540:
only paid out a total of 25,600 francs in the period between his arrival in
Switzerland in May 1915 and the February Revolution of 1917. Parvus did little in Switzerland, Alfred Erich Senn concludes. Austrian intelligence thought Parvus gave money to Russian emigres' newspapers in Paris. However, in the beginning of 1915 the sources of funding became clearer to Lenin and the other Paris emigrés, whereupon they rejected further support. Harold Shukman concluded, "funds were plainly not flowing into Lenin's hands"
276:, who had queried Marx's prediction that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable, and advocated a non-violent reforms as the route to socialism. Giving his series the title 'Bernstein's Overthrow of Socialism', he attacked Bernstein in personal terms, as someone who had deserted Marxism. He was in a minority within the SDP, most of whose leaders were shocked by his intemperate language, but he was backed by Rosa Luxemburg, and the leading Russian Marxist,
408:
31:
336:, beginning in February 1904, in which he forecast the decline of the nation state as capitalist competition made states more interdependent, that there would be a series of wars as states fought, and that there would be a political upheaval in Russia that would 'shake the bourgeois world.' for survival.
547:
in May 1915 and agreed to collaboration through their organizations, though Lenin remained very careful never to get associated with Parvus in public. There is no certain proof that they ever met face to face again, although there are indications that such a meeting may well have occurred on 13 April
359:
to stay at Parvus's home in Munich, and showed him the manuscript of a pamphlet, to which Parvus added a preface, in which
Trotsky developed Parvus's ideas, adding the possibility that revolution in Russia could bring a "workers' government" to power, contrary to the standard Marxist view that Russia
613:
During his lifetime, Alexander Parvus' reputation among his revolutionary peers suffered as a result of the Maxim Gorky affair (see above) and the fact that he was in effect a German government agent. At the same time both his business skills and revolutionary ideas were appreciated and relied upon
539:
Some accuse Parvus of having funded Lenin while in
Switzerland. Other authors, however, are skeptical. Scharlau and Zeman conclude in their biography of Parvus that there was no cooperation between the two, declaring that "Lenin refused the German offer of aid." Parvus's bank account shows that he
551:
Parvus assiduously worked at keeping Lenin's confidence. However, Lenin kept him at arm's length to disguise the changing roles of both men, Parvus' involvement with German intelligence and his own liaisons with his old ally, who was not respected any more among the socialists after his years in
368:
Parvus was unquestionably one of the most important of the
Marxists at the turn of the century. He used the Marxian methods skilfully, was possessed of a wide vision, and kept a keen eye on everything of importance in world events. This, coupled with his fearless thinking and his virile muscular
645:
Although the Soviet authorities refused to allow Parvus to return to Russia, both his surviving sons, Yevgeny Gnedin and Leon
Helfand, were allowed to settle in the USSR, and became Soviet diplomats. Yevgeny Gnedin was head of the press department at the
1188:(in Swedish), 1985, Bonnier Fakta, Stockholm; we know that Parvus sent a number of messages to Lenin that day and tried to coax a meeting, and some sources suggest that such an encounter did in fact happen before Lenin went north and home
369:
style, made him a remarkable writer. ... And yet there was always something made and unreliable about Parvus. In addition to all his other ambitions, this revolutionary was torn by an amazing desire to get rich.
642:, and had arrived in Warsaw, destitute. One of his wives, Tatiana Berman, was born in Odessa in 1868 and died there in 1917, aged 49. Their son, Yevgeny (Gnedin), was born in Dresden in 1898.
1009:
564:, a strategy made feasible by the weak and overburdened fiscal and customs offices in Scandinavia, which were inadequate for the booming black market in these countries during the war.
1552:
1537:
160:). Although little is known of Israel's early childhood, the Gelfand family belonged to the lower-middle class, with his father working as an artisan of some sort — perhaps as a
113:
523:: the paralyzing of Russia via general strike, financed by the German government (which, at the time, was at war with Russia and its allies). Von Wangenheim sent Parvus to
622:'s era and sometimes had anti-semitic overtones to it. In Germany however he was considered favorably. His name is often used in modern political debates in Russia.
