319:, transforming the acid into its ethyl ester, producing a substance that retains the oil's therapeutic properties while being more stable in an aqueous suspension. Ball was unable to publish her revolutionary findings before her untimely death in 1916. Arthur L. Dean, a chemist and Ball's graduate study advisor, dean of the college, and later president of the university, was privy to details of the process she developed. After Ball's death, Dean undertook further trials and by 1919, a college chemistry laboratory was producing large quantities of the injectable chaulmoogra extract. Dean published details of the work and the findings without acknowledging Ball as the originator or crediting her work. Her name is not mentioned in any of Dean's published works on the chaulmoogra extract, while the name "the Dean method" is appended to the technique. A University of Hawai'i academic, Paul Wermager, in 2004, quoted a 1921 newspaper interview with Dean, in which he emphasized the importance of the work of his predecessors in the development of the extract. Despite this, according to Wermager, the
199:, the process of printing photographs onto metal plates. Some researchers have suggested that her parents' and grandfather's love for photography may have played a role in her love for chemistry, as they worked with mercury vapors and iodine-sensitized silver plates to develop photos. Despite being prominent members and advocates of the African-American community, both of Ball's parents are listed as "White" on her birth certificate. This may have been an attempt to reduce the prejudice and racism their daughter would face and help her "pass" in white society.
341:
progress in related leprosy treatments. Although Dean had contended that his later work was a refinement of Ball's method, producing an "advanced specific", Hollmann compares Dean's and Ball's techniques in the article, in a section titled "Ball's Method of Making Ethyl Esters of the Fatty Acids of
Chaulmoogra Oil", and rejects this. He describes Dean's method and writes of it:
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242:, as well as the College of Hawaii (now the University of Hawaiʻi), where she decided to study for a master's degree in chemistry. At the College of Hawaii, her master's thesis, titled "The Chemical Constituents of Piper methysticum; or The Chemical Constituents of the Active Principle of the Ava Root" involved studying the chemical properties of the
476:
signed a proclamation declaring
February 28 "Alice Augusta Ball Day" in Hawaii at a special recognition ceremony on the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa campus. The ceremony took place next to Bachman Hall in the shade of a Chaulmoogra tree planted in Ball's honor. A bronze plaque is displayed there in
411:
The first recognition of Ball's work came six years after her death when, in 1922, she was briefly mentioned in a medical journal, with her method being called the "Ball Method". After the work of many historians at the
University of Hawaiʻi including Kathryn Takara and Stanley Ali, the University of
303:
tree from the Indian subcontinent, which had been used medicinally from as early as the 1300s. But
Western treatment developed by British physician Frederic John Moaut in 1854 was not very effective, and every method of application had problems. It was too sticky to be effectively used topically, and
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I cannot see that there is any improvement whatsoever over the original technic as worked out by Miss Ball. The original method will allow any physician in any asylum for lepers in the world, with a little study, to isolate and use the ethyl esters of chaulmoogra fatty acids in treating his cases,
251:
and its chemical properties. Chaulmoogra oil had been the best treatment available for leprosy for hundreds of years, and Ball developed a much more effective injectable form. In 1915 she became the first woman and first Black
American to graduate with a master's degree from the College of Hawaii.
