M. (2009). Factors for the presence of avian scavengers in Accra and Kumasi, Ghana. Area, 41(3), 341-349. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2008.00870.x
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Wilkie, D. S., Wieland, M., Boulet, H., Bel, S. L., Vliet, N. V., Cornelis, D., . . . Fa, J. E. (2016). Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa.
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Warchol, G.L., Zupan, L.L., & Clack, W. (2003). Transnational Criminality: An Analysis of the Illegal Wildlife Market in Southern Africa.
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Ogada, D. L. (2014), The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa's wildlife. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1322: 1–20. doi:10.1111/nyas.12405
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are the prominent vulture in the area. The use due to the demand being high, black kites head feathers are plucked as a substitute for the
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Red List as a threatened or endangered species. “In the past four years, approximately 1000 beheaded poisoned vultures have been found in
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categorized 7 of Africa's 11 vulture species as globally endangered or critically endangered. Recent research suggests that 90% of
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1145:"The potential impact on Cape Griffon Gyps coprotheres populations due to the trade in traditional medicine in Maseru, Lesotho"
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and harvest of vultures for market trade usually involves poisoning the birds by baiting livestock and wildlife carcasses with
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Anderson, Mark (2009-11-12). "Vulture crises in South Asia and West Africa … and monitoring, or the lack thereof, in Africa".
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Buij, R., et al. “Trade of Threatened Vultures and Other Raptors for Fetish and Bushmeat in West and Central Africa.”
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Poachers also harvest vultures in sub-Saharan Africa to sell their parts to people for belief use practices, such as
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As it stands, a greater part of the literature addressing belief use in the southern region of Africa comes from
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The use of vultures for traditional medicine is a prominent feature of some South African cultures, such as the
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McNamara, J.; Kusimi, J. M.; Rowcliffe, J. M.; Cowlishaw, G.; Brenyah, A.; Milner‐Gulland, E. J. (2015-10-01).
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Bakarr, Mohamed, William Oduro, and Eureka Adomako. "WEST AFRICA: REGIONAL OVERVIEW OF THE BUSHMEAT CRISIS."
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1389:"Assessment of the occurrence and threats to Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus in western Kenyan towns"
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Belief use of vultures and other animals is a common occurrence in West Africa where practitioners of
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African Vulture Species Distributions Map created using IUCN Red List and GADM data by Alison Thieme
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http://www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_doc.24.1.4_annex3_vulture-msap_e.pdf
540:. It is the “silent, cheap, easy to obtain and use, and effective.” The common poison used is
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and Central Africa. In the bushmeat market, the most frequently traded species are those with
64:
1481:"The Fetish Culture in West Africa: An Ancient Tradition As A Threat to Endangered Birdlife?"
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Williams, Vivienne L.; Cunningham, Anthony B.; Kemp, Alan C.; Bruyns, Robin K. (2014-08-27).
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There was not a lot of readily available information about the beliefs and traditions in
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numbers of vultures at fetish markets have doubled since early surveys were taken. The
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1319:"Risks to Birds Traded for African Traditional Medicine: A Quantitative Assessment"
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719:"Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora"
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were forced to obtain the wild animal meat in order to feast and gain protein.
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poachers have thus targeted vultures to reduce the likelihood of being caught.
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864:, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 17:1-2, 127-148, DOI: 10.1300/J091v17n01_08
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753:"Ivory poachers and poison: drivers of Africa's declining vulture populations"
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1186:"Vulture Poisoning Incidents and the Status of Vultures in Zambia and Malawi"
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Barnes, R. F. (2002). The bushmeat boom and bust in West and Central Africa.
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983:"Long‐term spatio‐temporal changes in a West African bushmeat trade system"
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and large bodied vultures are some of the most sold raptors. Combined with
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K Bruyns, Robin; Williams, Vivienne; B Cunningham, Anthony (2013-11-14).
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55:. This illegal trade of vultures and vulture parts is contributing to a
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Vulture Conservation Programs and Organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa
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589:, regarding vultures. The information found supported the idea that
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Animals in Traditional Folk Medicine: Implications for Conservation
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43:, trafficking, and illegal sale of vultures and vulture parts for
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Ethno-ornithology: Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society
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vultures, as their population decreases and their value rises.
348:
White-headed Vulture with White-backed Vultures in South Africa
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1387:
Odino, Martin; Imboma, Titus; Ogada, Darcy L. (2014-01-01).
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Fourie, L (1996). "Poisoning of wildlife in South Africa".
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Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) in Southern Africa
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African vulture trade falls under the broader spectrum of
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Use of vulture for various reasons in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Ogada, Darcy; Botha, André; Shaw, Phil (October 2016).
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address the bushmeat problem in West Africa currently.
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International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
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West Africa consists of the following 15 countries:
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Other Causes for African Vulture Population Declines
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Journal of the South African Veterinary Association
491:In Ghana, several vultures, but mainly the larger
305:they make up 41% of the raptor bushmeat market in
1143:Beilis, Nadine; Esterhuizen, Johan (2005-01-01).
