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happy to have their culture suppressed in this way. "They have a special aversion to distinctive treatment, and have
Japanized themselves in every respect. They have abandoned their native customs and manners, forgotten the Ainu tongue and effected a complete change in their daily life." It continues, "They requested of the Government a census whereby they might become recognized Japanese subjects. This the Government instituted and the Ainu were accepted as common people. Consequently, they are now so Japanesque that their characteristics as an Ainu race will vanish before long,". While these excerpts are indicative of the attitude of the government that the Ainu should conform to the rest of Japanese society, the pamphlet's very existence counters the idea that they fit in. The pamphlet goes on to detail the very differences that make the Ainu worth writing a tourism pamphlet on, describing their customs and ceremonies and even pointing out their racial differences.
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attractions (this occurred, of course, after the ban on Ainu music had been lifted). Ainu singers and dancers could often only find an avenue for their talents, and in some cases, find any job at all, in these cultural shows. The shows featured sacred, ceremonial songs, especially those of the famous bear-sending. The songs would be repeated three or four times a day, for dozens of tourists. Kayano
Shigeru, who some have called "Ainu personified", a prominent Ainu public figure, recalls the shows he participated in with shame. "It is beyond words for me to explain to others how miserable it made us feel to sing and dance – albeit for money – in front of curious tourists from throughout Japan when we weren't even happy or excited,". The government was, in effect, encouraging certain aspects of Ainu culture while concurrently suppressing it as a whole. Ceremonial songs and dances became both a viable means of making a living and a shameful badge of dishonor.
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were first conquered, in the period of decline after the 16th century, the culture heroes featured in the heroic types of epics were said to have "departed in indignation,". In addition to this kind of direct representation of Ainu cultural identity, the variable increase and decline of Ainu music is also indicative of Ainu culture. In the peak Ainu period, the most complex and fantastic epics were created, stretching out to tens of thousands of verses and building on new and complex ideas. In the most desperate period for the Ainu, however, in late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the population declined to only 15,000 or so, Ainu music was very scarce; even the famous bear-sending ceremony was described as a "once-in-a-lifetime" experience in 1948.
353:. The singer performs the song entirely from memory, and, traditionally, in a "non-formal" setting such as a friend's house or before the hearth at a gathering. While somewhat casual, these epics are still more formal than the short prayer songs mentioned earlier. Both men and women recite Ainu epics, though the vocal qualities of women are considered preferable to those of men. The epic songs are fairly rhythmic melodic chants. The voice of the singer usually fluctuates within words, and phrases and sentences are distinguished by the melody. Singers strive for their audience to understand every word. The epic is unaccompanied by musical instruments, though at times both the singer and the listener might tap
382:, or carved sticks that are used as holy objects by the Ainu, as well as the prayers and ceremonies that are used to send the bear home. In this way, the ceremony and the epic are somewhat inseparable. The activities of the ceremony are outlined by the epic, and the epic accompanies the ceremony to reinforce it. Though the epic can be performed outside of the ceremony, it cannot exist without the ceremony as context, and the ceremony cannot be performed without the epic. These epics, as well as the everyday songs, represent the cultural heritage of the Ainu and allow us to understand customs and their mythic significance, but they also act as indicators of the relative well-being of the Ainu culture.
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the story of the bear god, who, in saving his young son, is killed by human hunters. The song both presents the situation from the god's point of view – he is confused when he is killed, and doesn't recognize his own dead body for what it is – and prescribes the methods for the bear-sending ceremony. The premise for the bear-sending is that the bear god is trapped in his mortal body, and by killing the bear in a ritualized, respectful manner, humans are doing the god a favor and sending him home. The song describes the
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origin stories and stories of deities, while heroic narratives are those narratives featuring the cultural heroes of the Ainu. Mythic narratives can be told either from the point of view of a human observer or from the point of view of the divine participant. One of the most distinctive aspects of Ainu epics is this first person god point of view. Heroic narratives feature one of several major culture heroes, or recurring protagonists of mythical origins, such as
665:, the most prominent player of Ainu-inspired pop music in Japan, plays songs that are based on Ainu ceremonial songs. They use indigenous Ainu instruments, Ainu language, and Ainu subject matter, but also include Western influences such as guitar and bass, and sound similar to British ska music. Oki Kano is fairly well known in Japan, and represents the idea of Ainu music to many Japanese people, even though his music is very Westernized.
