1233:
when it absorbs water. When the sodium silicate gel forms and swells inside a porous siliceous aggregate, it first expands and occupies the free porosity. When this latter is completely filled, and if the soluble but very viscous gel cannot be easily expelled from the silica network, the hydraulic pressure rises inside the attacked aggregate and leads to its fracture. The hydro-mechanical expansion of the damaged siliceous aggregate surrounded by calcium-rich hardened cement paste is responsible for the development of a network of cracks in concrete. When the sodium silicate expelled from the aggregate encounters grains of portlandite present in the hardened cement paste, an exchange between sodium and calcium cations occurs and hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) precipitates with a concomitant release of NaOH. In its turn, the regenerated NaOH can react with the amorphous silica aggregate, leading to an increased production of soluble sodium silicate. When a continuous rim of C-S-H completely envelops the external surface of the attacked siliceous aggregate, it behaves as a
2917:
divided pozzolanic materials rich in silicic acid to the concrete mix to decrease its alkalinity. Beside initially lowering the pH value of the concrete pore water, the main working mechanism of silica fume addition is to consume portlandite (the reservoir of hydroxyde (OH) in the solid phase) and to decrease the porosity of the hardened cement paste by the formation of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). However, silica fume has to be very finely dispersed in the concrete mix because agglomerated flakes of compacted silica fume can themselves also induce ASR if the dispersion process is insufficient. This can be the case in laboratory studies made on cement pastes alone in the absence of aggregates. Silica fume is sufficiently dispersed during mixing operations of large batches of fresh concrete by the presence of coarse and fine aggregates.
1245:) represents the main reserve of OH anions in the solid phase as suggested by Davies and Oberholster (1988) and emphasized by Wang and Gillott (1991). As long as portlandite, or the siliceous aggregates, has not become completely exhausted, the ASR reaction will continue. The alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated by the reaction of the sodium silicate with portlandite and thus represent the transmission belt of the ASR reaction driving it to completeness. It is thus impossible to interrupt the ASR reaction. The only way to avoid ASR in the presence of siliceous aggregates and water is to maintain the concentration of soluble alkali (NaOH and KOH) at the lowest possible level in concrete, so that the catalysis mechanism becomes negligible.
3401:
178:
3335:
the C1260 method also involves the use of a large quantity/inventory of NaOH in the solution in which the mortar bar is immersed. A large pool of OH anions is thus available to diffuse inside the mortar bar to dissolve silica present in aggregates. Consequently, this test is very severe and may exclude valuable aggregates. In case of non-decisive results, the long-term ASTM C1293 test method has to be used for a final screening. The main advantage of the ASTM C1260 test is that it allows to quickly identify extreme cases: very insensitive or very reactive aggregates.
45:
3358:
82 °C. The expansion of the concrete cores is measured till 14 or 20 days. It is a short duration test for ASR/AAR but much softer than the
Oberholster test. It can also be used to measure the expansion of concrete due to delayed ettringite formation (DEF). The mechanical stresses induced by the thermal cycles create micro-cracks in the concrete matrix and so facilitate the accessibility to water of the reactive mineral phases in the treated samples.
675:
187:
6637:
200:
258:
735:
2729:
than the gel exudation velocity (liquid gel expulsion rate through open cracks), in most of the cases, fresh liquid alkali exudates are not frequently encountered at the surface of civil engineering concrete structures. Decompressed concrete cores can sometimes let observe fresh yellow liquid alkali exudations (viscous amber droplets) just after their drilling.
5991:
2948:, the evolution of the reaction can be slowed down, and sometimes stopped, due to the lack of water needed to continue fueling the reaction. Indeed, water plays a triple role in the alkali-silica reaction: solvent for the reaction taking place, transport medium for the dissolved species reacting, and finally also reagent consumed by the reaction itself.
1042:) in cement, because of the need to maintain electroneutrality in solids or in solution, one directly measures the contents of cement in Na and K elements and one conservatively considers that their counter ions are the hydroxide ions. As Na and K cations are hydrated species, they also contribute to retain water in alkali-silica reaction products.
1846:. The presence of minerals with high Na and K contents in the raw materials can thus be problematic. The ancient wet manufacturing process of cement, consuming more energy (water evaporation) that the modern dry process, had the advantage to eliminate much of the soluble Na and K salts present in the raw material.
2778:: The effect of ASR on compressive strength can be minor for low expansion levels, to relatively higher degrees at larger expansion. Swamy and Al-Asali (1986) points out that the compressive strength is not a very accurate parameter to study the severity of ASR; however, the test is done because of its simplicity.
3242:
The loss of mechanical properties of heavily neutron-irradiated concrete component such as the biological shield of a reactor at the end of the service life of a nuclear power plant is expected to be due to radiation-induced swelling of aggregates, which leads to volumetric expansion of the concrete.
3207:
forms at the surface of iron oxide ores. This explains why some iron ores are rich in silica and may therefore be sensitive to the alkali-silica reaction. Very low level of reactive silica in heavy aggregates are sufficient to induce ASR. This is why heavy aggregates must be systematically tested for
1237:
barrier and hinders the expulsion of the viscous sodium silicate while allowing the NaOH / KOH to diffuse from the hardened cement paste inside the aggregate. This selective barrier of C-S-H contributes to increase the hydraulic pressure inside the aggregate and aggravates the cracking process. It is
665:
and accelerate the silica dissolution in the alkali-silica reaction do not explicitly appear in this simplified representation of the ultimate reaction with portlandite, because they are continuously regenerated from the cation exchange reaction with portlandite. As a consequence, they disappear from
2728:
appear at the surface of concrete. When the relatively fluid alkali gel continues to exude below the hardened superficial gel layer, it pushes the efflorescences out of the crack surface making them to appear in relief. Because the rates of the gel drying and of the carbonation reactions are faster
2499:
This reaction is accompanied by hydration and swelling of the alkali gel leading to the expansion of the affected aggregates. The pH of the fresh alkali gel is very high and it has often a characteristic amber color. The high pH of young alkali gel exudations often precludes the growth of mosses at
947:
In the pH range 0 – 7, the solubility of silica is constant, but above pH=8, the hydrolysis of siloxane bonds and deprotonation of silanol groups exponentially increase with the pH value. This is why glass easily dissolves at high pH values and does not withstand extremely basic NaOH/KOH solutions.
3334:
ASTM C1260: "Test Method for
Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar-Test)". It is a rapid test of aggregates: immersion of mortar bars in NaOH 1 M at 80 °C for 14 days used to quickly identify highly reactive aggregates or quasi non-reactive aggregates. Beside an elevated temperature,
3307:
by limiting the contact of underground or meteoritic water infiltrations with the concrete structure (water tight membrane, roofing, sufficient water drainage, ...). This last precaution is always advisable when possible and the only one also sometimes applicable for existing ASR-affected concrete
2916:
A prompt reaction initiated at the early stage of concrete hardening on very fine silica particles will help to suppress a slow and delayed reaction with larger siliceous aggregates on the long term. Following the same principle, the fabrication of low-pH cement also implies the addition of finely
1232:
Without the presence of dissolved NaOH or KOH, responsible for the high pH (~13.5) of the concrete pore water, the amorphous silica of the reactive aggregates would not be dissolved and the reaction would not evolve. Moreover, the soluble sodium or potassium silicate is very hygroscopic and swells
2951:
However, concrete at the center of thick concrete components or structures can never dry because water transport in saturated or unsaturated conditions is always limited by diffusion in the concrete pores (water present under the liquid form, or under the vapor state). The water diffusion time is
3357:
The Duggan method starts with a first immersion of several concrete cores in distilled water at 22 °C for rehydration during 3 days. It is then followed by heating for one day in a dry oven at 82 °C and then with a succession of cycles of one day hydration followed by one day drying at
3052:
may be reached in the concrete of the primary confinement wall around nuclear reactors, particular attention has to be paid to the selection of aggregates and heavy aggregates to avoid alkali-silica reaction promoted by reactive silica impurities and accelerated by the high temperature to which
3338:
ASTM C1293: "Test Method for
Concrete Aggregates by Determination of Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction". It is a long-term confirmation test (1 or 2 years) at 38 °C in a water-saturated moist atmosphere (inside a thermostated oven) with concrete prisms containing the
1197:
The combination of the two above mentioned reactions gives a general reaction resembling the pozzolanic reaction, but it is important to keep in mind that this reaction is catalysed by the undesirable presence in cement, or other concrete components, of soluble alkaline hydroxydes (NaOH / KOH)
2716:
ions. Its viscosity increases due to gelation process and its mobility (fluidity) strongly decreases when C-S-H phases start to precipitate after reaction with calcium hydroxide (portlandite). At this moment, the calcified gel hardens, hindering therefore the alkali gel transport in concrete.
2271:
An anion-exchange reaction between chloride ions and the hydroxide anions contained in the lattice of some calcium aluminate hydrates (C-A-H), or related phases (C-A-S-H, AFm, AFt), is suspected to also contribute to the release of hydroxide anions into solution. The principle mechanism is
3372:
concrete prism tests for potential expansivity of cement/aggregate combinations. CSA A23.2-14A is a long-term test in which concrete prisms are stored under saturated moist conditions at a temperature of 38 °C, for a minimum of 365 days. It is the
Canadian standard equivalent to ASTM
2753:) and increases the concentration of Ca ions into the cement pore water. Calcium ions then react with the soluble sodium silicate gel to convert it into solid calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). The C-S-H forms a continuous poorly permeable coating at the external surface of the aggregate.
2940:
There are no curative treatments in general for ASR affected structures. Repair in damaged sections is possible, but the reaction will continue. In some cases, when a sufficient drying of thin components (walls, slabs) of a structure is possible, and is followed by the installation of a
4011:
Fournier, B., Sanchez, L., & Beauchemin, S. (2015). Outils d'investigation de la réactivité alcalis-granulats dans les infrastructures en béton. Rapport Final, Ministère des transports du Québec, Service des matériaux d'infrastructure, Secteur béton de ciment, août (Vol. 2015, p.
2701:
ions released from portlandite dissolution, it remains fluid and can easily exude from broken aggregates or through open cracks in the damage concrete structure. This can lead to visible yellow viscous liquid exudations (amber liquid droplets) at the surface of affected concrete.
2952:
thus proportional to the square of its transport distance. As a consequence, the water saturation degree inside thick concrete structures often remains higher than 80%, a level sufficient to provide enough water to the system and to maintain the alkali-silica reaction on going.
1049:, 1986, 1987, 1989) and the electrical double layer (EDL) play also a fundamental role in the transport of water towards the concentrated liquid alkali gel, explaining their swelling behavior and the deleterious expansion of aggregates responsible of ASR damages in concrete.
181:
Typical crack pattern of the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The gel exudations through the concrete cracks have a characteristic yellow color and a high pH. The fatty aspect of the exudations imbibing the concrete porosity along the cracks is also a distinctive feature of
4410:
Bérubé, M. A., Smaoui, N., Bissonnette, B., & Fournier, B. (2005). Outil d'évaluation et de gestion des ouvrages d'art affectés de réactions alcalis-silice (RAS). Études et
Recherches en Transport, Ministère des Transports du Québec. See the chemical equations on
3202:
while taking its place onto the ferrol group. This mechanism explains the formation of strong inner sphere complexes of silica at the surface of iron oxy-hydroxides and iron oxides. The surface of iron oxides becomes progressively coated with silica and a silica
1849:
As previously described in the two sections dealing respectively with ASR catalysis by alkali hydroxides and soda lime carbonatation, soluble NaOH and KOH are continuously regenerated and released into solution when the soluble alkali silicate reacts with
2784:/ Flexural capacity: Researches show that ASR cracking can significantly reduce the tensile strength of concrete; therefore reducing the flexural capacity of beams. Some research on bridge structures indicate about 85% loss of capacity as a result of ASR.
3339:
aggregates to be characterised mixed with a high-alkali cement specially selected to induce ASR. The concrete prisms are not directly immersed in an alkaline solution, but wrapped with moist tissues and tightly packed inside a water-tight plastic foils.
1862:
to precipitate insoluble calcium silicate. As suggested by Davies and
Oberholster (1988), the alkali-silica reaction is self-perpetuating as the alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated in the system. Therefore, portlandite is the main buffer of
5552:
Drums exhibiting silicagel do not currently meet the requirements for surface storage. A new storage building is a logistical solution to the problem of gel drums. We will gradually examine how the waste can be treated for a safe long-term management
5567:"Kingdom of Belgium. National report – Seventh meeting of the contracting parties to the joint convention on the safety of spent fuel management and on the safety of radioactive waste management. Federal Agency for Nuclear Control (FANC), Belgium"
2909:. These react preferentially with the cement alkalis without formation of an expansive pressure, because siliceous minerals in fine particles convert to alkali silicate and then to calcium silicate without formation of semipermeable reaction rims.