438:(and approximately 25% to Gorky himself). Parvus' failure to pay (despite the fact that the play had over 500 showings) caused him to be accused of stealing 130,000
234:. Gelfand would remain at the university for the next three years, graduating with a doctorate degree in July 1891. Gelfand's professors were largely hostile to his
478:—Enver, Talat and Cemal—and Finance Minister Djavid Bey. His firm dealt with the deliveries of foodstuffs for the Ottoman army and he was a business partner of the
245:
Gelfand chose not to pursue an academic career but rather sought to begin a political career which would both provide him financial support and serve the cause of
571:'s Government in preparation for a trial scheduled for October (November) 1917 was recently reexamined and found to be either inconclusive or outright forgery. (
543:
Parvus placed his bets on Lenin, as the latter was not only a radical but willing to accept the sponsorship of the Tsar's wartime enemy, Germany. The two met in
519:
who was known to be partial to establishing revolutionary fifth columns among the allies. Consequently, Parvus offered his plan via Baron von
Wangenheim to the
238:
approach to economics, however, and difficulty in his oral examination resulted in a rider being attached to the degree which rendered it the equivalent of a
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239:
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as well as the revolutionary literature of the day. He returned to Russia briefly the following year but he became the subject of official scrutiny by the
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convinced Gorky to keep the quarrel inside the party's own court. Eventually, Parvus paid back Gorky, but his reputation in party circles was damaged.
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Parvus left no documents after his death and all of his savings disappeared. He was married at least three times. In 1906, Rosa
Luxemburg wrote
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for the first time, in Munich, each admiring the other's theoretical works. Parvus encouraged Lenin to begin publishing his revolutionary paper
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435:
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in Odessa and received private tutoring in the humanities. He also read widely on his own, including material by the iconic
Ukrainian poet
567:
It is still debated whether the money with which this financial network operated was actually of German origin. The evidence published by
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Turkey and after becoming a millionaire entrepreneur. German intelligence set up Parvus' financial network via offshore operations in
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124:
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would need to go through a phase after the overthrow of the monarchy in which was exercised by a government controlled by the
272:
From 28 January to 6 March 1898, Parvus used his newspaper to run a series of polemical articles attacking the German
Marxist
1522:
666:, and wrote memoirs "Catastrophe and Rebirth" and in "Exit from the Labyrinth" describing his experience. He died in 1983.
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responded to allegations that Lenin had colluded with Parvus or German intelligence in his return to St
Petersburg in his
560:. A large part of the transactions of these companies were genuine, but those served to bury the transfer of money to the
364:. This was known as the theory of Permanent Revolution. Trotsky later acknowledged Parvus's influence over him. He wrote:
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Parvus' attempts to become a German citizen proved fruitless. He once commented in a letter to his German friend
249:. Alienated from the backwardness of agrarian Russia and the limited political horizons there, Gelfand moved to
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462:, where he lived for five years. There he set up an arms trading company which profited handsomely during the
168:. When Israel was a small boy, a fire damaged the family's home in Berazino, prompting a move to the city of
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393:
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In October 1905, Parvus returned to St Petersburg, where he helped Trotsky take control of the daily paper,
348:
1115:Подготовка массовой политической забастовки в России (A preparation of massive political strikes in Russia)
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saying: "Wife number three is here in St Petersburg" - just after his second wife had fled an anti-semitic
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in Russia for obvious political reasons his role was denied and he himself vilified. This continued during
120:
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and was forced to leave the country again for his safety. He would remain abroad for more than a decade.
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1437:
Karaömerlıoğlu, M. Asim (November 2004). "Helphand-Parvus and His Impact on Turkish Intellectual Life".
650:, at the time of his arrest on 11 May 1939, which coincided with the dismissal of the foreign minister,
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Schurer, Heinz (October 1959). "Alexander Helphand-Parvus—Russian Revolutionary and German Patriot".
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419:(right) in prison. Seemingly a composite photograph, as shown by the peculiar ghostly hand at right.
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400:, Parvus escaped and emigrated to Germany, where he published a book about his experiences called
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on 12 December 1924. His body was cremated and interred in a Berlin cemetery. After his death,
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to Rosa Luxemburg. In Munich, he founded the publishing house that introduced the work of
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The Merchant of Revolution: The Life of Alexander Israel Helphand (Parvus), 1867-1924.