327:(the pounding song)…are not labor songs; rather, they are magic-oriented, for they are sung to ward off evil spirits". Short, everyday songs are also a way of praying. These prayer songs are (or were) performed regularly before meals, after a fishing trip, to ask for luck in hunting, and in many other contexts. Unfortunately, material about everyday songs is very difficult to obtain. Many have never been recorded.
648:. While most of this reclamation occurred by way of peaceful meetings and beneficial organizations such as Kayano Shigeru's work for a national Ainu museum, some groups, like Ainu Liberation, used terrorist tactics such as the bombing of 23 October 1972, to attract attention to their cause. As a whole, however, the movement for Ainu cultural identity has been exacted through cultural media such as art,
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This kind of contradiction is actually characteristic of the way the
Japanese government has treated the Ainu, especially in the early 20th century. Besides publications such as the aforementioned pamphlet, the government also created cultural shows featuring Ainu song and dance that acted as tourist
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Ainu music has been important throughout the years in both reflecting and establishing the Ainu cultural identity. Ainu music, historically, has represented the state of Ainu society. The folkloric epics of the Ainu often refer directly to the state of the Ainu as a group. For example, when the Ainu
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Epics themselves take several different forms. Following
Philippi's model and dividing them in two different ways, they can be distinguished by both subject and style. Philippi divides epic subjects into two groups: mythic narratives and heroic narratives. Mythic narratives are those epics featuring
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Epics, as well as a few of the more everyday songs, are regularly featured in Ainu ceremonies. For example, the most famous of Ainu cultural events, the "bear-sending ceremony," is accompanied by a whole host of songs, not the least of which is the "Song of a Bear," a mythic epic. This epic relates
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The two most prevalent Ainu musical instruments are the tonkori and the mukkuri. Through the effort of Ainu cultural organizations as well as prominent musicians, both have enjoyed a certain revival. Evidence shows the existence of several other instruments attributed to the Ainu, but these are no
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persuaded the natives to follow the
Japanese way,". This attitude, that the Ainu should do as much as possible to become Japanese, existed in the government well into the 20th century. A railway tourism manual published in 1941 reflects not only this attitude, but also the idea that the Ainu were
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Coyote; while he is a god, he is representative of human interests and foibles. Stylistically, epics can be divided into two more categories. Some epics are novelistic and feature a set chain of events involving gods and humans, while others, which
Philippi refers to as parodies, feature abnormal
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At the start of each game, players take opposite places and form with their hands a closed tube between each other's mouths. One of the players starts by making a certain rhythmical motive which then resonates in the other player's mouth. This player must then uphold this motive until the other
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protests. In the 1970s and 1980s, festival and ceremonial revivals began to occur, acting as a catalyst for cultural unity. When Ainu ceremonies were performed regularly for the first time in years, it allowed Ainu to come together, to identify and get to know one another through the avenue of
357:, or simple blocks of wood, against the hearth or the floor to help keep time and punctuate the epic. Certain paintings also show these epics being performed lying down, with the singer beating time on his or her abdomen with the hands, but this practice has faded into obscurity.
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The contents of these ballads were historically an important source of understanding daily life as well as various traditions and habits of the Ainu people, and remain today an important part of the Ainu cultural identity and inheritance, as seen in efforts by performers such as
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According to an interview with the daughter of the last practitioner of this style (who died in 1973), the rekukhara was often done during the iomante ritual, the slaughter of a brown bear, as the produced sounds from this game would symbolically refer to the cries of the bear.