2384:
The maturation process of the fluid alkali silicagel found in exudations into less soluble solid products found in gel pastes or in efflorescences is described hereafter. Four distinct steps are considered in this progressive transformation.
4281:Ševčík, Radek; Mácová, Petra; Sotiriadis, Konstantinos; Pérez-Estébanez, Marta; Viani, Alberto; Šašek, Petr (2016). "Micro-Raman spectroscopy investigation of the carbonation reaction in a lime paste produced with a traditional technology".
2874:. The use of limestone as aggregate is not a guarantee against ASR in itself. In Canada, the Spratt siliceous limestone is also particularly well known in studies dealing with ASR and is commonly used as the Canadian ASR reference aggregate.
788:
2300:
As a simple, but robust, conclusion, the presence of soluble Na and K salts can also cause, by precipitation of poorly soluble calcium salt (with portlandite, CH) or anion exchange reactions (with phases related to C-A-H), the release of
314:
To attempt to simplify and to stylize a very complex set of various reactions, the whole ASR reaction, after its complete evolution (ageing process) in the presence of sufficient Ca cations available in solution, could be compared to the
1921:, all related to the presence of soluble Na and K salts in the pore water of hardened cement paste (HCP). The first category contains soluble Na and K salts whose corresponding anions can precipitate an insoluble calcium salts, e.g.,
1033:
O in cement. Therefore, it is the hydroxide, or the oxide, component of the salt which is the only relevant chemical species for silica dissolution, not the alkali metal in itself. However, to determine the alkali equivalent content
5662:
Bérubé, M. A., Smaoui, N., Bissonnette, B., & Fournier, B. (2005). Outil d'évaluation et de gestion des ouvrages d'art affectés de réactions alcalis-silice (RAS). Études et
Recherches en Transport, Ministère des Transports du
4400:
Fournier, B., & Bérubé, M. A. (2000). Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete: a review of basic concepts and engineering implications. Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(2), 167-191. See the chemical equations on
2741:
The very basic solution (NaOH / KOH) attacks the siliceous aggregates (silicic acid dissolution at high pH), converting the poorly crystallised or amorphous silica to a soluble but very viscous alkali silicate gel (N-S-H,
5253:
Duggan C.R. and Scott J.F. (1989a). Establishment of new acceptance rejection limits for proposed test method for detection of potentially deleterious expansion of concrete, presented to ASTM Subcommittee C09.02.02, sept
1802:(portlandite) when its solubility increases when high pH value starts to drop. Beside these two main sources, ions exchange reactions and precipitation of poorly soluble calcium salts can also contribute to release
2241:), and soluble alkali chlorides cannot produce soluble alkali hydroxide by interacting with calcium hydroxide. So, does it exist another route to still produce hydroxide anions in the hardened cement paste (HCP)?
168:
of a particular structure. The expansion of concrete through reaction between cement and aggregates was first studied by Thomas E. Stanton in
California during the 1930s with his founding publication in 1940.
5280:
5276:
3045:, density = 5.3). The reason is their high density favorable to gamma attenuation. Both types of aggregates need to be checked for ASR as they may contain reactive silica impurities under a form or another.
1554:, by replacing a carbonate by a metasilicate anion). This gives the following set of reactions also commonly encountered in the literature to schematically depict the continuous regeneration of NaOH in ASR:
2866:) may be cemented by amorphous or poorly crystalline silica and can be very sensitive to the ASR reaction, as also observed with some Tournaisian siliceous limestones exploited in quarries in the area of
5234:
Scott, J.F., Duggan, C.R., (1986). Potential new test for alkali aggregate reactivity, Roe. 7th Intl. Conf. on Alkali
Aggregate Reactions, Ottawa Canada, ed. P.E. Grattan-Bellew, Noyes publ., N.J., USA,
3412:
presenting the typical crack pattern of the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). Note the typical fatty aspect of the yellow silicagel exudations imbibing the concrete surface along the two sides of the cracks.
3354:
The Oberholster method on which the ASTM C1260 test is based. It is a severe short duration test with immersion of the mortar prism or concrete core in a solution of NaOH 1 M at 80 °C for 14 days.
2756:
The penetrated alkaline solution (NaOH / KOH) converts the remaining siliceous minerals into bulky soluble alkali silicate gel. The resulting expansive pressure increases in the core of the aggregate.
3215:
Another reason of concern for the possible accelerated development of ASR in the concrete of nuclear structures is the progressive amorphization of the silica contained in aggregates exposed to high
2268:. C-S-H phases are less soluble (~ 10 M) than portlandite (CH) (~ 2.2 10 M at 25 °C) and therefore are expected to play a negligible role for the calcium ions release.
1874:
in the solid phase. As long as the stock of hydroxides in the solid phase is not exhausted, the alkali-silica reaction can continue to proceed until the complete disparition of one of the reagents (
5845:
5244:
Duggan C.R., Scott J.F. (1987). Proposed new test for alkali-aggregate reactivity, Canadian National Railways, Technical Research Report, Montreal, Canada, April 13, 1987, revised Oct. 31,1989.
5653:
Fournier, B., & Bérubé, M. A. (2000). Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete: a review of basic concepts and engineering implications. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(2), 167-191.
948:
Therefore, NaOH/KOH is released during cement hydration attacks and dissolves the tridimensional network of silica present in the aggregates. Amorphous or poorly crystallized silica, such as
5030:
Jordan, Norbert; Marmier, Nicolas; Lomenech, Claire; Giffaut, Eric; Ehrhardt, Jean-Jacques (2007). "Sorption of silicates on goethite, hematite, and magnetite: Experiments and modelling".
5448:, web site of ONDRAF/NIRAS announcing in September 2013 the discovery on the interim storage site of Belgoprocess at Dessel of 10 000 LILW drums affected or potentially affected by ASR.
1706:
If NaOH is clearly deficient in the system under consideration (soda lime or alkali-silica reaction), it is formally possible to write the same reactions sets by simply replacing the CO
626:
really existing in dilute solution is preferred here. However, the main advantage of the now deprecated, but still often used, industrial notation referring to the metasilicate anion (
3251:
The only way to prevent, or to limit, the risk of ASR is to avoid one or several of the three elements in the critical triangle aggregate reactivity – cement alkali content – water:
2365:
5644:
Rogers, C., Grattan-Bellew, P. E., Hooton, R. D., Ryell, J., & Thomas, M. D. (2000). Alkali-aggregate reactions in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(2), 246-260.
4472:
Swamy, R. N., & Al-Asali, M. M. (1986). Influence of alkali-silica reaction on the engineering properties of concrete. ASTM International. See p. 85, point 2 of the conclusions.
2745:
The consumption of NaOH / KOH by the dissolution reaction of amorphous silica decreases the pH of the pore water of the hardened cement paste. This allows the dissolution of Ca(OH)
355:). For simplification, after a complete exchange of the alkali cations with the calcium ions released by portlandite, the alkali-silica reaction in its ultimate stage leading to
5687:
Limestone Industries of Ontario, Volume 2 Ontario Geological Survey. Engineering and Terrain Geology Section Ontario, Ministry of Natural Resources, 1989 – Limestone – 196 pages
3552:: evaporator concentrates and spent ion-exchange resins (SIER) exuding out of the concrete immobilization matrix very large quantities of liquid sodium silicagel (mainly N-S-H).
3342:
ASTM C1567: "Standard Test Method for Determining the Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Combinations of Cementitious Materials and Aggregate (Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method)"
319:
which would be catalysed by the undesirable presence of excessive concentrations of alkali hydroxides (NaOH and KOH) in the concrete. It is a mineral acid-base reaction between
5333:
LCPC/IFSTTAR (1997) Alcali-réaction du béton. Essai d'expansion résiduelle sur béton durci. Projet de méthode d'essai LCP 44. Février 1997. 15 pp. MethodeDEssai-LCPC-ME44.pdf.
5081:
Rosseel, Thomas M.; Maruyama, Ippei; Le Pape, Yann; Kontani, Osamu; Giorla, Alain B.; Remec, Igor; Wall, James J.; Sircar, Madhumita; Andrade, Carmen; Ordonez, Manuel (2016).
5696:
Nixon, J. P., & Sims, I. (Eds.). (2016). RILEM recommendation of the prevention of damage by alkali-aggregate reactions in new concrete structures. Dordrecht: Springer.
5180:
NBN B 15-001:2018. Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity – National supplement for Belgium to NBN EN 206:2013+A1:2016. Publication date: 07/2018.
4878:
Fedele, L.; Todesca, R.; Boni, M. (2003). "Barite-silica mineralization at the inter-Ordovician unconformity in southwestern Sardinia (Italy): a fluid inclusion study".
4087:
5323:
A23.1-14/A23.2-14 Concrete materials and methods of concrete construction / Test methods and standard practices for concrete. Published by CSA Group in 2014, 690 pages.
3561:
Alkali-aggregate reactions (AAR), both alkali-silica (ASR) and alkali-carbonate (ACR, involving dolomite) reactions, were identified in Canada since the years 1950's.
6575:
5518:"NIRAS magazine June 2016: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Nieuw hoogtechnologisch opslaggebouw voor vaten met gelvorming, pp. 20-21"
3955:"Techbrief: Selecting candidate structures for lithium treatment: What to provide the petrographer along with concrete specimens, FHWA-HRT-06-069 – Pavements – FHWA"
1072:) at very high pH. It can be represented as follows using the classical geochemical notation for representing silica by the fully hydrated dissolved silica (Si(OH)
4952:. 2nd Conference on Technological Innovations in Nuclear Civil Engineering TINCE 2014, Paris, 1st to 4th September 2014. Vol. 2014. Paris. pp. 234–242.
3346:
Other concrete prism methods have also been internationally developed to detect potential alkali-reactivity of aggregates or sometimes hardened concrete cores,
3497:) during the years 1960 – 1970 when most of the motorways were constructed in Belgium. ASR damages started to be recognised only in the 1980s. The Tournaisian
2312:
anions into solution. Therefore, the presence of any salts of Na and K in cement pore water is undesirable and the measurements of Na and K elements is a good
5908:
5766:
5322:
4929:
Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Brandt, Andrzej; Gibas, Karolina; Denis, Piotr (2014). "The alkali-aggregate reaction hazard in the case of barite concretes".
217:
2705:
When pH slowly drops due to the progress of the silica dissolution reaction, the solubility of calcium hydroxide increases, and the alkali gel reacts with
2924:, a variety of methods have been applied to field structures suffering from ASR-affected expansion and cracking. Some methods, such as the application of
5618:
Courtois, Nicolas; Cau-Dit-Coumes, Céline; Gaveau, Philippe; Poulesquen, Arnaud; Haas, Jeremy; Ben Hadj Hassine, Seifallah; Bulteel, David (2022-05-31).
6313:
6023:
5263:
Duggan C.R. and Scott J.F. (1989b). New test for deleterious expansion in concrete, 8th Intl. Conf. on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Kyoto, Japan, 403408.
4637:
Monnin, Y.; Dégrugilliers P.; Bulteel D.; Garcia-Diaz E. (2006). "Petrography study of two siliceous limestones submitted to alkali-silica reaction".
5674:
5624:. 16th ICAAR 2022 – 16th International Conference on Alkali Aggregate Reaction in Concrete. 31 May – 02 June 2022. Lisboa, LNEC, Portugal. p. 10
2599:
Amorphous non-stoechiometric calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H, the non-stoechiometry being denoted here by the use of dashes) can recrystallize into
5403:
3670:
in East Germany were refurbished with concrete that turned out to have been defective and affected by ASR, necessitating expensive replacement work.
1790:
anions can be directly present in the HCP pore water or be slowly released from the solid phase (main buffer, or solid stock) by the dissolution of
1546:
The soda lime carbonatation reaction can be directly translated into the ancient industrial notation of silicate (referring to the never observed
3304:/m of concrete for a CEM I cement (OPC)). Example of standard for concrete in Belgium: NBN EN 206 and its national supplement NBN B 15-001;
1485:
process because the reaction in aqueous solution occurs much faster than in the dry solid phase. The moist NaOH impregnates the surface and the
6464:
5973:
5952:
4789:
4493:
4385:
3279:< 0.60% of the cement mass, according to EN 197-1 European standard for cement, or by limiting the total alkali content in concrete (
2928:, have shown significant promise, especially when applied to elements such as small columns and highway barriers. The topical application of
837:
These equilibria can be shifted towards the right side of the reaction leading to silica dissolution by increasing the concentration of the
52:
on a US motorway. Note the typical fatty aspect of the silicagel exudations imbibing the concrete surface along the two sides of the cracks.
6138:
5597:
Study of alkali-silica reaction occurring in cemented waste packages based on simplified model and concrete medium approaches. cea-03667888
3782:
1761:
3604:(2000) and also recommended by RILEM (International Union of Laboratories and Experts in Construction Materials, Systems, and Structures).
2205:
As calcium chloride is a soluble salt, the reaction cannot occur and the chemical equilibrium regresses to the left side of the reaction.