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Before he left for Russia, Parvus struck a deal with Maxim Gorky to produce his play
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434:. According to the agreement, the majority of the play's proceeds were to go to the
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that "I am seeking a government where one can inexpensively acquire a fatherland."
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Senn, Alfred Erich (1976). "The Myth of German Money during the First World War".
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where the latter arrived on the 6 March 1915 and presented a 20-page plan titled
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at war time gave basis to the theory that Alexander Parvus was also a British
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1221:
The Bolsheviks' "German Gold" Revisited: An Inquiry into the 1917 Accusations
392:(The Start). Arrested in April 1906, he was visited by Rosa Luxemburg in the
1045:Березовский – между Азефом и Парвусом (Berezovsky – between Azef and Parvus)
246:
161:
149:
58:
1387:. London: (Introduction to 'This I cannot Forget' by Anna Larina) Pandora.
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by Russian and German revolutionaries and Ottoman's Young Turks. After the
474:, their daily newspaper. He worked closely with the triumvirs known as the
927:
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377:" within the social democratic movement in the period leading up to 1917.
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195:, which led the young Gelfand to begin to question the legitimacy of the
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Returning to Switzerland, in the autumn of 1888 Gelfand enrolled at the
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wrote in his memoir: "This man possessed the ablest brains of the
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215:. It was there that Gelfand was first exposed to the writings of
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In 1886, the 19-year-old Gelfand first travelled from Russia to
1010:""Helphand-Parvus and his impact on Turkish intellectual life""
922:
L. Shub, "Kupets revoliutsii" (Merchant of the Revolution),
108:(8 September 1867 – 12 December 1924) and sometimes called
1186:
Ryska posten: de ryska revolutionärerna i Norden 1906-1917
16:
Marxist theoretician, publicist and controversial activist
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Der Spiegel churns out old lies on the October Revolution
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Witnesses to Permanent Revolution: The Documentary Record
411:
Alexander Parvus (left) with the Russian revolutionaries
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and took over the editorship of the socialist newspaper
1360:"Письмо Е.Гнедина в Президиум ЦК КПСС. 16 июля 1953 г."
466:. He became the financial and political advisor of the
283:
On 25 September 1898, Parvus and his assistant editor,
696:(1984). In 1988 Parvus was portrayed by English actor
1476:
The Sealed Train: Journey to Revolution, Lenin – 1917
529:
A preparation of massive political strikes in Russia
91:
69:
40:
21:
373:There were broad discussions on the questions of "
176:), the hometown of Israel's paternal grandfather.
959:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin. p. 172.
692:played the title role in the West German TV film
366:
123:, publicist, and controversial activist in the
1553:Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
1538:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members
1236:Lenin als Kontrahent von Parvus im Jahr 1917.
762:London: Oxford University Press, 1965; pg. 8.
724:about the struggles and intelligence of the
706:. A fictionalized version of him as a German
548:1917, during Lenin's stop-over in Stockholm.
515:, Parvus became close with German ambassador
402:In the Russian Bastille during the Revolution
8:
1409:"Evgeny Alexandrovich Gnedin public profile"
1303:Berlin, Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft, 1925
1036:
1034:
864:
862:
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833:
343:, when troops fired on a peaceful crowd in
1490:Newspaper clippings about Alexander Parvus
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1067:
731:in keeping the declining empire together.
29:
18:
648:People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs
1333:"Tatiana Naumovna Berman public profile"
1016:. Middle Eastern Studies. Archived from
930:," Khronos, Accessed September 27, 2009.
913:," Khronos, Accessed September 27, 2009.
332:, Parvus wrote a series of articles for
140:Israel Lazarevich Gelfand was born to a
114:the literature on the Russian Revolution
1049:(in Russian). Деловая газета «Взгляд».
970:Day, Richard B.; Gaido, Daniel (2011).
957:My Life: An Attempt at an Autobiography
899:. London: Oxford U.P. pp. 147–155.
751:
265:. He enlisted the German revolutionary
1008:Karaömerlioglu, Asim (November 2004).
944:. London: Oxford U.P. pp. 103–04.