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Historically this instrument did not retain a large importance in Ainu communities and was commonly seen as a children's toy rather than a tool for supporting songs or rituals. The mukkuri's inexpensive production however has made it a popular tourist souvenir in
Hokkaido.
529:. Unfretted and played open, the tonkori is limited in tones by the number of strings. The tonkori is played by both men and women and commonly serves as musical accompaniment to yukar or dances and rituals, although solo-performances have been noted as well.
626:, music, and dance (including the bear ceremony) in 1799 in an attempt to homogenize the Ainu with the larger Japanese population. In addition to this, through pressure and in governmental institutions such as schools, "on every possible occasion the
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In recent years, Ainu music has begun to take part in an intense Ainu cultural revival. The Ainu began reclaiming their identity as a cultural group in the 1960s and 1970s, meeting with one another, creating organized groups, and even developing an
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The revival of Ainu culture, and especially music, has meant more than just the development of a cohesive group of Ainu people, however. It has, not surprisingly, also resulted in the rise of an Ainu-music pop star on the
Japanese stage.
503:. Sound is produced by manipulating a string connected to the bamboo reed, and while the instrument is unpitched, tone manipulation can be accomplished by altering the size of one's mouth, which serves as a resonance box during playing.
319:(Ainu throat-singing) competitions between women. Work songs are rhythmic, with lyrics and melodies based on the work with which they are sung. However, even such everyday songs have sacred rather than mundane meanings. "Chants like the
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culture, and to bond through that avenue as well. In addition to the creation of community in this way, and because Ainu song is so firmly rooted in history, Ainu were able to reclaim their folkloric history through these ceremonies.
71:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge (XXG).
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used as an expression of certain emotions (such as expressing love) or as means of self introduction in a group. As lyrics and melody are improvised on the spot, this genre can be compared to contemporary freestyle rap.
541:, used for accompanying yukar or shamanistic rituals. It was made by stretching animal skin over a cylindrical ring commonly made out of willow or larch, and its drumbeater was done by wrapping dogskin over a branch.
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One of the characteristics of these lullabies, is the mother's production of meaningless sounds such as "Ohho Lulu
Rurururu" on the rhythm of lulling baby's cradle, typically done by rolling the tip of the tongue.
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Ed. William
Fitzhugh and C.O. Dubrueil. Washington, D.C.: University of Washington Press in assoc. Arctic Studies Center, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 1999.
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of northern Japan. Ainu people have no indigenous system of writing, and so have traditionally inherited the folklore and the laws of their culture orally, often through music.
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As a result of the geographical dispersion of the Ainu people over various neighboring islands, some of these native instruments strongly differ in usage and construction.
283:. Traditional Ainu music can be divided into two major groups – everyday songs and epic songs. Everyday songs in Ainu tradition were sung in many situations and on an
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These everyday songs are short, fairly simple, and center on an activity like a game or work. The act of singing is itself used as a game in some instances, such as
400:(composed from the Ainu words for throat, rekut, and produce kar), was a vocal game popular amongst Sakhalin Ainu, and used throat singing techniques comparable to
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561:), was a cylindrical wind instrument made out of the root of a reed indigenous to northern Japan, and is thought to have been similar in style and usage as the
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Minako Sakata, Possibilities of Reality, Variety of Versions: The Historical Consciousness of Ainu Folktales, Oral Tradition Volume 26, Number 1 (March 2011)
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Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
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Lisa Hiwasaki, Ethnic Tourism in Hokkaido and the Shaping of Ainu Identity, Pacific Affairs Vol. 73, No. 3 (Autumn, 2000), pp. 393–412
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resonance in almost all of its forms, and it has played an important role in both the cultural history and the cultural renaissance of the
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situations – unexplained phenomena and dreams, presented without a clear chronological narrative. These "parody" epics are very rare.
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703:(浜渦正志) and vocalist Mina (Mina Sakai, born in Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan) of Ainu ancestry. Mina sings in Ainu, Japanese and English.