6555:
3613:
2759:
The accumulated pressure cracks the aggregate and the surrounding cement paste when the pressure exceeds the tolerance of the aggregate.
1001:
of the basic solutions. For the sake of electroneutrality, (OH) anions need to be accompanied by positively charged cations, Na or K in
5706:
5594:
Courtois, Nicolas; Cau-Dit-Coumes, Céline; Poulesquen, Arnaud; Haas, Jeremy; Ben Hadj Hassine, Seifallah; Bulteel, David (2022-05-04).
5334:
4602:
Funk, Hanspeter (1975). "The origin of authigenic quartz in the Helvetic Siliceous Limestone (Helvetischer Kieselkalk), Switzerland".
3652:
638:), which also does not exist in aqueous solution, is its greater simplicity and its direct similitude in notation with the carbonate (
5535:
4514:"The effect of alkali-silica reaction on the fatigue behaviour of plain concrete tested in compression, indirect tension and flexure"
6691:
5279:
See mainly Chapter 7: Rapid test method for secondary ettringite formation. pp. 81-95 of the PDF file (pp. 69-83 of the hard copy).
4100:
4026:
301:
239:
5995:
3565:
Many hydraulic dams are affected by ASR in Canada because of the wide use of reactive aggregates. Indeed, reactive frost-sensitive
5796:
5749:
6323:
5600:. NUWCEM 2022 – International Symposium on Cement-Based Materials for Nuclear Wastes – 2022, May 4–6. Avignon (France). p. 9
4963:
Carlson, L.; Schwertmann, U. (1981). "Natural ferrihydrites in surface deposits from Finland and their association with silica".
5504:"STORA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Nieuw opslaggebouw voor gelvaten klaar in 2019"
5293:
4725:
Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Gibas, Karolina; Brandt, Andrzej M.; Glinicki, Michał A.; Dąbrowski, Mariusz; Denis, Piotr (2015).
3538:
in Brussels with liquid exudations of amber alkali gel evidenced on concrete cores by SPW experts (Public Services of Wallonia).
4672:
Ramlochan, Terrence; Michael Thomas; Karen A. Gruber (2000). "The effect of metakaolin on alkali-silica reaction in concrete".
4127:(1997). "The alkali–silica reaction: Part I. Use of the double-layer theory to explain the behavior of reaction-product gels".
3932:
3735:
4106:
2794:(UPV) is very similar to tensile capacity. The modulus of elasticity is shown to be more sensitive to ASR than pulse velocity.
6053:
5621:
Quantification of the extent of alkali-silica reaction occurring in cemented waste packages based on simplified model systems
5399:
5124:"Radiation effects in concrete for nuclear power plants – Part I: Quantification of radiation exposure and radiation effects"
4089:
State-of-the art report: Key parameters influencing the alkali aggregate reaction. SBF52 A06018 — Unrestricted Report. 134 pp
3450:
2921:
2791:
2369:
268:
221:
5883:
5517:
3820:
3255:
by selecting non-reactive aggregates after testing them according to an appropriate standard test method (see next section);
2106:
1529:
5430:"ASR first recognised in Belgium civil engineering structures—Service Public Wallon: Direction de l'expertise des ouvrages"
3400:
177:
95:
This deleterious chemical reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a soluble and viscous
6681:
6096:
6016:
3857:
3542:
5926:
Report DSO-2014-03: Seminoe dam – Assessment of concrete by quantitative methods – The petrographic damage rating index.
5162:
EN 197-1 European Standard. Cement – Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements.
4205:
Wang, H.; Gillott, J. E. (1991-07-01). "Mechanism of alkali-silica reaction and the significance of calcium hydroxide".
1025:. When speaking of alkalis, one systematically refers to NaOH and KOH basic hydroxides, or their corresponding oxides Na
37:"Alkali-silica" redirects here. For an industrial chemical reagent made from alkali metal absorbed into silica gel, see
5458:
6686:
6676:
6661:
6570:
6545:
6459:
6426:
3954:
3114:), strongly sorbs onto hydrous ferric oxides (HFO) and ferric oxides hydrated surface (>Fe–OH) by ligand exchange:
2955:
Massive structures such as dams pose particular problems: they cannot be easily replaced, and the swelling can block
5459:"MONA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Gelvaten niet geschikt voor berging"
5360:
5171:
NBN EN 206:2013+A1:2016 Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity. Publication date: 11/2016.
2208:
So, a question arises: can NaCl or KCl from deicing salts still possibly play a role in the alkali-silica reaction?
6524:
6048:
5774:
3620:
3549:
3405:
5490:"STORA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Nieuw opslaggebouw voor gelvaten"
2963:
operations. Cutting slots across the structure can relieve some pressure, and help restore geometry and function.
44:
6560:
6421:
6361:
6176:
6091:
4324:
Adriani, J.; Byrd, M. L. (1941). "A study of carbon dioxide absorption appliances for anesthesia: The canister".
3815:
3188:
854:
of OH onto a silicon atom, while another O–Si group is leaving to preserve the tetravalent character of Si atom:
851:
31:
3470:'s old Southern Stand, demolished in 1990 and replaced with the Great Southern Stand which was completed in 1992
1057:
The ASR reaction significantly differs from the pozzolanic reaction by the fact that it is catalysed by soluble
164:
ASR can lead to serious cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems that can even force the
6009:
5346:
5277:
The effect of secondary ettringite formation on the durability of concrete: A literature analysis (No. RD108T).
3467:
3422:
2543:
2421:
formation (here, explicitly written in the ancient industrial metasilicate notation (based on the non-existing
2245:
1147:
1126:
397:
356:
283:
141:
116:
4727:"Mineral composition of heavy aggregates for nuclear shielding concrete in relation to alkali-silica reaction"
3321:) has developed different standardized test methods for screening aggregates for their susceptibility to ASR:
3235:
when their crystal structure is submitted to intense alpha-particles internal bombardment and becomes amorph (
2971:
Two types of heavy aggregates are commonly used for nuclear shielding concrete in order to efficiently absorb
3325:
ASTM C227: "Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method)"
6333:
3786:
3521:
3486:
Many bridges and civil engineering works of motorways because the improper use of highly reactive siliceous
1489:
of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit
279:
210:
6118:
3854:: distress in asphalt pavement characterized by interconnecting or interlaced cracking in the asphalt layer
2737:
The mechanism of ASR causing the deterioration of concrete can thus be described in four steps as follows:
971:, is much more soluble and sensitive to alkaline attack by OH anions than well crystallized silica such as
6431:
6308:
6232:
6123:
5361:"Manly Daily | News Local Newspaper | Daily Telegraph | Manly Daily | Daily Telegraph"
3841:
3460:
3456:
3068:, exhibit a strong affinity for dissolved silica present in water and may constitute an ultimate sink for
2317:
89:
3610:
Interchange Robert Bourassa – Charest (Québec city: interchange autoroutes 740 – 440) demolished in 2010.
6514:
6257:
5503:
4344:
3328:
ASTM C289: "Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical Method)"
2787:
2600:
728:
49:
5925:
5476:"STORA website: Conditioned radioactive waste affected by ASR in Belgium — Gelvaten problematiek"
4513:
3981:
Concrete cancer: Characterization of Alkali Silica Reaction early stage products by electron microscopy
3376:
LCPC/IFSTTAR (1997) LPC-44. Alkali reaction in concrete. Residual expansion tests on hardened concrete.
4950:
Influence of barite composition on potential alkali aggregate reaction in radiation-shielding concrete
4558:
4124:
3208:
ASR before nuclear applications such as radiation shielding or immobilization of strongly irradiating
6550:
6451:
6446:
6406:
6318:
6181:
5566:
5039:
4972:
4887:
4824:
4611:
4290:
3802:
3638:
3585:
2775:
1722:, the principle of catalysis remaining the same, even if the number of intermediate species differs.
5846:"UK: Eight contractors prepare bids for £22m Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital redevelopment contract"
5335:
https://www.ifsttar.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/editions/lcpc/MethodeDEssai/MethodeDEssai-LCPC-ME44.pdf
4768:"Potential for alkali–silica reaction in radiation shielding concrete containing special aggregates"
4448:
2505:
532:, is a hypothetic molecule which has never been observed, even in extreme diluted solutions because
153:
gel swells and increases in volume when absorbing water: it exerts an expansive pressure inside the
6529:
6497:
6416:
6186:
6128:
5376:
4767:
3874:
3729:
3473:
3428:
2886:
1899:
1695:
1069:
1006:
847:
324:
316:
38:
4774:. 5th International Conference on the Durability of Concrete Structures. Purdue University Press.
2840:. Certain volcanic rocks are particularly susceptible to ASR because they contain volcanic glass (
6706:
6701:
6666:
6502:
6411:
6328:
5009:
Interactions of silica with iron oxides: Effects on oxide transformations and sorption properties
4911:
3851:
3719:
3704:
3318:
2945:
2797:
2772:
Expansion: The swelling nature of ASR gel increases the chance of expansion in concrete elements.
2373:
2313:
1842:
oxides produced by the pyrolysis of the raw materials at high temperature (1450 °C) in the
5294:"Proposed universal accelerated test for alkali-aggregate reaction: the concrete microbar test"
716:
with water molecules explains the affinity of silica for water and makes colloidal silica very
674:
6696:
6640:
6596:
6396:
6391:
6366:
6348:
6262:
6242:
6078:
6063:
5969:
5948:
5942:
5850:
5211:
5145:
5104:
5063:
5055:
4988:
4903:
4860:
4842:
4785:
4748:
4689:
4654:
4578:
4533:
4489:
4381:
4306:
4263:
4222:
4178:
4136:
4096:
3708:
3514:
3446:
3209:
2845:
2532:
1470:
1462:
1139:
949:
612:
597:
328:
5007:
4483:
4071:
Stanton, T.E. (1940). "Expansion of concrete through reaction between cement and aggregate".
3663:
caused ASR and the ties had to be replaced earlier than planned, lasting well into the 1990s.
6492:
6401:
6267:
6227:
6106:
6068:
5963:
5865:
5710:
5675:"HRW-Hydro Review Worldwide: Dealing with alkali-aggregate reaction in hydraulic structures"
5489:
5305:
5203:
5135:
5094:
5047:
4980:
4895:
4850:
4832:
4775:
4738:
4681:
4646:
4619:
4570:
4525:
4430:
4373:
4298:
4253:
4214:
4170:
3985:
3889:
3836:
3772:
3746:
3680:
3573:
are commonly extracted in Canada. Another reason is also the presence of reactive silica in
3525:
3510:
2801:
2781:
2422:
2244:
Beside portlandite, other hydrated solid phases are present in HCP. The main phases are the
2098:
2042:
1547:
1501:
1150:(C-S-H phases) and regenerate NaOH, thus continuing the initial silica dissolution reaction:
1002:
980:
976:
654:
605:
581:
496:
5192:"An accelerated method for testing the potential alkali reactivity of siliceous aggregates"
4707:
2932:
compounds, have shown little or no promise in reducing ASR-induced expansion and cracking.
2611:
4. Carbonation of the C-S-H leading to precipitation of calcium carbonate and amorphous SiO
6671:
6436:
6287:
6191:
6101:
4240:
Samari, Mohammad; Ridha, Firas; Manovic, Vasilije; Macchi, Arturo; Anthony, E. J. (2019).
3869:
3762:
3502:
3439:
3220:
3216:
2030:
1757:
1753:
499:, is also often used to depict the alkali-silica reaction. However, the metasilicic acid,
428:
O represents hydrous or amorphous silica for the sake of simplicity in aqueous chemistry.
154:
100:
73:
5909:"A new Royals stadium will be expensive. Fixing a crumbling Kauffman Stadium will be too"
4708:"Publication Details for Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity (AAR) Facts Book - Pavements - FHWA"
4346:
Anesthesiology Core Review: Part One Basic Exam. Chapter 17: Absorption of Carbon Dioxide
4022:
3531:
2889:
at the early stage of the cement setting. Pozzolanic materials to add to the mix may be,
2165:
However, not all Na or K soluble salts can precipitate insoluble calcium salts, such as,
5191:
5043:
4976:
4891:
4828:
4772:
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on the Durability of Concrete Structures
4615:
4294:
4158:
6509:
6441:
6282:
6201:
6171:
6166:
6058:
5731:
4855:
4812:
4623:
4047:
3535:
3506:
3236:
2807:
2721:
2607:. The C-S-H formed at this stage can be considered an evolved calcium silicate hydrate.
2542:
3. Cation exchange with calcium hydroxide (portlandite) and precipitation of amorphous
1234:
1022:
593:
4813:"Alkali-silica reactivity of high density aggregates for radiation shielding concrete"
4811:
Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Glinicki, Michał; Gibas, Karolina; Baran, Tomasz (2018).
4685:
4574:
3166:
In this ligand exchange reaction, a silicate anion (also often more simply written as
3083:
This explains how microcrystalline silica can progressively accumulate in the mineral
1238:
the expansion of the aggregates which damages concrete in the alkali-silica reaction.