926:, vol. 87 (1967), page 296. Cited in "
1053:from the original on 31 December 2006
1041:Галковский, Дмитрий (June 22, 2005).
7:
1238:Schkeuditz : GNN-Verlag, 1997.
942:The Prophet Armed, Trotsky:1879-1921
1111:Парвус, Александр (February 1915).
928:Александр Парвус (Израиль Гельфанд)
911:Александр Парвус (Израиль Гельфанд)
714:is portrayed by the Armenian Actor
396:Sentenced to three years' exile in
684:, covering the history of the pre-
674:He was portrayed by English actor
144:family on 8 September 1867 in the
125:Social Democratic Party of Germany
14:
1588:Expatriates in the Ottoman Empire
1385:The Afterlife of Nikolai Bukharin
1301:Parvus: Ein Blatt der Erinnerung.
587:History of the Russian Revolution
384:, and cofounded with Trotsky and
1568:People of the Russian Revolution
1277:"The Month of the Great Slander"
1173:Lenin and the Russian Revolution
758:Z.A.B. Zeman and W.B. Scharlau,
486:, and of the famous arms dealer
470:. In 1912 he was made editor of
454:Soon afterwards Parvus moved to
303:to Germany. In 1900, Parvus met
998:, Milan, Garzanti, 1988, p. 117
442:. Gorky threatened to sue, but
436:Russian Social Democratic Party
172:, Russian Empire, (present-day
1548:People from the Russian Empire
718:in the 2017 Turkish TV series
1:
1578:World War I spies for Germany
1014:Vol. 40, No. 6, pages 145-165
191:, and the political satirist
678:in the 1974 BBC mini-series
517:Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim
1528:People from Igumensky Uyezd
1494:20th Century Press Archives
1451:10.1080/0026320042000282928
883:The Merchant of Revolution,
870:The Merchant of Revolution,
854:The Merchant of Revolution,
841:The Merchant of Revolution,
825:The Merchant of Revolution,
812:The Merchant of Revolution,
799:The Merchant of Revolution,
786:The Merchant of Revolution,
773:The Merchant of Revolution,
662:. He survived years in the
1609:
1383:Cohen, Stephen F. (1993).
531:to the German government.
328:After the outbreak of the
324:Russian Revolution of 1905
297:Sächsische Arbeiterzeitung
263:Sächsische Arbeiterzeitung
193:Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin
1474:Pearson, Michael (1975).
1248:The question about Parvus
1151:10.1080/09668137608411043
940:Deutscher, Isaac (1954).
106:Israel Lazarevich Gelfand
45:Israel Lazarevich Gelfand
28:
1175:, Putnam Pub Group, 1967
897:Rosa Luxemburg, volume 1
102:Alexander Lvovich Parvus
35:Alexander Parvus in 1905
394:Peter and Paul Fortress
349:1905 Russian Revolution
259:Social Democratic Party
1439:Middle Eastern Studies
1363:Исторические Материалы
1275:Trotsky, Leon (1930).
955:Trotsky, Leon (1975).
710:mastermind behind the
694:Ein Mann namens Parvus
420:
371:
1523:People from Byerazino
1265:Retrieved 2015-08-07.
490:. Arms dealings with
410:
295:, handing control of
221:tsarist secret police
1478:. London: Macmillan.
1234:Pößneck, Ehrenfried
1201:, London, 1975, ch.4
1119:(in Russian). ХРОНОС
994:Pietro Zveteremich,
895:Nettl, J.P. (1966).
881:Zeman and Scharlau,
868:Zeman and Scharlau,
852:Zeman and Scharlau,
839:Zeman and Scharlau,
823:Zeman and Scharlau,
810:Zeman and Scharlau,
797:Zeman and Scharlau,
784:Zeman and Scharlau,
771:Zeman and Scharlau,
721:Payitaht: Abdülhamid
608:Second International
535:Copenhagen operation
521:German General Staff
375:permanent revolution
189:Nikolai Mikhailovsky
974:. Haymarket Books.