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The pressure on Ainu music throughout their history as a people under the rule of a dominant majority has come largely from the
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After cultural exchange with the Russians, Ainu living on the Kurille islands built this instrument in the image of the Russian
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description of the sound the instrument produces, is a plucked string instrument and generally has five strings made out of
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Content in this edit is translated from the existing Japanese Knowledge (XXG) article at ]; see its history for attribution.
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Takashi Ogawa, Traditional Music of the Ainu, Journal of the International Folk Music Council, Vol. 13 (1961), p. 75
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was very interested in Ainu music, and often utilized it in his film scores such as the famous Farou Island chant in
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The most useful English-language overview of Ainu music (with recordings and transcriptions) is by Chiba Nobuhiko.
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IMERUAT (meaning "lightning" in the Ainu language) is a music group formed in 2011 by composer and pianist
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player decides to change motive. Whoever can uphold these rules without losing breath or laughing wins.
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S.C.H. Cheung, Ainu culture in transition, Futures, Nov 2003, Volume 35, Issue 9, p. 951–959
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singing style. A game was typically played by two to ten people at a time, always in pairs.
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Takakura, Shinichiro. "The Ainu of Northern Japan: A Study in Conquest and Acculturation."
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basis. They were often accompanied by the two most prevalent Ainu musical instruments: the
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Chiba, Nobuhiko (2008). "14: The music of the Ainu". In A. Tokita & D. Hughes (ed.).
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The Return of the Ainu: Cultural Mobilization and the Practice of Ethnicity in Japan.
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to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is
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performer who has played and recorded with Saga Haruhiko and the late
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was a famous Ainu singer and Mukkuri performer and recording artist.
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performer and singer, known for his fusion group, Oki Dub Ainu Band.
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Culture articles needing translation from Japanese Knowledge (XXG)
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THE TRADITIONAL MUSIC OF THE AINU – NEW APPROACHES AND FINDINGS
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Japan Times: Ainu group brings to U.S. musical message of peace
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Songs of Gods, Songs of Humans: The Epic Tradition of the Ainu.
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The name of these Ainu lullabies differ by location: the terms
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Tanimoto, Kazuyuki."Music of the Ainu, Nivkhi, and Uilta."
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Ainu people partaking in singing and ceremonial round dance
740:"Three Ainu Musicians: A Legacy of Resistance and Synergy"
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to this template: there are already 1,115 articles in the
652:, and music, and political tactics like voting blocs and
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The oral Ainu culture includes various genres, including
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The Ainu of the Northwest Coast of Southern Sakhalin.
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The kakko was a percussion instrument similar to the
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a machine-translated version of the Japanese article.
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Siddle, Richard. "Ainu: Japan’s Indigenous People."
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1053:Japan’s Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity.
1013:Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music
783:The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music
1062:Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1993.
1019:, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990).
622:. The Japanese government deliberately banned
549:The cirektekuttar (referred to in Sakhalin as
106:accompanying your translation by providing an
51:Click for important translation instructions.
38:expand this article with text translated from
1960:List of best-selling Western artists in Japan
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1055:Ed. Michael Weiner. London: Routledge, 1997.
1955:List of best-selling music artists in Japan
1411:Daigaku-Ōenka (cheering song of university)
1097:excerpt by Takakura, Shin'ichiro (Oct 1966)
1034:Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1974.
1986:
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1109:Journal of Comparative Cultures – NO. 16.
994:Tanimoto, Kazuyuki. "To Live is to Sing."
449:region, while Ihunke was the term used by
192:Learn how and when to remove this message
1003:The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
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155:This article includes a list of general
1041:Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1979.
744:National Museum of Ethnology Repository
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908:Our Land Was a Forest: An Ainu Memoir.
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1972:List of best-selling singles in Japan
1103:By Carolyn Nardiello – Requires login
785:. Farnham, UK: Ashgate. p. 446.
565:developed by Indigenous Australians.