186:
17:
6655:
6482:
6381:
6371:
6277:
5429:
5207:
4984:
4915:
4218:
4174:
3924:
3897:: the mechanism of ASR catalysed by NaOH is analogous to the trapping mechanism of CO
3831:
3750:
3494:
2942:
2768:
The cracking caused by ASR can have several negative impacts on concrete, including:
2725:
1478:
1292:
1262:
1097:
713:
5619:
5595:
5140:
5123:
4650:
4434:
48:
Characteristic crack pattern associated with the alkali–silica reaction affecting a
6519:
6386:
6272:
6247:
3656:
3065:
3061:
2882:
1274:
1270:
1077:
1018:
340:
5083:"Review of the current state of knowledge on the effects of radiation on concrete"
5822:
5407:
4743:
4726:
3600:) are widely used for ASR studies in Canada and worldwide as described by Rogers
149:, or N-S-H (sodium silicate hydrate), depending on the adopted convention). This
6487:
6206:
6143:
5538:[Action plan for the safe management of drums with silicagel | ONDRAF].
4948:
Jówiak-Niedźwiedzka, D.; Brandt, Andrzej; Gibas, Karolina; Denis, Piotr (2014).
3792:
3487:
2898:
2863:
2750:
2536:
2265:
1843:
1769:
1517:
1474:
1254:
1143:
897:
804:
717:
601:
332:
199:
5051:
4529:
6591:
6376:
6356:
6148:
4899:
4557:
Ahmed, Tarig; Burley, Eldon; Rigden, Stephen; Abu-Tair, Abid I. (2003-03-01).
4258:
4241:
3825:
3660:
3581:
3258:
by using a low-alkali (LA) cement: with a maximum alkali content expressed in
2992:
2906:
2878:
2858:
2856:) the level of silica depends on its purity. Some siliceous limestones (a.o.,
2811:
2261:
2257:
2253:
1550:) simply by substituting a C atom by a Si atom in the mass balance equations (
1494:
1490:
1466:
998:
952:
724:
165:
150:
5215:
5149:
5108:
5059:
4992:
4907:
4846:
4752:
4693:
4658:
4582:
4537:
4310:
4267:
4226:
4182:
4140:
3989:
2230:
cations in themselves cannot attack silica (the culprit is their counter ion
6622:
4421:
Ichikawa, T.; Miura, M. (2007). "Modified model of alkali-silica reaction".
3894:
3766:
3577:
3574:
3498:
3490:
3369:
2996:
2972:
2849:
2357:
2102:
2038:
1536:
1482:
1266:
1061:
1014:
987:
838:
734:
662:
448:
77:
5067:
4864:
3979:
3659:
in the 1970s to replace previous wooden ties. However, the gravel from the
787:
5990:
4780:
4766:
Jóźwiak-Niedźwiedzka, Daria; Glinicki, Michał A.; Gibas, Glinicki (2016).
4559:"The effect of alkali reactivity on the mechanical properties of concrete"
3191:
onto a >Fe–OH ferrol surface group of HFO and ejects a hydroxide anion
2810:: ASR enhances the shear capacity of reinforced concrete with and without
2539:) when the pH starts to slightly drop may influence the gelation process.
6606:
6601:
6237:
6196:
6158:
6040:
6032:
5884:"Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to take a slice out of Chickamauga Dam"
5750:"The Millennium Stadium is suffering from concrete cancer, we can reveal"
5536:"Plan d'actions pour la gestion sûre des fûts présentant du gel | ONDRAF"
5475:
3879:
3863:
3776:
3698:
3667:
3331:
ASTM C295: "Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregate for Concrete"
3021:
2956:
2894:
2841:
2604:
2513:
1540:
1525:
1486:
1198:
responsible for the dissolution of the silica (silicic acid) at high pH:
691:
679:
158:
69:
5099:
5082:
4370:
STP205-EB Cement and Concrete (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
4326:
Anesthesiology: The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists
2446:) to also illustrate the frequent use of this later in the literature):
1261:(alkalinity buffer present in the solid phase) can be compared with the
6565:
6133:
4837:
3846:
3828:: Secondary calcium carbonate deposit growing under man-made structures
3796:
3739:
3723:
3712:
3593:
3435:
3232:
3228:
2960:
2929:
2902:
2871:
2867:
2517:
2509:
1765:
901:
800:
792:
695:
683:
436:
224: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
68:, is a deleterious internal swelling reaction that occurs over time in
5309:
4449:"Structural Effects of ASR on Concrete Structures | FPrimeC Solutions"
4377:
1816:
Alkali hydroxides, NaOH and KOH, arise from the direct dissolution of
161:
and loss of strength of the concrete, finally leading to its failure.
6292:
6252:
6086:
4302:
3624:
3589:
3570:
3409:
3365:(2003) as a universal accelerated test for alkali-aggregate reaction.
3224:
3204:
3084:
3057:
2976:
2925:
2353:
2034:
1513:
1058:
1010:
994:
972:
968:
658:
572:
consumes two water molecules and continues one step further to form H
440:
85:
5292:
Grattan-Bellew, P.E.; G. Cybanski; B. Fournier; L. Mitchell (2003).
2504:
2. Maturation of the alkali gel: polymerisation and gelation by the
286:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
4242:"Direct capture of carbon dioxide from air via lime-based sorbents"
3886:
hydrolysis/dissolution and Si–OH deprotonation reactions at high pH
2331:
in pore solution. This is why the total alkali equivalent content (
611:
This is why the more correct geochemical notation referring to the
6211:
6113:
3566:
3399:
1296:
990:
964:
960:
956:
841:
786:
733:
673:
185:
176:
43:
5576:. IAEA Joint Convention. See pp. 15–20. Vienna: IAEA. p. 144
3929:
Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) Development and Deployment Program
30:
For less common types of alkali-driven concrete degradation, see
2912:
Limit the external alkalis that come in contact with the system.
1285:
1065:
690:
The surface of solid silica in contact with water is covered by
320:
6005:
4368:
Verbeck, G. (1958). "Carbonation of hydrated Portland Cement".
3684:
712:
The presence of these oxygen-bearing groups very prone to form
3925:"Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) – Concrete – Pavements – FHWA"
3569:
is very often found in glacio-fluvial environments from which
3445:
King St Bridge, demolished and replaced in 2011 (crossing the
2877:
Add very fine siliceous materials to neutralize the excessive
2790:/UPV: The effect of ASR on elastic properties of concrete and
2520:(sol) into a biphasic aqueous polymeric network of silicagel.
1307:
251:
193:
96:
4086:
Wigum, B.J.; Pedersen, L.T.; Grelk, B.; Lindgard, J. (2006).
1138:
The so-produced soluble alkali silicagel can then react with
2823:
ASR can be mitigated in new concrete by several approaches:
1253:
The alkali-silica reaction mechanism catalysed by a soluble
1088:), while in an older industrial notation the non-existing (H
666:
the global mass balance equation of the catalyzed reaction.
6001:
4152:
4150:
3382:
RILEM AAR-4 concrete prism method (storage at 60 °C).
3379:
RILEM AAR-3 concrete prism method (storage at 38 °C).
3361:
The concrete microbar test was proposed by Grattan-Bellew
4512:
Ahmed, T. M. A.; Burley, E.; Rigden, S. R. (1999-12-01).
4095:. Norway, Trondheim: SINTEF Building and Infrastructure.
3223:
and is known to create amorphous halo's in minerals like
3056:
In some hydrothermal deposits, baryte is associated with
1741:
One can distinguish several sources of hydroxide anions (
983:
are also more sensitive to alkaline (high pH) solutions.
5445:
3683:
in Hamilton, New Zealand. Repaired in 1991 at a cost of
3391:
Norwegian concrete prism method (storage at 38 °C).
2724:, it undergoes a rapid carbonation, and white or yellow
5965:
Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete roads and bridges
4159:"Alkali-silica reaction products and their development"
3385:
RILEM AAR-4 alternative method (storage at 60 °C).
2109:
as emphasized by Fournier and Bérubé (2000) and Bérubé
1650:(regeneration of NaOH after reaction with portlandite)
359:(C-S-H) could be schematically represented as follows:
275:
4246:
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change
3607:
Many bridges and civil engineering works of motorways.
3596:. The Spratt's limestone aggregates (from the company
2272:
schematically illustrated hereafter for C-A-H phases:
986:
The species responsible for silica dissolution is the
190:
The alkali-silica reaction as a chemical cycle process
5944:
Alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete: A world review
5534:
Minon, Jean-Paul; Van Laer, Wim (26 September 2014).
1249:
Analogy with the soda lime and concrete carbonatation
560:
which consumes only one water molecule and stops at H
3404:
Surface of a concrete pillar of the building of the
3388:
German concrete test method (storage at 40 °C).
2830:. Many standards impose limits on the "Equivalent Na
2252:" in cement paste), calcium sulfo-aluminate phases (
1752:) in hardened cement paste (HCP) from the family of
6615:
6584:
6538:
6475:
6347:
6301:
6220:
6157:
6077:
6039:
2352:) of cement can simply rely on the measurements of
1096:, hemihydrated silica, is considered in analogy to
698:groups (≡Si–OH) sensitive to an alkaline attack by
5389:Jane Whitford Guardian Messenger December 14, 2011
5281:Available in open access on the site of Cement.org
2844:) and should not be used as aggregate. The use of
2838:Limit the reactive silica content of the aggregate
844:(OH), i.e., by increasing the pH of the solution.
731:reactions as schematically represented hereafter:
661:to refer to their strongly basic character) which
653:One will also note that the NaOH and KOH species (
5380:, "Pat bridge load fears", 8 August 2007, page 9.
975:. Strained (deformed) quartz or chert exposed to
6576:International Federation for Structural Concrete
3866:, a product of slag hydration and ASR gel ageing
3641:in Brittany, built in 1951 and replaced in 2011.
3317:The American Society for Testing and Materials (
1409:(regeneration of NaOH after reaction with lime)
686:groups along with surface bound water molecules.
4007:
4005:
3501:may contain up to 25–30 wt. % of reactive
3313:Methods for testing potential alkali reactivity
3064:while oxy-hydroxides of Fe(III), in particular
2967:Heavy aggregates for nuclear shielding concrete
5640:
5638:
4343:Freeman, Brian S.; Berger, Jeffrey S. (2014).
3548:Poorly conditioned radioactive waste from the
1481:phenomenon), and this greatly facilitates the
6017:
4507:
4505:
4157:Davies, G.; Oberholster, R. E. (1988-07-01).
3060:mineralization and can also contain reactive
2720:When the C-S-H gel is exposed to atmospheric
8:
5122:Field, K.G.; Remec, I.; Pape, Y. Le (2015).
4200:
4198:
2991:, density = 4.3 – 4.5) and various types of
2828:Limit the alkali metal content of the cement
1291:) is simply replaced in the reaction by the
993:(OH). The high pH conditions are said to be
474:An ancient industrial notation referring to
5271:
5269:
3984:(PhD thesis). Lausanne, EPFL. p. 171.
3742:. Demolished and replaced in the mid-1990s.
2546:(C-S-H) accompanied by NaOH regeneration:
1910:There exist also other indirect sources of
1516:) also contributes to the carbonatation of
678:Anhydrous and hydrated silica surface with
6024:
6010:
6002:
5732:"Keybridge House, London - Building #1458"
3528:on the canal Hensies – Pommeroeul – Condé.
3368:CSA A23.1-14A and CSA A23.2-14A: Canadian
5797:"Merafield Bridge in Plympton demolished"
5709:. Hamilton City Libraries. Archived from
5139:
5098:
4854:
4836:
4779:
4742:
4257:
4048:"Merafield Bridge in Plympton demolished"
3102:), and its corresponding silicate anion (
2848:aggregates can avoid this. In principle,
2101:with portlandite, also important for the
1465:, the strong bases, NaOH or KOH, readily
1053:Catalysis of ASR by dissolved NaOH or KOH
608:around the central atom of the molecule.
302:Learn how and when to remove this message
240:Learn how and when to remove this message
5941:Sims, Ian; Poole, Alan B. (2017-08-01).
5404:Royal Australian Institute of Architects
5032:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
3048:As elevated temperature in the range of
2500:the surface of concrete crack infilling.
1528:although the rate of propagation of the
1257:as NaOH or KOH in the presence of Ca(OH)
738:Siloxane bond between two silicon atoms.
5347:"Adelaide Festival Plaza redevelopment"
5190:Oberholster, R. E.; Davies, G. (1986).
5087:Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology
3915:
1606:quickly dissolved by hygroscopic NaOH)
556:Indeed, contrary to the hydration of CO
4123:Prezzi, Monica; Monteiro, Paulo J.M.;
1532:is there essentially limited by the CO
553:is unstable and continues to hydrate.