558:front organizations
287:were expelled from
230:, where he studied
228:University of Basel
1415:. 29 November 1898
1216:2006-10-30 at the
670:In popular culture
616:October Revolution
569:Alexander Kerensky
507:Russian Revolution
496:intelligence asset
424:Maxim Gorky affair
421:
347:, setting off the
330:Russo-Japanese War
318:Wilhelm Liebknecht
285:Julian Marchlewski
269:as a contributor.
240:third class degree
156:, (in present-day
1583:Bolshevik finance
1563:Marxist theorists
1558:Jewish socialists
1197:Michael Pearson,
1184:Hans Björkegren,
703:Lenin...The Train
440:German gold marks
291:, and settled in
232:political economy
187:, the journalist
179:Gelfand attended
142:Lithuanian Jewish
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658:and his deputy,
575:Sisson Documents
502:Soviet relations
431:The Lower Depths
345:Saint Petersburg
278:Georgi Plekhanov
274:Eduard Bernstein
217:Alexander Herzen
185:Taras Shevchenko
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73:12 December 1924
55:8 September 1867
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63:Russian Empire
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620:Joseph Stalin
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488:Basil Zaharov
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386:Julius Martov
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341:Bloody Sunday
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1573:Arms traders
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1417:. Retrieved
1412:
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1366:. Retrieved
1362:
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1341:. Retrieved
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1280:. Retrieved
1270:
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1145:(1): 83–90.
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1114:
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1044:
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1018:the original
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772:
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719:
701:
700:in the film
698:Timothy West
693:
679:
673:
644:
632:Karl Kautsky
629:
612:
597:
585:
582:Leon Trotsky
580:
572:
566:
550:
542:
538:
528:
510:
482:concern, of
476:Three Pashas
471:
453:
429:
427:
413:Leon Trotsky
401:
389:
381:
379:
372:
367:
353:Leon Trotsky
351:, the young
338:
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282:
271:
262:
244:
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206:
178:
139:
121:theoretician
109:
105:
101:
100:
75:(1924-12-12)
1593:Young Turks
1518:1924 deaths
1513:1867 births
1305:(in German)
1232:(in German)
686:World War I
468:Young Turks
417:Leo Deutsch
362:Bourgeoisie
301:Maxim Gorky
213:Switzerland
92:Nationality
1543:Mensheviks
1507:Categories
1123:2006-12-17
1057:2006-12-17
1024:2006-12-17
801:pp. 10-11.
562:Bolsheviks
554:Copenhagen
472:Turk Yurdu
464:Balkan War
388:the daily
166:blacksmith
136:Early life
51:1867-09-08
1467:220377996
747:Footnotes
573:See also
511:While in
247:socialism
181:gymnasium
162:locksmith
131:Biography
1214:Archived
1051:Archived
735:See also
688:period.
456:Istanbul
164:or as a
150:Berazino
116:, was a
110:Helphand
59:Berazino
1496:of the
1492:in the
1459:4289957
1419:11 July
1368:11 July
1343:11 July
1317:Nettl.
1282:26 July
1250:(1991).
885:pg. 19.
872:pg. 18.
856:pg. 16.
843:pg. 14.
827:pg. 12.
788:pg. 10.
726:Ottoman
708:Zionist
458:in the
398:Siberia
390:Nachalo
255:Germany
251:Dresden
236:Marxist
174:Ukraine
158:Belarus
152:in the
118:Marxist
104:, born
95:Russian
1465:
1457:
1391:
1339:. 1868
1242:
1159:150283
1157:
1098:126174
1096:
978:
775:pg. 9.
729:Sultan
640:Odessa
636:Pogrom
626:Family
600:Berlin
525:Berlin
513:Turkey
293:Munich
289:Saxony
170:Odessa
146:shtetl
81:Berlin
1463:S2CID
1455:JSTOR
1155:JSTOR
1094:JSTOR
664:Gulag
594:Death
480:Krupp
334:Iskra
310:Iskra
253:, in
209:Basel
1421:2022
1413:GENi
1389:ISBN
1370:2022
1345:2022
1337:GENi
1284:2023
1240:ISBN
976:ISBN
545:Bern
357:wife
70:Died
41:Born
1498:ZBW
1447:doi
1147:doi
1086:doi
638:in
610:".
148:of
112:in
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1441:.
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909:"
53:)
49:(
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