240:often supported by light percussion.
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1967:List of best-selling albums in Japan
941:. Tokyo: Board of Tourist Industry,
669:List of Ainu musicians and composers
762:from the original on 21 August 2023
583:, pronounced in Ainu as pararayki.
16:Musical tradition in northern Japan
2103:List of Japanese hip hop musicians
2083:List of musical artists from Japan
1134:Musical Instruments of Ainu People
1017:Musicologie générale et sémiologue
996:Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People.
161:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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215:is the musical tradition of the
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2088:List of Japanese musical groups
1481:Shichōsonka (municipality song)
263:Woman playing traditional Ainu
2002:Sony Music Entertainment Japan
1136:World Music Traveling, (2009).
1130:(open to invited readers only)
910:Boulder: Westview Press, 1980.
116:You may also add the template
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1095:Vanishing Ainu of North Japan
814:Kazuyuki, pe qewsfvwaesr. 283
255:Traditional Ainu music genres
943:Japanese Government Railways
706:Hare Daisuke is a prominent
605:Identity and marginalization
738:Ueda, Kumiko (March 2021).
323:(sake-making song) and the
129:Knowledge (XXG):Translation
88:will aid in categorization.
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2361:Min-On Concert Association
2098:List of Japanese composers
597:Missionary-anthropologist
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396:Rekukhara, also known as
40:the corresponding article
2108:List of Japanese singers
1936:RIAJ Digital Track Chart
1786:Japanese net label scene
1142:Encyclopædia Britannica.
349:, are performed as long
1471:Radio calisthenics song
1375:Gakusēka (student song)
1030:Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko.
176:more precise citations.
127:For more guidance, see
118:{{Translated|ja|アイヌ音楽}}
2042:Teichiku Entertainment
1399:Ryōka (dormitory song)
680:King Kong vs. Godzilla
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470:longer in active use.
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2093:List of J-pop artists
2007:Universal Music Japan
1990:"Big 10" (as of 2024)
1708:Ōenka (cheering song)
1430:Gunka (military song)
1120:Ainu Museum, (2015).
1009:Nattiez, Jean-Jacques
939:Ainu Life and Legends
850:Nattiez 1999, p. 406.
805:Ohnuki-Tierney, p. 53
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424:Yaisama is a form of
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100:copyright attribution
2022:Victor Entertainment
1285:Komori-uta (lullaby)
1048:4th part. 50 (1960).
937:*Kyosuke, Kindaiti.
862:Tokita 2008, p. 341.
2213:Online distributors
1860:Ethnic and regional
1189:" (National anthem)
1058:Sjoberg, Katarina.
620:Japanese government
271:Ainu music carries
2294:Oricon Music Store
2247:(the successor of
2032:Warner Music Group
1387:Kōka (school song)
1111:Sapporo University
1037:Phillipi, Donald.
906:*Kayano, Shigeru.
495:The Mukkuri is an
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1071:978-0-7546-5699-9
928:Shinichiro, p. 77
792:978-0-7546-5699-9
756:10.15021/00009774
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36:You can help
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2356:Shinto music
2344:Other topics
2235:Amazon Music
2220:iTunes Store
1948:Achievements
1916:
1905:Albums Chart
1818:Akishibu-kei
1791:Kawaii metal
1752:1990–present
1605:1970–present
1581:Group Sounds
1545:1945–present
1505:Manshū-Shōka
1457:Gunkoku-kayō
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104:edit summary
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45:
37:
18:
2331: [
2319: [
2307: [
2270: [
2258: [
2225:Apple Music
2063:Independent
2037:Pony Canyon
1835:Eroguro kei
1813:Shibuya-kei
1799: [
1772: [
1738:Italo House
1733:Italo Disco
1699: [
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1519:Shin-min'yō
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1273:Saimon Ondo
1202:Instruments
1196:Traditional
593:Ainu fiddle
587:Ainu fiddle
465:Instruments
325:iyuta upopo
277:Ainu people
238:epic poetry
217:Ainu people
174:introducing
47:(June 2012)
42:in Japanese
2382:Ainu music
2376:Categories
2299:Line Music
2251:Unlimited)
2027:Being Inc.