5866:"The Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital"
5012:. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL)
3697:Keybridge House, South Lambeth Road,
3541:External containment building of the
7:
6139:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
4023:"Alkali–silica reaction in concrete"
3783:Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant
2920:As part of a study conducted by the
222:adding citations to reliable sources
6556:Institution of Structural Engineers
4563:Construction and Building Materials
4029:from the original on 10 August 2007
3978:Albinski, Solène Anne-Lise (2022).
3805:in Los Angeles. Demolished in 2016.
2733:Mechanism of concrete deterioration
2320:) for the maximal concentration of
1461:In the presence of water or simply
447:. Strictly speaking, silica is the
27:Chemical reaction damaging concrete
5767:"A38 Merafield Bridge replacement"
4624:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1975.tb00296.x
3935:from the original on 8 August 2010
1764:, or with cementitious additions,
25:
4485:Alkalies in concrete: a symposium
3732:, Birmingham. Demolished in 2005
2804:and the fatigue life of concrete.
1500:The same catalytic effect of the
435:has traditionally been used as a
6636:
6635:
5989:
5773:. 27 August 2014. Archived from
3598:"Spratt Sand and Gravel Limited"
3588:) from the Spratt's quarry near
3219:. This process is also known as
1694:(global reaction resembling the
1539:within the concrete matrix less
256:
198:
5844:Warner, Brian (26 March 1992).
5406:. 5 August 2005. Archived from
5141:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2014.10.003
4965:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
4651:10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.025
4435:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.06.008
3736:Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital
2380:Alkali gel evolution and ageing
756: ↔ ≡Si–OH + HO–Si≡
209:needs additional citations for
6054:Roman architectural revolution
5298:Cement Concrete and Aggregates
5128:Nuclear Engineering and Design
3953:Faridazar, Fred (2009-02-10).
3726:. Demolished manually in 2016.
3614:Gentilly 2 nuclear power plant
3451:Glenelg North, South Australia
2922:Federal Highway Administration
869: → ≡Si–OH + O–Si≡
1:
5574:jc-rapport-be-2020-public.pdf
4686:10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00261-6
4575:10.1016/S0950-0618(02)00009-0
4518:Magazine of Concrete Research
4482:Vance H. Dodson, ed. (1986).
4283:Journal of Raman Spectroscopy
3858:Energetically modified cement
3707:North Stand (part of the old
3543:Tihange 2 nuclear power plant
3495:lower carboniferous Dinantian
2531:divalent cations released by
1045:Osmotic processes (Chatterji
92:, given sufficient moisture.
5400:"1939 - Manly Surf Pavilion"
5208:10.1016/0008-8846(86)90134-1
5196:Cement and Concrete Research
4985:10.1016/0016-7037(81)90250-7
4744:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.06.132
4674:Cement and Concrete Research
4639:Cement and Concrete Research
4423:Cement and Concrete Research
4357:– via Access Medicine.
4219:10.1016/0008-8846(91)90115-X
4207:Cement and Concrete Research
4175:10.1016/0008-8846(88)90055-5
4163:Cement and Concrete Research
3425:car park, demolished in 2017
2286:+ (C-A-H)–OH → (C-A-H)–Cl +
2169:, NaCl-based deicing salts:
850:of siloxane bonds occurs by
670:Silica dissolution mechanism
451:of orthosilicic acid, Si(OH)
420:, which is equivalent to SiO
72:between the highly alkaline
6571:Portland Cement Association
6546:American Concrete Institute
2690:) has not yet reacted with
2669:As long as the alkali gel (
2508:. Condensation of silicate
1660:
1654:
1616:
1610:
1567:
1561:
1558:
1419:
1413:
1375:
1369:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1146:) to precipitate insoluble
997:and one also speaks of the
811:≡Si–OH ↔ ≡Si–
723:Siloxane bonds may undergo
657:, also often simply called
282:the claims made and adding
6723:
6049:Ancient Roman architecture
5947:. CRC Press. p. 246.
5052:10.1016/j.jcis.2007.03.053
4530:10.1680/macr.1999.51.6.375
3666:After reunification, many
3621:National Gallery of Canada
3406:National Gallery of Canada
2376:measurements techniques).
2041:) precipitation releasing
2029:Hereafter, an example for
1365:trapping by soluble NaOH)
64:), also commonly known as
36:
29:
6631:
6561:Indian Concrete Institute
5748:Laura Kemp (8 July 2007)
4900:10.1007/s00710-002-0200-9
4259:10.1007/s11027-019-9845-0
3821:Alkali–aggregate reaction
3816:Alkali-carbonate reaction
3429:Centennial Hall, Adelaide
3396:Known affected structures
3189:nucleophilic substitution
2792:ultrasound pulse velocity
2764:Structural effects of ASR
2544:calcium silicate hydrates
2246:calcium silicate hydrates
2107:alkali–carbonate reaction
1148:calcium silicate hydrates
1009:solutions, respectively.
852:nucleophilic substitution
32:Alkali-aggregate reaction
6692:Mechanical failure modes
4880:Mineralogy and Petrology
4025:. Understanding Cement.
3990:10.5075/EPFL-THESIS-8638
3550:Doel nuclear power plant
3517:in the marine sediments.
3423:Adelaide Festival Centre
1737:in hardened cement paste
803:groups can also undergo
791:Chemical structure of a
408:Here, the silicic acid H
357:calcium silicate hydrate
5996:Alkali silica reactions
5673:Du, Chongjiang (2010).
4349:. McGraw-Hill Education
4073:Engineering News-Record
3787:Seabrook, New Hampshire
2800:: ASR reduces the load
76:paste and the reactive
6339:Alkali–silica reaction
6097:Energetically modified
5736:www.skyscrapernews.com
4488:. ASTM International.
3842:Construction aggregate
3461:Manly, New South Wales
3413:
3283:, less than 3 kg
3247:Prevention of the risk
2615:stylized as follows:
796:
739:
694:bonds (≡Si–O–Si≡) and
687:
568:, the hydration of SiO
191:
183:
58:alkali–silica reaction
53:
18:Alkali Silica Reaction
5823:"Pebble Mill Studios"
5446:http://www.ondraf.be/
4781:10.5703/1288284316137
4129:ACI Materials Journal
3905:impregnated with NaOH
3505:originating from the
3403:
3053:concrete is exposed.
3020:, density = 5.2) and
2834:O" content of cement.
2814:(Ahmed et al., 2000).
2788:Modulus of elasticity
979:cycles in Canada and
790:
737:
677:
584:behaviour between SiO
189:
180:
88:found in many common
50:concrete step barrier
47:
6682:Concrete degradation
6324:Environmental impact
6182:Reversing drum mixer
5998:at Wikimedia Commons
5888:www.chattanoogan.com
4931:Cement, Wapno, Beton
4731:Procedia Engineering
4112:on October 28, 2020.
3803:Sixth Street Viaduct
3586:Bobcaygeon Formation
3434:Dee Why ocean pool,
2776:Compressive strength
2603:similar to these of
2097:or, the reaction of
919: → ≡Si–
580:. The difference in
218:improve this article
5771:www.highways.gov.uk
5565:FANC (2020-10-01).
5410:on 4 September 2006
5377:Adelaide Advertiser
5275:Day, R. L. (1992).
5100:10.3151/jact.14.368
5044:2007JCIS..312..224J
5006:Taylor, P. (1995).
4977:1981GeCoA..45..421C
4892:2003MinPe..77..197F
4829:2018Mate...11.2284J
4616:1975Sedim..22..299F
4295:2016JRSp...47.1452S
3923:FHWA (2010-06-22).
3875:Pozzolanic reaction
3730:Pebble Mill Studios
3653:Deutsche Reichsbahn
3580:like the siliceous
3474:Westpoint Blacktown
3457:Manly Surf Pavilion
2887:pozzolanic reaction
2812:shear reinforcement
1900:pozzolanic reaction
1696:Pozzolanic reaction
1504:(function of the Na
1241:Portlandite (Ca(OH)
1017:both belong to the
848:Alkaline hydrolysis
799:On the other hand,
317:pozzolanic reaction
157:aggregate, causing
84:, non-crystalline)
39:M-SG reducing agent
6687:Fracture mechanics
6677:Chemical reactions
6662:Building materials
6427:Self-consolidating
6119:Water–cement ratio
5968:. Thomas Telford.
5915:. 9 November 2023.
5707:"Fairfield Bridge"
4838:10.3390/ma11112284
3852:Crocodile cracking
3745:Steve Bull Stand,
3718:Merafield Bridge,
3705:Millennium Stadium
3701:, London, England.
3414:
3319:ASTM International
3090:Dissolved silica (
2936:Curative treatment
2518:colloidal solution
1898:) involved in the
1491:diving rebreathers
1453:(global reaction)
967:) or rolled river
797:
740:
688:
267:possibly contains
192:
184:
54:
6649:
6648:
6641:Category:Concrete
6422:Roller-compacting
6243:Climbing formwork
6092:Calcium aluminate
6064:Roman engineering
5994:Media related to
5975:978-0-7277-2069-6
5962:West, G. (1996).
5954:978-1-317-48442-4
5890:. 9 November 2020
5872:. 7 January 2014.
5851:Construction News
5310:10.1520/CCA10445J
4791:978-1-62671-065-8
4495:978-0-8031-0498-3
4453:FPrimeC Solutions
4387:978-0-8031-5667-8
4378:10.1520/STP39460S
4289:(12): 1452–1457.
4125:Sposito, Garrison
3515:calcium carbonate
3511:siliceous sponges
3447:Patawalonga River
3210:radioactive waste
2846:calcium carbonate
2533:calcium hydroxide
2496:(young N-S-H gel)
1702:
1701:
1520:by atmospheric CO
1502:alkali hydroxides
1457:
1456:
1140:calcium hydroxide
950:cryptocrystalline
883: → =
807:/deprotonation:
772: ↔ =
655:alkali hydroxides
613:orthosilicic acid
598:Gibbs free energy
431:Indeed, the term
329:calcium hydroxide
312:
311:
304:
269:original research
250:
249:
242:
16:(Redirected from
6714:
6639:
6638:
6551:Concrete Society
6362:Fiber-reinforced
6177:Volumetric mixer
6069:Roman technology
6026:
6019:
6012:
6003:
5993:
5979:
5958:
5928:
5923:
5917:
5916:
5905:
5899:
5898:
5896:
5895:
5880:
5874:
5873:
5862:
5856:
5855:
5841:
5835:
5834:
5832:
5830:
5819:
5813:
5812:
5810:
5808:
5793:
5787:
5786:
5784:
5782:
5763:
5757:
5746:
5740:
5739:
5728:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5718:
5703:
5697:
5694:
5688:
5685:
5679:
5678:
5670:
5664:
5660:
5654:
5651:
5645:
5642:
5633:
5632:
5630:
5629:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5606:
5605:
5591:
5585:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5571:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5549:
5547:
5531:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5514:
5508:
5507:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5486:
5480:
5479:
5472:
5466:
5465:
5463:
5455:
5449:
5443:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5426:
5420:
5419:
5417:
5415:
5396:
5390:
5387:
5381:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5357:
5351:
5350:
5343:
5337:
5331:
5325:
5320:
5314:
5313:
5289:
5283:
5273:
5264:
5261:
5255:
5251:
5245:
5242:
5236:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5222:
5187:
5181:
5178:
5172:
5169:
5163:
5160:
5154:
5153:
5143:
5119:
5113:
5112:
5102:
5078:
5072:
5071:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5017:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4960:
4954:
4953:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4886:(3–4): 197–213.
4875:
4869:
4868:
4858:
4840:
4808:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4783:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4746:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4669:
4663:
4662:
4645:(8): 1460–1466.
4634:
4628:
4627:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4509:
4500:
4499:
4479:
4473:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4460:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4429:(9): 1291–1297.
4418:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4392:
4391:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4354:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4321:
4315:
4314:
4303:10.1002/jrs.4929
4278:
4272:
4271:
4261:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4202:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4154:
4145:
4144:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4105:. Archived from
4094:
4083:
4077:
4076:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4044:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4019:
4013:
4009:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3965:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3940:
3920:
3890:Siliceous sponge
3847:Cracking pattern
3837:Colloidal silica
3773:Kauffman Stadium
3747:Molineux Stadium
3709:National Stadium
3681:Fairfield Bridge
3619:Building of the
3532:Tour & Taxis
3303:
3302:
3301:
3293:
3292:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3268:
3267:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3176:
3175:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3140:
3139: →
3136:
3135:
3134:
3127:
3126:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3087:of iron oxides.