332:
that 78 patients had been discharged from Kalihi
Hospital by the board of health examiners after treatment with injections of Ball's modified chaulmoogra oil. In Ball's Method, ethyl esters of the fatty acids found in chaulmoogra oil were prepared into a form suitable for injection and absorption
340:
Ball's colleague
Hollmann attempted to correct the mistaken impression of the extract's development. He published a paper in 1922 giving credit to Ball, calling the injectable form of the oil the "Ball method" throughout the article. Hollmann discusses techniques developed elsewhere and reports
246:
plant species (Piper methysticum). Endemic to
Oceania and common throughout Polynesia, this plant was used in the treatment of anxiety, headaches, kidney disorders, and other hyperactive illnesses. Because of this research and her understanding of the chemical makeup of plants, she was later
463:
premiered at the Pan
African Film Festival. University of Hawaiʻi students have asked whether more should be done to resolve the wrongful actions of former President Dean, including proposals to rename Dean Hall after Ball instead. On November 6, 2020, a satellite named after her
373:
Ball nevertheless remained largely forgotten in the scientific record. In the 1970s, Kathryn Takara and
Stanley Ali, professors at the University of Hawaiʻi, found records of Ball's research and made efforts to ensure her achievement was recognized. In the 1990s, Ali came across
292:
people were allowed to leave the islands and pursue more extensive treatment on the mainland. Since they lacked an acquired immunity, the native population were especially susceptible to leprosy, with the first case appearing in 1835. The best treatment available was
206:). Her family moved to Hawaii with the hopes that the warmer weather would ease her grandfather's arthritis, though he died shortly after the move. In 1905 they relocated back to Seattle after only a year in Hawaii. After returning to Seattle, Ball attended
38:
277:
At the time, leprosy or Hansen's Disease was a highly stigmatized disease with virtually no chance of recovery. Over the course of 103 years, starting in 1866 until 1969, over 8,000 patients diagnosed with leprosy were exiled to the Hawaiian island of
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as an injection the oil's viscous consistency caused it to clump under the skin and form blisters rather than being absorbed. These blisters formed in perfect rows and made it look "as if the patient's skin had been replaced by
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and Laura Louise (Howard) Ball. She was the third of four children, with two older brothers, William and Robert, and a younger sister, Addie. Her family was middle-class and well-off, as Ball's father was a newspaper editor of
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placed Ball on its list of the most influential women in Hawaiian history. Paul Wermager established a scholarship, in 2017, called the "Alice Augusta Ball endowed scholarship" for students pursuing degrees in chemistry,
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468:
or "Alice", COSPAR 2020-079A) was launched into space. As of 2022, the student government at the university is also making strides to rename the earth sciences building "Alice Ball Hall", changing it from Dean Hall.
210:, where she was an active participant in her school's drama club and was known for her quick wit and ambitious personality. She graduated from this school in 1910, receiving top grades in the sciences.
1272:
420:, declared February 29 "Alice Ball Day," which is now celebrated every four years. In 2007, the University Board of Regents honored Ball with a Medal of Distinction, the school's highest honor.
168:, and was also the university's first female and African American chemistry professor. She died at age 24 and her contributions to science were not recognized until many years after her death.
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into the circulation. While not curative or able to fully halt the disease's progress indefinitely, the isolated ethyl ester remained the only available, effective treatment for leprosy until
270:(kava) for her master's thesis. Because of this work, she was contacted by Dr. Harry T. Hollmann at Kalihi Hospital in Hawaii, who needed an assistant for his research into the treatment of
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approached by Harry T. Hollmann, who was an Acting Assistant Surgeon at the Leprosy Investigation Station of the U. S. Public Health Service in Hawaii, to study
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920:
1232:"The Fatty Acids of Chaulmoogra Oil in the Treatment of Leprosy and Other Diseases: Ball's Method of Making Ethyl Esters of the Fatty Acids of Chaulmoogra Oil"
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Ball died on December 31, 1916, at age 24. She had become ill during her research and returned to Seattle for treatment a few months before her death. A 1917
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Hawaiʻi finally honored Ball in 2000 by dedicating a plaque to her on the school's only chaulmoogra tree behind Bachman Hall. On the same day, the
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235:. Publishing an article in a respected scientific journal was an uncommon accomplishment for a woman, especially for a Black woman at this time.
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poisoning due to exposure while teaching in the laboratory. It was reported that she was giving a demonstration on how to properly use a
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Maggs, Sam (2016). "Wonder Women: 25 Innovators, Inventors, and Trailblazers Who Changed History." Quirk Books: pages 36-39.
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She was also the first African American "research chemist and instructor" in the College of Hawaii's chemistry department.
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388:
378:, a 1932 book that specifically mentioned and recognized the contributions of a young chemist, later identified as Ball.
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Alice Ball and her family moved from Seattle to Honolulu in 1902, where she attended 'Central Grammar School' (formerly
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during the early 20th century. She was the first woman and first African American to receive a master's degree from the
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At age 23, Ball developed a technique to make the oil injectable and water-soluble. Her technique involved saponifying
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was raging in Europe. But the cause of her death is unknown, as her original death certificate was altered to cite
700:
Collins, Sibrina Nichelle (5 December 2016). Zeller Jr., Tom; Roberts, Jane; Borel, Brooke; Blum, Deborah (eds.).
711:
681:
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video from Lawrence Technical University on three women of color in STEM (Ball is discussed from 12:14 to 20:45)
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Ignotofsky, Rachel (2016). "Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World" Ten Speed Press: pp.45
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two years later in 1914. Alongside her pharmacy instructor, Williams Dehn, she co-published a 10-page article, "
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825:
308:". Ingesting the oil was not effective either because it had an acrid taste that often induced vomiting.