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820:, vol. 50, no. 04, 14 Aug. 2015, pp. 606–616.
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838:, 110-117. doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2016.02.038
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231:Like many other animals, vultures found in
1184:Roxburgh, L.; McDougall, R. (2012-01-01).
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1488:Tropical Vertebrates in a Changing World
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556:Indian Vulture (left) Black Kite (right)
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1275:Ostrich: Journal of African Ornithology
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1095:Smoking Vulture Brains in South Africa
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880:International Criminal Justice Review
23:African white-backed vulture in Kenya
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851:(4), 402-414. doi:10.1111/aje.12392
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51:, like traditional medicines, in
1287:10.2989/OSTRICH.2007.78.2.47.127
824:, doi:10.1017/s0030605315000514.
646:African Birds of Prey Sanctuary
59:on the continent. In 2017, the
1436:. London: Earthscan. pp.
1225:Chiweshe, Ngoni (2007-09-01).
1:
849:African Journal of Ecology,54
544:and it most commonly used in
1344:10.1371/journal.pone.0105397
1071:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.11.031
417:, also known as herbalists.
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1162:10.4314/vulnew.v53i1.37630
136:Ruppell's Vulture in Kenya
770:10.1017/S0030605315001209
631:Endangered Wildlife Trust
313:behavior, generalist or
49:ritual and religious use
1428:Gosler, Andrew (2010).
1059:Biological Conservation
1406:10.4314/vulnew.v67i2.1
1203:10.4314/vulnew.v62i1.3
621:BirdLife International
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836:Ecosystem Services,18
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626:BirdLife South Africa
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37:African vulture trade
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1249:. pp. 475–486.
987:Conservation Biology
702:Conservation Letters
361:Lappet-faced Vulture
331:traditional medicine
317:habitat use, and an
1335:2014PLoSO...9j5397W
1092:VICE (2017-12-20),
1575:Wildlife smuggling
999:10.1111/cobi.12545
860:John Hanks (2003)
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452:West African Vodun
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271:are being used as
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164:Map of West Africa
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53:Sub-Saharan Africa
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1479:Nikolaus (2011).
989:(in Portuguese).
493:Ruppell's Vulture
57:population crisis
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1103:
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1028:
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782:
772:
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737:
736:
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732:
723:
715:
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677:
595:hooded vultures.
479:Palm-Nut vulture
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1589:
1585:
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1580:
1579:
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591:hooded vultures
520:
503:
489:
460:
423:
410:
401:
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353:Southern Africa
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115:Southern Africa
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237:
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190:Guinea-Bissau
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
162:
155:
153:
149:
147:
143:
134:
127:
125:
121:
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112:
110:
109:agrochemicals
106:
102:
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61:IUCN Red List
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1393:Vulture News
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1124:Vulture News
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507:Ogoni People
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372:South Africa
369:
366:South Africa
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319:afrotropical
263:
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230:
222:Sierra Leone
174:Burkina Faso
167:
150:
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708:(2), 89-97.
458:West Africa
421:East Africa
233:West Africa
198:Ivory Coast
156:West Africa
128:East Africa
1564:Categories
1101:2018-04-12
886:(1), 1-27.
780:10023/8943
731:18 October
667:References
325:Belief use
311:scavenging
303:Black kite
178:Cabo Verde
81:rhino horn
1490:: 145–149
1415:1606-7479
1353:1932-6203
1212:1606-7479
1171:1606-7479
1079:0006-3207
1007:1523-1739
789:0030-6053
1570:Vultures
1494:30 March
1371:25162700
1323:PLOS ONE
1295:84365762
1130:, 15-36.
1043:e0005450
1025:26104770
930:131-138.
908:509-516.
609:poaching
580:Tanzania
576:Cameroon
572:Zimbabwe
546:Cameroon
533:Vultures
440:Ethiopia
428:Tanzania
415:inyangas
408:Zimbabwe
315:savannah
286:reptiles
282:Cameroon
273:bushmeat
265:Vultures
146:Tanzania
105:Poaching
101:Bushmeat
87:Bushmeat
47:and for
45:bushmeat
41:poaching
1550:8765066
1362:4146541
1331:Bibcode
1229:252-256
1016:4745032
542:Lindane
538:blowgun
500:Nigeria
386:Lesotho
294:mammals
278:Nigeria
250:Liberia
218:Senegal
214:Nigeria
202:Liberia
96:Africa.
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568:Zambia
438:, and
436:Uganda
399:Zambia
299:Hooded
292:, and
186:Guinea
182:Gambia
1484:(PDF)
1291:S2CID
726:CITES
722:(PDF)
661:Eskom
486:Ghana
469:Vodun
464:Vodun
432:Kenya
290:birds
242:Ebola
210:Niger
194:Ghana
170:Benin
142:Kenya
1546:PMID
1496:2018
1442:ISBN
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280:and
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