3079:
3078:
3077:
3051:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3034:
3033:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3009:
3008:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2885:by a controlled
2802:bearing capacity
2782:Tensile strength
2715:
2714:
2713:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2679:
2678:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2559:
2558:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2472:
2471:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2435:
2434:
2423:metasilicic acid
2420:
2419:
2418:
2410:
2409:
2400:dissolution and
2399:
2398:
2397:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2341:
2340:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2176:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2126:
2125:
2099:sodium carbonate
2092:
2091:
2090:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2058:
2057:
2043:sodium hydroxide
2025:
2024:
2023:
2015:
2014:
2006:
2005:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1931:
1930:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1906:Indirect sources
1897:
1896:
1895:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1726:Main sources of
1559:
1548:metasilicic acid
1463:ambient moisture
1318:
1228:
1192:
1173:
1133:
981:Nordic countries
942:
940:
939:
929:
928:
927:
918:
917:
916:
893:
892:
891:
882:
881:
880:
868:
867:
866:
832:
831:
830:
821:
820:
819:
783:
782:
781:
771:
769:
768:
755:
753:
752:
708:
707:
706:
649:
648:
647:
637:
636:
635:
625:
624:
623:
606:steric hindrance
592:is explained by
552:
551:
550:
542:
541:
531:
530:
529:
519:
518:
517:
509:
508:
497:metasilicic acid
494:
493:
492:
484:
483:
404:
331:, also known as
307:
300:
296:
293:
287:
284:inline citations
260:
259:
252:
245:
238:
234:
231:
225:
202:
194:
148:
140:
123:
115:
21:
6722:
6721:
6717:
6716:
6715:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6652:
6651:
6650:
6645:
6627:
6611:
6580:
6534:
6471:
6343:
6297:
6216:
6192:Flow table test
6153:
6073:
6035:
6030:
5986:
5976:
5961:
5955:
5940:
5937:
5935:Further reading
5932:
5931:
5924:
5920:
5907:
5906:
5902:
5893:
5891:
5882:
5881:
5877:
5870:Exeter Memories
5864:
5863:
5859:
5843:
5842:
5838:
5828:
5826:
5821:
5820:
5816:
5806:
5804:
5795:
5794:
5790:
5780:
5778:
5765:
5764:
5760:
5754:Wales on Sunday
5747:
5743:
5730:
5729:
5725:
5716:
5714:
5705:
5704:
5700:
5695:
5691:
5686:
5682:
5672:
5671:
5667:
5661:
5657:
5652:
5648:
5643:
5636:
5627:
5625:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5603:
5601:
5593:
5592:
5588:
5579:
5577:
5569:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5545:
5543:
5533:
5532:
5528:
5520:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5502:
5501:
5497:
5488:
5487:
5483:
5474:
5473:
5469:
5461:
5457:
5456:
5452:
5444:
5440:
5432:
5428:
5427:
5423:
5413:
5411:
5398:
5397:
5393:
5388:
5384:
5372:
5368:
5359:
5358:
5354:
5345:
5344:
5340:
5332:
5328:
5321:
5317:
5291:
5290:
5286:
5274:
5267:
5262:
5258:
5252:
5248:
5243:
5239:
5233:
5229:
5220:
5218:
5189:
5188:
5184:
5179:
5175:
5170:
5166:
5161:
5157:
5121:
5120:
5116:
5080:
5079:
5075:
5029:
5028:
5024:
5015:
5013:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4962:
4961:
4957:
4947:
4946:
4942:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4877:
4876:
4872:
4810:
4809:
4805:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4706:
4705:
4701:
4671:
4670:
4666:
4636:
4635:
4631:
4601:
4600:
4596:
4587:
4585:
4556:
4555:
4551:
4542:
4540:
4511:
4510:
4503:
4496:
4481:
4480:
4476:
4471:
4467:
4458:
4456:
4447:
4446:
4442:
4420:
4419:
4415:
4409:
4405:
4399:
4395:
4388:
4367:
4366:
4362:
4352:
4350:
4342:
4341:
4337:
4323:
4322:
4318:
4280:
4279:
4275:
4239:
4238:
4234:
4204:
4203:
4196:
4187:
4185:
4156:
4155:
4148:
4122:
4121:
4117:
4109:
4103:
4092:
4085:
4084:
4080:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4056:
4054:
4046:
4045:
4041:
4032:
4030:
4021:
4020:
4016:
4010:
4003:
3994:
3992:
3977:
3976:
3972:
3963:
3961:
3959:FHWA-HRT-06-069
3952:
3951:
3947:
3938:
3936:
3922:
3921:
3917:
3912:
3904:
3900:
3885:
3882:: see solid SiO
3870:Hydrated silica
3812:
3763:Chickamauga Dam
3759:
3694:
3677:
3648:
3634:
3559:
3513:deposited with
3503:biogenic silica
3483:
3440:New South Wales
3419:
3398:
3315:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3249:
3221:metamictization
3217:neutron fluence
3198:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3049:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2969:
2938:
2881:of cement with
2855:
2833:
2821:
2766:
2748:
2735:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2614:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2516:dispersed in a
2506:sol–gel process
2491:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2382:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2031:calcium sulfate
2022:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1813:into solution.
1809:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1754:Portland cement
1748:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1687:
1683:
1668:
1664:
1643:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1605:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1571:
1535:
1523:
1511:
1507:
1471:hydration water
1446:
1442:
1427:
1423:
1402:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1364:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1330:
1311:
1304:
1300:
1289:
1282:
1278:
1260:
1251:
1244:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1055:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
938:
935:
934:
933:
931:
926:
924:
923:
922:
920:
915:
913:
912:
911:
909:
890:
888:
887:
886:
884:
879:
877:
876:
875:
873:
865:
863:
862:
861:
859:
829:
827:
826:
825:
823:
818:
816:
815:
814:
812:
780:
777:
776:
775:
773:
767:
764:
763:
762:
760:
751:
748:
747:
746:
744:
705:
703:
702:
701:
699:
672:
646:
643:
642:
641:
639:
634:
631:
630:
629:
627:
622:
619:
618:
617:
615:
591:
587:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
549:
546:
545:
544:
540:
537:
536:
535:
533:
528:
525:
524:
523:
521:
516:
513:
512:
511:
507:
504:
503:
502:
500:
491:
488:
487:
486:
482:
479:
478:
477:
475:
470:
466:
462:
454:
446:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
401:
395:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
354:
350:
346:
338:
308:
297:
291:
288:
273:
261:
257:
246:
235:
229:
226:
215:
203:
175:
145:
138:
136:
135:
131:
127:
124:, also noted Na
120:
113:
111:
110:
106:
101:sodium silicate
66:concrete cancer
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6720:
6718:
6710:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6654:
6653:
6647:
6646:
6644:
6643:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6625:
6619:
6617:
6613:
6612:
6610:
6609:
6604:
6599:
6594:
6588:
6586:
6582:
6581:
6579:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6548:
6542:
6540:
6536:
6535:
6533:
6532:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6512:
6510:Concrete block
6507:
6506:
6505:
6500:
6498:voided biaxial
6495:
6490:
6479:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6470:
6469:
6468:
6467:
6462:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6353:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6342:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6305:
6303:
6299:
6298:
6296:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6255:
6250:
6245:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6224:
6222:
6218:
6217:
6215:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6202:Concrete cover
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6172:Concrete mixer
6169:
6163:
6161:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6110:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6083:
6081:
6075:
6074:
6072:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6059:Roman concrete
6056:
6051:
6045:
6043:
6037:
6036:
6031:
6029:
6028:
6021:
6014:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5985:
5984:External links
5982:
5981:
5980:
5974:
5959:
5953:
5936:
5933:
5930:
5929:
5918:
5900:
5875:
5857:
5836:
5814:
5788:
5777:on 21 May 2016
5758:
5741:
5723:
5698:
5689:
5680:
5665:
5655:
5646:
5634:
5610:
5586:
5557:
5526:
5509:
5495:
5481:
5467:
5450:
5438:
5421:
5391:
5382:
5366:
5352:
5338:
5326:
5315:
5284:
5265:
5256:
5246:
5237:
5227:
5202:(2): 181–189.
5182:
5173:
5164:
5155:
5114:
5093:(7): 368–383.
5073:
5038:(2): 224–229.
5022:
4998:
4971:(3): 421–429.
4955:
4940:
4921:
4870:
4803:
4790:
4758:
4717:
4699:
4680:(3): 339–344.
4664:
4629:
4610:(2): 299–306.
4594:
4569:(2): 123–144.
4549:
4524:(6): 375–390.
4501:
4494:
4474:
4465:
4440:
4413:
4403:
4393:
4386:
4360:
4335:
4316:
4273:
4232:
4213:(4): 647–654.
4194:
4169:(4): 621–635.
4146:
4115:
4101:
4078:
4063:
4039:
4014:
4001:
3970:
3945:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3823:
3818:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3800:
3790:
3780:
3770:
3758:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3743:
3733:
3727:
3716:
3702:
3693:
3692:United Kingdom
3690:
3689:
3688:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3664:
3655:used numerous
3647:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3639:Térénez bridge
3633:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3617:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3546:
3539:
3529:
3518:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3471:
3464:
3454:
3443:
3432:
3426:
3418:
3415:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3366:
3359:
3355:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3298:
3289:
3273:
3264:
3256:
3248:
3245:
3237:metamict state
3197:
3187:) is making a
3181:
3172:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3146:
3142:>Fe–OSi(OH)
3132:
3123:
3108:
3096:
3074:
3039:
3030:
3014:
3005:
2985:
2968:
2965:
2937:
2934:
2914:
2913:
2910:
2875:
2853:
2835:
2831:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2808:Shear strength
2805:
2795:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2746:
2743:
2734:
2731:
2726:efflorescences
2722:carbon dioxide
2711:
2696:
2684:
2675:
2667:
2666:
2660:
2648:
2636:
2624:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2596:
2595:
2588:
2576:
2564:
2555:
2526:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2489:
2477:
2468:
2456:
2440:
2431:
2415:
2406:
2394:
2381:
2378:
2346:
2337:
2326:
2307:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2281:
2248:(C-S-H) (the "
2236:
2225:
2214:
2203:
2202:
2195:
2183:
2163:
2162:
2155:
2143:
2131:
2122:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2075:
2063:
2054:
2020:
2011:
2002:
1990:
1978:
1969:
1957:
1948:
1936:
1927:
1916:
1907:
1904:
1892:
1880:
1869:
1856:
1835:
1822:
1808:
1796:
1785:
1777:
1776:Direct sources
1774:
1747:
1738:
1732:
1724:
1719:
1718:anions by HSiO
1715:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1572:+ 2 NaOH
1569:
1566:
1563:
1533:
1530:reaction front
1521:
1509:
1505:
1459:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1331:+ 2 NaOH
1328:
1325:
1322:
1309:
1302:
1298:
1287:
1280:
1276:
1258:
1250:
1247:
1242:
1235:semi-permeable
1230:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1194:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1135:
1134:
1128:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1054:
1051:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1023:Periodic Table
1021:column in the
945:
944:
936:
925:
914:
895:
894:
889:
878:
870:
864:
835:
834:
828:
817:
785:
784:
778:
765:
757:
749:
714:hydrogen bonds
704:
671:
668:
644:
632:
620:
589:
585:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
547:
538:
526:
514:
505:
489:
480:
472:
471:
468:
464:
460:
452:
444:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
406:
405:
399:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
352:
348:
344:
336:
310:
309:
264:
262:
255:
248:
247:
206:
204:
197:
174:
171:
143:
133:
129:
125:
118:
108:
104:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6719:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6642:
6634:
6633:
6630:
6624:
6621:
6620:
6618:
6614:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6598:
6595:
6593:
6590:
6589:
6587:
6583:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6543:
6541:
6539:Organizations
6537:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6504:
6503:slab on grade
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6485:
6484:
6481:
6480:
6478:
6474:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6457:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6432:Self-leveling
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6354:
6352:
6350:
6346:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6306:
6304:
6300:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6249:
6246:
6244:
6241:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6233:Cast-in-place
6231:
6229:
6226:
6225:
6223:
6219:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6156:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6129:Reinforcement
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6089:
6088:
6085:
6084:
6082:
6080:
6076:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6062:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6046:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6027:
6022:
6020:
6015:
6013:
6008:
6007:
6004:
5997:
5992:
5988:
5987:
5983:
5977:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5960:
5956:
5950:
5946:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5934:
5927:
5922:
5919:
5914:
5910:
5904:
5901:
5889:
5885:
5879:
5876:
5871:
5867:
5861:
5858:
5853:
5852:
5847:
5840:
5837:
5825:. BUFVC. BUFC
5824:
5818:
5815:
5803:. 16 May 2016
5802:
5798:
5792:
5789:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5762:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5745:
5742:
5737:
5733:
5727:
5724:
5713:on 2010-05-20
5712:
5708:
5702:
5699:
5693:
5690:
5684:
5681:
5676:
5669:
5666:
5659:
5656:
5650:
5647:
5641:
5639:
5635:
5623:
5622:
5614:
5611:
5599:
5598:
5590:
5587:
5575:
5568:
5561:
5558:
5554:
5541:
5537:
5530:
5527:
5523:. 2016-06-01.
5519:
5513:
5510:
5506:. 2016-09-29.
5505:
5499:
5496:
5492:. 2014-09-26.