1997:Avex Group
1929:Hot Albums
1867:Ainu music
1840:Nagoya kei
1830:Visual kei
1796:Komuro-kei
1728:Visual kei
1691:Noise rock
1649:Electropop
1627:Denpa song
1612:Anime song
1586:Image song
1551:Kayōkyoku
1445:Senji-kayō
1326:Temari Uta
1290:Warabe Uta
725:References
718:Umeko Ando
712:Umeko Ando
654:nonviolent
563:didgeridoo
539:tambourine
501:Jew's harp
439:Iyon'nokka
351:monologues
297:, and the
213:Ainu music
182:April 2009
157:references
2284:Dwango.jp
2255:RecoChoku
2076:Musicians
1872:Rekuhkara
1769:Being-kei
1718:Synth-pop
1567:Idol-kayō
1555:Mood-kayō
1535:Post-War
1440:Kayōkyoku
1314:Ekaki Uta
1302:Kazoe Uta
1113:2005, by
646:Ainu flag
581:balalaika
575:Pararayki
569:Pararayki
497:idiophone
451:Asahikawa
443:Iyonruika
433:Lullabies
392:Rekuhkara
386:Rekuhkara
321:kar upopo
317:Rekuhkara
285:impromptu
273:spiritual
122:talk page
74:Consider
2267:Music.jp
1808:Onkyokei
1696:Nu-music
1654:Eurobeat
1622:City pop
1617:Chiptune
1187:Kimigayo
1011:(1990).
760:Archived
696:Marewrew
687:Oki Kano
663:Oki Kano
491:Mukkuri.
402:katajjaq
398:rekutkar
305:jaw harp
98:provide
2304:MySound
2240:Spotify
2017:J Storm
1924:Hot 100
1676:Hip hop
1644:Electro
1476:Ryūkōka
1268:Rōkyoku
1263:Nagauta
1233:Danmono
989:Sources
945:, 1941.
883:8 March
750:: 249.
708:mukkuri
691:tonkori
639:Revival
614:Decline
559:pehkutu
551:henyudo
517:Tonkori
511:Tonkori
483:Mukkuri
477:Mukkuri
455:Tokachi
420:Yaisama
345:songs,
300:mukkuri
290:tonkori
265:tonkori
234:mimicry
170:improve
120:to the
102:in the
44:.
2351:Awards
2316:OTOTOY
2051:Others
1895:Oricon
1888:Charts
1825:Utaite
1781:J-core
1759:Bitpop
1713:Reggae
1258:Min'yō
1248:Jōruri
1243:Gigaku
1238:Gagaku
1218:Bugaku
1069:
1023:
789:
766:19 May
628:Bakufu
457:Ainu.
447:Hidaka
404:, the
371:Apache
367:Navajo
295:zither
267:zither
159:, but
2335:]
2323:]
2311:]
2274:]
2262:]
2249:LISMO
2245:KKBox
2117:Years
2058:Major
1803:]
1776:]
1764:Grime
1703:]
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1659:Disco
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1632:Disco
1591:J-pop
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555:ionka
533:Kakko
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347:yukar
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337:yukar
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311:Upopo
281:souls
229:yukar
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65:DeepL
2279:Mora
2204:2023
2199:2022
2194:2021
2189:2020
2184:2019
2179:2018
2174:2017
2169:2016
2164:2015
2159:2014
2154:2013
2149:2012
2144:2011
2139:2010
2134:2009
2129:2008
2124:2007
1596:Rock
1435:Jazz
1067:ISBN
1021:ISBN
885:2016
787:ISBN
768:2022
689:, a
453:and
380:inau
369:and
343:epic
303:, a
96:must
94:You
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2328:AWA
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752:doi
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557:or
527:gut
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