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Wermager, Paul; Carl, Heltzel (1 February 2007). Heltzel, Carl; Tinnesand, Michael; et al. (eds.).
286:, with the expectation that they would die there. Most of these people were Native Hawaiians, while the
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Wermager, Paul (2004). "Healing the sick". In Jackson, Miles M.; Ikeda, Kiyoshi; et al. (eds.).
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1273:"A tribute to Alice Bell: A Scientist whose Work with Leprosy was Overshadowed by a White Successor"
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1468:"A new film tells the story of Alice Ball, chemist and inventor of a treatment for leprosy"
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191:, photographer, and lawyer. Her mother also worked as a photographer. Her grandfather,
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1446:"Women health pioneers honoured on LSHTM's iconic London building for the first time"
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359:"The Fatty Acids of Chaulmoogra Oil in the Treatment of Leprosy and Other Diseases",
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After graduating, Ball was offered many scholarships. She received an offer from the
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1201:"The Fatty Acids of Chaulmoogra Oil in the Treatment of Leprosy and Other Diseases"
1021:
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1370:"Alice Ball - Developed first successful treatment for Hansen's disease (Leprosy)"
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456:, in recognition of their contributions to science and global health research.
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921:"The Trailblazing Black Woman Chemist Who Discovered a Treatment for Leprosy"
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Sr., was a photographer, and one of the first Black Americans to make use of
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UWSOP alumni legend Alice Ball, Class of 1914, solved leprosy therapy riddle
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Dehn, William M.; Ball, Alice A. (1914). "Benzoylations in Ether Solution".
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133:
1014:"Lost and Found: Alice Augusta Ball, an Extraordinary Woman of Hawai'i Nei"
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1420:"Seattle's new Alice Ball Park named for a pioneering medical researcher"
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1314:"How the Woman Who Found a Leprosy Treatment Was Almost Lost to History"
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At the University of Hawaiʻi, Ball investigated the chemical makeup and
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report goes on to mention Hollmann and other colleagues, but not Ball.
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1130:"We Had A Cure For Leprosy For Centuries, But Couldn't Get It To Work"
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The Chemical Constituents of Piper Methysticum by Alice Augusta Ball
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will require very delicate, and not always obtainable, apparatus.
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1493:"Ground breaking African-American UH chemist finally recognized"
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her memory. More than 100 people attended, including First Lady
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added her name to the frieze atop its main building, along with
243:
1344:"14 extraordinary women in Hawaii history everyone should know"
1517:"UH celebrates Alice Augusta Ball Day in Hawai'i, February 28"
950:. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. p. 15.
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University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences alumni
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They Followed the Trade Winds: African Americans in Hawai'i
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in 1912, and a second bachelor's degree in the science of
783:(1). Washington, D.C., United States of America: 17–19.
590:. Gloucestershire UK: Amberley Publishing 2019, 32-33.
883:
Headstrong: 52 Women Who Changed Science—and the World
566:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 19–24.
1556:
Meet Alice Ball, Unsung Pioneer In Leprosy Treatment
770:"Alice A. Ball: Young Chemist Gave Hope to Millions"
148:(July 24, 1892 – December 31, 1916) was an American
1242:(1). Chicago: American Medical Association: 95–97.
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111:
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1675:University of Washington School of Pharmacy alumni
495:List of African-American inventors and scientists
176:Alice Augusta Ball was born on July 24, 1892, in
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444:neighborhood was named after Ball. In 2019, the
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392:article suggested that the cause may have been
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763:
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631:. Social Process in Hawai'i. Vol. XLIII.
446:London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
1084:Chaulmoogra oil and the treatment of leprosy.
746:Montana’s African American Heritage Resources
8:
944:Guttman, D. Molentia; Ernest Golden (2011).
885:. New York: Broadway Books. pp. 11–13.
521:
519:
517:
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326:In 1920, a Hawaii physician reported in the
1466:Epstein, Sonia Shechet (January 28, 2020).
702:"Alice Augusta Ball: Chemical Drug Pioneer"
347:
329:Journal of the American Medical Association
152:who developed the "Ball Method" for making
1104:"Alice Ball and the Fight against Leprosy"
36:
25:
1277:The Daily of the University of Washington
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1041:
1039:
919:Magazine, Smithsonian; Wong, Kathleen M.
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615:
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609:
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605:
603:
588:Women in Science: 100 Inspirational Lives
1645:20th-century African-American scientists
1266:
1264:
980:Journal of the American Chemical Society
586:Croucher, John S. "Alice Augusta Ball".