5491:
5485:
5482:
5477:
5471:
5468:
5464:. 2014-03-01.
5460:
5454:
5451:
5447:
5442:
5439:
5435:. 2010-09-15.
5431:
5425:
5422:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5395:
5392:
5386:
5383:
5379:
5378:
5370:
5367:
5362:
5356:
5353:
5348:
5342:
5339:
5336:
5330:
5327:
5324:
5319:
5316:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5288:
5285:
5282:
5278:
5272:
5270:
5266:
5260:
5257:
5250:
5247:
5241:
5238:
5231:
5228:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5186:
5183:
5177:
5174:
5168:
5165:
5159:
5156:
5151:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5118:
5115:
5110:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5077:
5074:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5026:
5023:
5011:
5010:
5002:
4999:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4966:
4959:
4956:
4951:
4944:
4941:
4936:
4932:
4925:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4874:
4871:
4866:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4807:
4804:
4793:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4759:
4754:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4721:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4703:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4665:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4633:
4630:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4604:Sedimentology
4598:
4595:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4553:
4550:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4508:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4491:
4487:
4486:
4478:
4475:
4469:
4466:
4454:
4450:
4444:
4441:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4417:
4414:
4411:pp. 3-4.
4407:
4404:
4397:
4394:
4389:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4364:
4361:
4348:
4347:
4339:
4336:
4332:(4): 450–455.
4331:
4327:
4320:
4317:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4236:
4233:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4201:
4199:
4195:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4116:
4108:
4104:
4102:82-14-04078-7
4098:
4091:
4090:
4082:
4079:
4074:
4067:
4064:
4053:
4049:
4043:
4040:
4028:
4024:
4018:
4015:
4008:
4006:
4002:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3974:
3971:
3960:
3956:
3949:
3946:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3919:
3916:
3909:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3832:Carbonatation
3830:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3809:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3761:
3760:
3757:United States
3756:
3752:
3751:Wolverhampton
3748:
3744:
3741:
3737:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3703:
3700:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3665:
3662:
3658:
3657:concrete ties
3654:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3556:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3472:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3395:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3312:
3306:
3282:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3213:
3211:
3206:
3190:
3117:
3116:
3115:
3088:
3086:
3081:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3046:
3023:
2998:
2994:
2978:
2974:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2918:
2911:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2818:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2763:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2703:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2498:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2424:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2319:
2315:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2206:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2027:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1847:
1845:
1814:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1725:
1723:
1710:anions by HCO
1697:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1613:
1609:
1601:
1598:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1479:deliquescence
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1372:
1368:
1360:
1357:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1305:
1294:
1293:carbonic acid
1290:
1283:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1263:carbonatation
1256:
1248:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1103:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1098:carbonic acid
1079:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1043:
1024:
1020:
1019:alkali metals
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
989:
984:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
951:
907:
906:
905:
903:
899:
898:Deprotonation
871:
857:
856:
855:
853:
849:
845:
843:
840:
810:
809:
808:
806:
802:
794:
789:
758:
742:
741:
736:
732:
730:
726:
721:
719:
715:
710:
697:
693:
685:
681:
676:
669:
667:
664:
660:
656:
651:
614:
609:
607:
603:
599:
595:
594:thermodynamic
583:
554:
498:
458:
457:
456:
450:
442:
438:
434:
429:
403:
362:
361:
360:
358:
342:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
306:
303:
295:
285:
281:
277:
271:
270:
265:This section
263:
254:
253:
244:
241:
233:
223:
219:
213:
212:
207:This section
205:
201:
196:
195:
188:
179:
172:
170:
167:
162:
160:
156:
152:
147:
122:
102:
98:
93:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
51:
46:
40:
33:
19:
6515:Step barrier
6476:Applications
6387:Nanoconcrete
6338:
6273:Power trowel
6258:Power screed
6248:Slip forming
6221:Construction
5964:
5943:
5921:
5913:www.kcur.org
5912:
5903:
5892:. Retrieved
5887:
5878:
5869:
5860:
5849:
5839:
5827:. Retrieved
5817:
5805:. Retrieved
5800:
5791:
5779:. Retrieved
5775:the original
5770:
5761:
5753:
5744:
5735:
5726:
5715:. Retrieved
5711:the original
5701:
5692:
5683:
5668:
5658:
5649:
5626:. Retrieved
5620:
5613:
5602:. Retrieved
5596:
5589:
5578:. Retrieved
5573:
5560:
5551:
5544:. Retrieved
5539:
5529:
5512:
5498:
5484:
5470:
5453:
5441:
5424:
5412:. Retrieved
5408:the original
5394:
5385:
5374:
5373:Anna Vlach,
5369:
5355:
5341:
5329:
5318:
5304:(2): 29–34.
5301:
5297:
5287:
5259:
5249:
5240:
5230:
5219:. Retrieved
5199:
5195:
5185:
5176:
5167:
5158:
5131:
5127:
5117:
5090:
5086:
5076:
5035:
5031:
5025:
5014:. Retrieved
5008:
5001:
4968:
4964:
4958:
4949:
4943:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4883:
4879:
4873:
4823:(11): 2284.
4820:
4816:
4806:
4795:. Retrieved
4771:
4761:
4734:
4730:
4720:
4711:
4702:
4677:
4673:
4667:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4607:
4603:
4597:
4586:. Retrieved
4566:
4562:
4552:
4541:. Retrieved
4521:
4517:
4484:
4477:
4468:
4457:. Retrieved
4455:. 2016-10-28
4452:
4443:
4426:
4422:
4416:
4406:
4401:p. 168.
4396:
4369:
4363:
4351:. Retrieved
4345:
4338:
4329:
4325:
4319:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4249:
4245:
4235:
4210:
4206:
4186:. Retrieved
4166:
4162:
4135:(1): 10–17.
4132:
4128:
4118:
4107:the original
4088:
4081:
4072:
4066:
4055:. Retrieved
4051:
4042:
4031:. Retrieved
4017:
3993:. Retrieved
3980:
3973:
3962:. Retrieved
3958:
3948:
3937:. Retrieved
3928:
3918:
3687:1.1 million.
3651:East German
3601:
3597:
3560:
3463:(1939–1981).
3370:CSA standard
3362:
3347:
3345:
3316:
3280:
3250:
3241:
3214:
3165:
3137:+ >Fe–OH
3089:
3082:
3066:ferrihydrite
3062:cristobalite
3055:
3047:
2970:
2954:
2950:
2939:
2919:
2915:
2890:
2883:silicic acid
2857:
2837:
2827:
2822:
2767:
2736:
2719:
2704:
2668:
2610:
2541:
2503:
2387:
2383:
2361:
2299:
2270:
2249:
2243:
2207:
2204:
2166:
2164:
2110:
2096:
2028:
1909:
1848:
1815:
1779:
1740:
1705:
1551:
1545:
1499:
1477:substances,
1460:
1271:silicic acid
1252:
1240:
1231:
1196:
1104:2 Na(OH) + H
1078:silicic acid
1056:
1046:
1044:
985:
946:
896:
858:≡Si–O–Si≡ +
846:
836:
798:
743:≡Si–O–Si≡ +
729:condensation
722:
711:
689:
652:
610:
555:
473:
433:silicic acid
432:
430:
407:
341:silicic acid
335:, or (Ca(OH)
313:
298:
289:
266:
236:
227:
216:Please help
211:verification
208:
163:
94:
81:
65:
61:
57:
55:
6493:hollow-core
6452:Waste light
6447:Translucent
6407:Prestressed
6334:Segregation
6319:Degradation
6207:Cover meter
6144:Silica fume
6079:Composition
5542:(in French)
5134:: 126–143.
4737:: 162–169.
4075:(SP-249-1).
3793:Seminoe Dam
3675:New Zealand
3602:et al.
3584:limestone (
3536:access ramp
3520:Pommeroeul
3488:Tournaisian
3431:(1936–2007)
3308:structures.
2993:iron oxides
2899:silica fume
2864:Switzerland
2751:portlandite
2537:portlandite
2266:hydrogarnet
1844:cement kiln
1714:and the SiO
1518:portlandite
1512:content of
1475:hygroscopic
1265:process of
1255:strong base
1144:portlandite
977:freeze-thaw
959:present in
805:protonation
718:hydrophilic
602:bond energy
416:, or Si(OH)
351:, or Si(OH)
333:portlandite
151:hygroscopic
6656:Categories
6592:Eurocode 2
6530:Structures
6417:Reinforced
6377:Lunarcrete
6357:AstroCrete
6314:Durability
6309:Properties
6187:Slump test
6159:Production
6149:Metakaolin
5894:2020-11-10
5717:2009-10-23
5628:2023-04-20
5604:2023-04-20
5580:2023-04-20
5221:2020-10-25
5016:2021-06-16
4937:: 234–242.
4797:2021-06-14
4588:2023-03-25
4543:2023-03-25
4459:2017-01-11
4188:2020-10-31
4057:2016-05-16
4033:2007-08-11
3995:2023-09-05
3964:2010-07-28
3939:2010-07-28
3910:References
3826:Calthemite
3661:Baltic Sea
3582:Ordovician
3578:limestones
3050:50 – 80 °C
2973:gamma-rays
2943:watertight
2907:metakaolin
2879:alkalinity
2859:Kieselkalk
2819:Mitigation
2262:ettringite
1495:anesthesia
1062:hydroxides
999:alkalinity
953:chalcedony
725:hydrolysis
650:) system.
467:O ⇌ Si(OH)
276:improve it
166:demolition
90:aggregates
6707:Silicates
6702:Pavements
6667:Catalysis
6623:Hempcrete
6585:Standards
6412:Ready-mix
6329:Recycling
6124:Aggregate
6107:Rosendale
5807:14 August
5553:solution.
5540:ondraf.be
5216:0008-8846
5150:0029-5493
5109:1346-8014
5060:0021-9797
4993:0016-7037
4916:129874363
4908:0930-0708
4847:1996-1944
4817:Materials
4753:1877-7058
4694:0008-8846
4659:0008-8846
4583:0950-0618
4538:0024-9831
4372:: 17–36.
4311:0377-0486
4268:1381-2386
4252:: 25–41.
4227:0008-8846
4183:0008-8846
4141:0889-325X
3901:by Ca(OH)
3895:Soda lime
3767:Tennessee
3668:Autobahns
3575:Paleozoic
3499:limestone
3491:limestone
3417:Australia
2997:magnetite
2995:, mainly
2959:gates or
2862:found in
2850:limestone
2514:oligomers
2450:2 NaOH +
2318:indicator
2103:catalysis
2039:anhydrite
1655:sum (1+2)
1537:diffusion
1497:systems.
1483:catalysis
1469:in their
1414:sum (1+2)
1267:soda lime
988:hydroxide
908:≡Si–OH +
904:groups:
839:hydroxide
600:) and by
596:reasons (
582:hydration
449:anhydride
292:July 2022
280:verifying
230:July 2022
173:Chemistry
155:siliceous
78:amorphous
6697:Patterns
6616:See also
6607:EN 10080
6602:EN 206-1
6597:EN 197-1
6456:Aerated
6397:Polished
6392:Pervious
6367:Filigree
6263:Finisher
6238:Formwork
6102:Portland
6033:Concrete
5829:27 March
5801:BBC News
5546:20 April
5235:319-323.
5068:17467724
4865:30445670
4353:22 April
4052:BBC News
4027:Archived
3933:Archived
3880:Silicate
3864:Gyrolite
3810:See also
3777:Missouri
3715:, Wales.
3699:Vauxhall
3507:spicules
3476:car park
3227:rich in
3022:hematite
2957:spillway
2946:membrane
2895:pozzolan
2842:obsidian
2605:gyrolite
2601:rosettes
2594:+ 2 NaOH
2510:monomers
2201:+ 2 NaOH
2161:+ 2 NaOH
2113:(2005):
2093:+ 2 NaOH
2026:, ... .
1665:+ Ca(OH)
1644:+ 2 NaOH
1625:+ Ca(OH)
1526:concrete
1487:porosity
1467:dissolve
1424:+ Ca(OH)
1403:+ 2 NaOH
1384:+ Ca(OH)
1193:+ 2 NaOH
1174:+ Ca(OH)
995:alkaline
872:=Si=O +
759:=Si=O +
692:siloxane
680:siloxane
663:catalyze
375:→ Ca + H
159:spalling
70:concrete
6566:Nanocem
6525:Columns
6402:Polymer
6302:Science
6268:Grinder
6228:Precast
6134:Fly ash
6041:History
5663:Québec.
5414:13 June
5040:Bibcode
4973:Bibcode
4888:Bibcode
4856:6265780
4825:Bibcode
4712:dot.gov
4612:Bibcode
4291:Bibcode
3797:Wyoming
3740:Wonford
3724:England
3713:Cardiff
3646:Germany
3637:Former
3594:Ontario
3571:gravels
3526:Hainaut
3481:Belgium
3436:Dee Why
3233:thorium
3229:uranium
3104:SiO(OH)
2961:turbine
2930:lithium
2926:silanes
2903:fly ash
2872:Belgium
2868:Tournai
2798:Fatigue
2742:K-S-H).
2366:ICP-AES
2105:of the
1986:NaB(OH)
1760:, with
1493:and in
1029:O and K
969:gravels
902:silanol
885:SiO(OH)
801:silanol
793:silanol
774:Si(–OH)
696:silanol
684:silanol
522:SiO(OH)
463:↓ + 2 H
437:synonym
387:O → CaH
339:), and
274:Please
6672:Cement
6488:waffle
6437:Sulfur
6293:Tremie
6288:Sealer
6253:Screed
6197:Curing
6087:Cement
5972:
5951:
5781:16 May
5214:
5148:
5107:
5066:
5058:
4991:
4914:
4906:
4863:
4853:
4845:
4788:
4751:
4692:
4657:
4581:
4536:
4492:
4384:
4309:
4266:
4225:
4181:
4139:
4099:
3632:France
3625:Ottawa
3590:Ottawa
3557:Canada
3410:Ottawa
3373:C1293.
3363:et al.
3225:zircon
3205:gangue
3092:Si(OH)
3085:gangue
3058:silica
2977:baryte
2572:Ca(OH)
2264:) and
2179:Ca(OH)
2139:Ca(OH)
2111:et al.
2071:Ca(OH)
2035:gypsum
1876:Ca(OH)
1852:Ca(OH)
1792:Ca(OH)
1756:(pure
1677:
1671:
1658:
1637:
1631:
1614:
1599:
1575:
1565:
1541:porous
1514:cement
1436:
1430:
1417:
1396:
1390:
1373:
1358:
1334:
1324:
1269:. The
1202:Ca(OH)
1059:alkali
1047:et al.
973:quartz
961:flints
795:group.
709:ions.
659:alkali
616:Si(OH)
588:and CO
441:silica
363:Ca(OH)
86:silica
74:cement
6520:Roads
6442:Tabby
6349:Types
6283:Float
6212:Rebar
6167:Plant
6114:Water
5570:(PDF)
5521:(PDF)
5462:(PDF)
5433:(PDF)
5254:1989.
4912:S2CID
4110:(PDF)
4093:(PDF)
4012:293).
3860:(EMC)
3567:chert
2905:, or
2852:(CaCO
2620:CaSiO
2584:CaSiO
2364:, by
2314:proxy
1680:CaSiO
1640:CaSiO
1223:· 2 H
1214:→ CaH
1187:· 2 H
1178:→ CaH
1168:· 2 H
991:anion
965:chalk
957:chert
842:anion
520:, or
443:, SiO
424:· 2 H
383:+ 2 H
6483:Slab
6465:RAAC
6382:Mass
6372:Foam
6278:Pump
5970:ISBN
5949:ISBN
5831:2018
5809:2017
5783:2016
5548:2023
5416:2022
5375:The
5212:ISSN
5146:ISSN
5105:ISSN
5064:PMID
5056:ISSN
4989:ISSN
4904:ISSN
4861:PMID
4843:ISSN
4786:ISBN
4749:ISSN
4690:ISSN
4655:ISSN
4579:ISSN
4534:ISSN
4490:ISBN
4382:ISBN
4355:2020
4307:ISSN
4264:ISSN
4223:ISSN
4179:ISSN
4137:ISSN
4097:ISBN
3685:NZ$
3534:car
3522:lock
3466:The
3348:e.g.
3281:e.g.
3231:and
3119:(HO)
2981:BaSO
2891:e.g.
2644:CaCO
2362:e.g.
2356:and
2256:and
2250:glue
2219:and
2191:CaCl
2175:NaCl
2167:e.g.
2151:CaCO
2083:CaSO
1829:and
1602:(SiO
1552:i.e.
1439:CaCO
1399:CaCO
1125:· 2
1112:→ Na
1066:NaOH
1013:and
1003:NaOH
963:(in
727:and
682:and
439:for
396:· 2
321:NaOH
182:ASR.
82:i.e.
56:The
6460:AAC
5306:doi
5204:doi
5136:doi
5132:282
5095:doi
5048:doi
5036:312
4981:doi
4896:doi
4851:PMC
4833:doi
4776:doi
4739:doi
4735:108
4682:doi
4647:doi
4620:doi
4571:doi
4526:doi
4431:doi
4374:doi
4299:doi
4254:doi
4215:doi
4171:doi
3986:doi
3795:in
3785:in
3775:in
3765:in
3720:A38
3711:),
3623:at
3592:in
3524:in
3509:of
3468:MCG
3408:at
3239:).
3177:SiO
3128:SiO
3070:SiO
2870:in
2680:SiO
2656:SiO
2560:SiO
2512:or
2473:SiO
2452:SiO
2436:SiO
2411:SiO
2390:SiO
2388:1.
2374:XRF
2370:AAS
2258:AFt
2254:AFm
1888:SiO
1886:or
1772:).
1768:or
1762:BFS
1758:OPC
1684:+ H
1661:SiO
1621:SiO
1611:(2)
1592:+ H
1588:SiO
1568:SiO
1562:(1)
1524:in
1443:+ H
1370:(2)
1361:(CO
1351:+ H
1321:(1)
1313:).
1306:or
1286:SiO
1284:or
1279:SiO
1218:SiO
1210:SiO
1206:+ H
1182:SiO
1163:SiO
1120:SiO
1108:SiO
1100:):
1092:SiO
1084:SiO
1080:: H
1076:or
1070:KOH
1034:(Na
1007:KOH
1005:or
955:or
900:of
628:SiO
604:or
576:SiO
543:SiO
510:SiO
485:SiO
459:SiO
455:.
412:SiO
391:SiO
379:SiO
371:SiO
367:+ H
347:SiO
325:KOH
323:or
278:by
220:by
132:SiO
107:SiO
103:(Na
99:of
97:gel
62:ASR
6658::
5911:.
5886:.
5868:.
5848:.
5799:.
5769:.
5752:,
5734:.
5637:^
5572:.
5550:.
5402:.
5302:25
5300:.
5296:.
5268:^
5210:.
5200:16
5198:.
5194:.
5144:.
5130:.
5126:.
5103:.
5091:14
5089:.
5085:.
5062:.
5054:.
5046:.
5034:.
4987:.
4979:.
4969:45
4967:.
4935:19
4933:.
4910:.
4902:.
4894:.
4884:77
4882:.
4859:.
4849:.
4841:.
4831:.
4821:11
4819:.
4815:.
4784:.
4770:.
4747:.
4733:.
4729:.
4710:.
4688:.
4678:30
4676:.
4653:.
4643:36
4641:.
4618:.
4608:22
4606:.
4577:.
4567:17
4565:.
4561:.
4532:.
4522:51
4520:.
4516:.
4504:^
4451:.
4427:37
4425:.
4380:.
4328:.
4305:.
4297:.
4287:47
4285:.
4262:.
4250:25
4248:.
4244:.
4221:.
4211:21
4209:.
4197:^
4177:.
4167:18
4165:.
4161:.
4149:^
4133:94
4131:.
4050:.
4004:^
3957:.
3931:.
3927:.
3749:,
3738:,
3722:,
3459:,
3453:).
3449:,
3438:,
3350::
3299:eq
3285:Na
3274:eq
3260:Na
3212:.
3193:OH
3154:OH
3152:+
3080:.
3026:Fe
3001:Fe
2975::
2901:,
2897:,
2893:,
2707:Ca
2692:Ca
2671:Na
2654:+
2642:→
2632:CO
2630:+
2582:→
2570:+
2551:Na
2522:Ca
2483:·
2464:Na
2462:→
2425:,
2402:Na
2372:,
2368:,
2354:Na
2347:eq
2333:Na
2322:OH
2303:OH
2288:OH
2277:Cl
2260:,
2232:OH
2210:Na
2189:←
2177:+
2173:2
2149:→
2137:+
2127:CO
2118:Na
2081:→
2069:+
2059:SO
2050:Na
2045::
2037:,
1998:Na
1996:,
1984:,
1974:PO
1965:Na
1963:,
1953:CO
1944:Na
1942:,
1932:SO
1923:Na
1912:OH
1902:.
1865:OH
1818:Na
1804:OH
1781:OH
1770:SF
1766:FA
1743:OH
1728:OH
1698:)
1617:Na
1584:Na
1543:.
1510:eq
1420:CO
1380:CO
1376:Na
1347:CO
1343:Na
1327:CO
1308:CO
1301:CO
1155:Na
1068:/
1040:eq
1011:Na
930:+
910:OH
874:OH
860:OH
822:+
720:.
700:OH
640:CO
564:CO
495:,
343:(H
327:,
137:·
112:·
6025:e
6018:t
6011:v
5978:.
5957:.
5897:.
5854:.
5833:.
5811:.
5785:.
5756:.
5738:.
5720:.
5677:.
5631:.
5607:.
5583:.
5478:.
5418:.
5363:.
5349:.
5312:.
5308::
5224:.
5206::
5152:.
5138::
5111:.
5097::
5070:.
5050::
5042::
5019:.
4995:.
4983::
4975::
4918:.
4898::
4890::
4867:.
4835::
4827::
4800:.
4778::
4755:.
4741::
4714:.
4696:.
4684::
4661:.
4649::
4626:.
4622::
4614::
4591:.
4573::
4546:.
4528::
4498:.
4462:.
4437:.
4433::
4390:.
4376::
4330:2
4313:.
4301::
4293::
4270:.
4256::
4229:.
4217::
4191:.
4173::
4143:.
4060:.
4036:.
3998:.
3988::
3967:.
3942:.
3903:2
3899:2
3884:2
3799:.
3789:.
3779:.
3769:.
3627:.
3616:.
3545:.
3493:(
3442:.
3294:O
3290:2
3269:O
3265:2
3182:4
3173:3
3168:H
3147:3
3124:3
3109:3
3097:4
3075:2
3040:3
3035:O
3031:2
3024:(
3015:4
3010:O
3006:3
2999:(
2986:4
2979:(
2854:3
2832:2
2749:(
2747:2
2685:3
2676:2
2661:2
2649:3
2637:2
2625:3
2613:2
2589:3
2577:2
2565:3
2556:2
2535:(
2494:O
2490:2
2485:H
2478:3
2469:2
2457:2
2441:3
2432:2
2427:H
2416:3
2407:2
2395:2
2360:(
2358:K
2342:O
2338:2
2316:(
2221:K
2196:2
2184:2
2156:3
2144:2
2132:3
2123:2
2088:4
2076:2
2064:4
2055:2
2033:(
2021:7
2016:O
2012:4
2007:B
2003:2
1991:4
1979:4
1970:3
1958:3
1949:2
1937:4
1928:2
1893:2
1881:2
1857:2
1840:O
1836:2
1831:K
1827:O
1823:2
1797:2
1720:3
1716:3
1712:3
1708:3
1688:O
1686:2
1682:3
1674:→
1667:2
1663:2
1642:3
1634:→
1627:2
1623:3
1619:2
1604:2
1596:O
1594:2
1590:3
1586:2
1578:→
1570:2
1534:2
1522:2
1508:O
1506:2
1473:(
1447:O
1445:2
1441:3
1433:→
1426:2
1422:2
1401:3
1393:→
1386:2
1382:3
1378:2
1363:2
1355:O
1353:2
1349:3
1345:2
1337:→
1329:2
1310:2
1303:3
1299:2
1297:H
1295:(
1288:2
1281:3
1277:2
1275:H
1273:(
1259:2
1243:2
1227:O
1225:2
1220:4
1216:2
1212:4
1208:4
1204:2
1191:O
1189:2
1184:4
1180:2
1176:2
1172:O
1170:2
1165:4
1161:2
1159:H
1157:2
1142:(
1131:O
1129:2
1127:H
1122:4
1118:2
1116:H
1114:2
1110:4
1106:4
1094:3
1090:2
1086:4
1082:4
1074:4
1064:(
1038:O
1036:2
1031:2
1027:2
1015:K
943:.
941:O
937:2
932:H
921:O
833:.
824:H
813:O
779:2
770:O
766:2
761:H
754:O
750:2
745:H
645:3
633:3
621:4
590:2
586:2
578:4
574:4
570:2
566:3
562:2
558:2
548:3
539:2
534:H
527:2
515:3
506:2
501:H
490:3
481:2
476:H
469:4
465:2
461:2
453:4
445:2
426:2
422:2
418:4
414:4
410:4
402:O
400:2
398:H
393:4
389:2
385:2
381:4
377:2
373:4
369:4
365:2
353:4
349:4
345:4
337:2
305:)
299:(
294:)
290:(
272:.
243:)
237:(
232:)
228:(
214:.
146:O
144:2
142:H
139:n
134:4
130:2
128:H
126:2
121:O
119:2
117:H
114:n
109:3
105:2
80:(
60:(
41:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.