232:Journal of the American Chemical Society
204:Princess Ruth Keʻelikōlani Middle School
1236:Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology
1205:Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology
511:
361:Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology
213:Ball went on to study chemistry at the
1635:20th-century American women scientists
472:On February 28, 2022, Hawaii Governor
1670:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa alumni
1625:Broadway High School (Seattle) alumni
1271:Cederlind, Erika (29 February 2008).
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716:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
160:, which were used as a treatment for
7:
1248:10.1001/archderm.1922.02350260097010
1217:10.1001/archderm.1922.02350260097010
1128:Inglis-Arkell, Esther (8 May 2015).
1012:Mendheim, Beverly (September 2007).
850:Dwyer, Mitchell (24 November 2023).
695:
693:
691:
16:African American chemist (1892–1916)
1640:20th-century African-American women
1230:Hollmann, Harry T. (January 1922).
440:. In 2018, a new park in Seattle's
346:while the complicated distillation
337:drugs were developed in the 1940s.
1342:Dekneef, Matthew (March 9, 2016).
684:, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa).
14:
1700:African-American women scientists
1690:Inventors from Washington (state)
1655:20th-century American pharmacists
1491:Kreifels, Susan (March 1, 2000).
712:Knight Science Journalism Program
639:, department of sociology of the
400:in preparation for an attack, as
240:University of California Berkeley
217:, earning a bachelor's degree in
1695:Chemists from Washington (state)
1597:
1418:Lambert, Ken (August 18, 2019).
1050:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
459:In February 2020, a short film,
856:University of Hawaii Foundation
852:"A Woman Who Changed the World"
563:African American Women Chemists
1630:20th-century American chemists
641:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
1:
526:Jackson, Miles (2007-09-20).
414:Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii
389:Pacific Commercial Advertiser
1650:African-American pharmacists
1398:Seattle Parks and Recreation
1320:. 2018-02-28. Archived from
1596:(public domain audiobooks)
1199:Hollmann, Harry T. (1922).
947:African Americans in Hawaii
637:University of Hawaiʻi Press
229:in Ether Solution", in the
1721:
1705:History of women in Hawaii
1521:University of Hawaiʻi News
826:"What is a daguerreotype?"
18:
1497:archives.starbulletin.com
1219:– via Google books.
1090:45.2 (2003): pages 47-57.
560:Brown, Jeannette (2012).
376:The Samaritans of Molokai
139:
122:
35:
1318:National Geographic News
297:, from the seeds of the
219:pharmaceutical chemistry
215:University of Washington
172:Early life and Education
103:University of Washington
19:Not to be confused with
1665:Scientists from Seattle
1660:American women chemists
321:Paradise of the Pacific
1018:Northwest Hawaii Times
881:Swaby, Rachel (2015).
371:
348:
300:Hydnocarpus wightianus
1546:Episode 7: Alice Ball
1324:on September 17, 2018
1082:Parascandola, John. "
1052:"Ball, Alice Augusta"
528:"Ball, Alice Augusta"
382:Death and recognition
256:Treatment for leprosy
166:University of Hawaiʻi
98:University of Hawaiʻi
925:Smithsonian Magazine
643:. pp. 162–188.
450:Florence Nightingale
1590:Works by Alice Ball
1108:Bluestocking Oxford
1088:Pharmacy in history
992:10.1021/ja02187a015
357:Harry T. Hollmann,
284:Kalaupapa peninsula
208:Seattle High School
188:The Colored Citizen
1523:. 28 February 2022
1374:www.gocruisers.org
1279:. . Archived from
182:James Presley Ball
146:Alice Augusta Ball
1685:Women pharmacists
1584:Project Gutenberg
1394:"Alice Ball Park"
1054:. Scholar Space.
986:(10): 2091–2101.
957:978-0-7385-8116-3
718:). Archived from
573:978-0-19-974288-2
500:Beebe Steven Lynk
481:and UH President
368:
317:chaulmoogric acid
267:Piper methysticum
180:, Washington, to
143:
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124:Scientific career
70:December 31, 1916
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1024:on 3 March 2016
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461:The Ball Method
423:In March 2016,
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367:: pages 94–101)
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295:chaulmoogra oil
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249:chaulmoogra oil
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158:chaulmoogra oil
156:derivatives of
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335:sulfonamide
313:fatty acids
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154:ethyl ester
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1211:: 94–101.
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