140:
1158:
951:
930:(cooled quickly), and then harden over time. Wilm had been searching for a way to harden aluminium alloys for use in machine-gun cartridge cases. Knowing that aluminium-copper alloys were heat-treatable to some degree, Wilm tried quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and the addition of magnesium, but was initially disappointed with the results. However, when Wilm retested it the next day he discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature, and far exceeded his expectations. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919,
470:
997:
787:
1050:
333:
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43:
1029:. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to
421:
1042:
1307:
The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of
211:, and may have properties that differ from those of the pure elements such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.
966:. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a
1398:), which helped remove impurities such as phosphorus and oxygen; a process adopted by Bessemer and still used in modern steels (albeit in concentrations low enough to still be considered carbon steel). Afterward, many people began experimenting with various alloys of steel without much success. However, in 1882,
1148:
with precious metals. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver
909:
alloys, that depend on the diffusion of alloying elements to achieve their strength. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, but then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate
914:
phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases (carbide and ferrite), precipitation hardening alloys form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal
694:
By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals; stresses that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element.
1461:
was still in its infancy, most aluminium extraction-processes produced unintended alloys contaminated with other elements found in the ore; the most abundant of which was copper. These aluminium-copper alloys (at the time termed "aluminum bronze") preceded pure aluminium, offering greater strength
1306:
While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal was much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process.
1228:
The earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and
Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East. The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD,
352:
are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be
727:
in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For
646:
and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily
1295:, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove
500:
and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires
651:. However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting-points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a
1212:, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, so it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, workers usually alloyed it with other metals to increase strength and hardness. These metals were typically
1323:
The introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages meant that people could produce pig iron in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes to reduce carbon in liquid pig iron to create steel.
1224:
or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips.
1077:, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Around 10,000 years ago in the highlands of
857:) of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a certain temperature (usually between 820 °C (1,500 °F) and 870 °C (1,600 °F), depending on carbon content). This allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal. When this
1311:
during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the absorption of carbon in this manner is extremely slow thus the penetration was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740,
460:
of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are
348:, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals such as
1365:, the steel industry was very competitive and manufacturers went through great lengths to keep their processes confidential, resisting any attempts to scientifically analyze the material for fear it would reveal their methods. For example, the people of
1478:
Prior to 1910, research mainly consisted of private individuals tinkering in their own laboratories. However, as the aircraft and automotive industries began growing, research into alloys became an industrial effort in the years following 1910, as new
897:. Such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft. If the steel is cooled quickly, however, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide, but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a
1373:. Thus, almost no metallurgical information existed about steel until 1860. Because of this lack of understanding, steel was not generally considered an alloy until the decades between 1930 and 1970 (primarily due to the work of scientists like
901:
occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle).
1361:—in amounts sufficient to alter the properties of the base steel. Since ancient times, when steel was used primarily for tools and weapons, the methods of producing and working the metal were often closely guarded secrets. Even long after the
600:
usually denotes undesirable elements. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements, but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form
973:
In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the
1462:
and hardness over the soft, pure metal, and to a slight degree were found to be heat treatable. However, due to their softness and limited hardenability these alloys found little practical use, and were more of a novelty, until the
1093:. Around 2500 BC, people began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with
465:
with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally.
621:
of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form
647:
absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen. This increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface, and so must be melted in vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled, copper
1424:
steel, developed by Taylor and White in 1900, in which they doubled the tungsten content and added small amounts of chromium and vanadium, producing a superior steel for use in lathes and machining tools. In 1903, the
1437:, due to their higher strength and resistance to high temperatures. In 1912, the Krupp Ironworks in Germany developed a rust-resistant steel by adding 21% chromium and 7% nickel, producing the first stainless steel.
938:, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern
1466:
used an aluminium alloy to construct the first airplane engine in 1903. During the time between 1865 and 1910, processes for extracting many other metals were discovered, such as chromium, vanadium, tungsten,
1252:. Opposite to most alloying processes, liquid pig-iron is poured from a blast furnace into a container and stirred to remove carbon, which diffuses into the air forming carbon dioxide, leaving behind a
1184:, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC,
988:
is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.
869:. If the steel is cooled slowly, the carbon can diffuse out of the iron and it will gradually revert to its low temperature allotrope. During slow cooling, the carbon atoms will no longer be as
1406:, it exhibited extreme hardness and toughness, becoming the first commercially viable alloy-steel. Afterward, he created silicon steel, launching the search for other possible alloys of steel.
230:, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or
1176:, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of
1328:
had been used in China since the first century, and was introduced in Europe during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by
2634:
440:, beyond which no more of the constituent can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the
357:
and dissolve into the mixture. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (
139:
786:
1752:
642:
Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its
1117:(around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.
846:, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper,
2336:
970:. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively.
2290:
1416:
to steel it could produce a very hard edge that would resist losing its hardness at high temperatures. "R. Mushet's special steel" (RMS) became the first
626:; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using
456:. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous
320:
Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic
1546:
Callister, W.D. "Materials
Science and Engineering: An Introduction" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9.
1208:
covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to use for most practical purposes. However, during the
1157:
850:, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel.
885:
C) in the spaces between the pure iron crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, as it is formed of two phases, the iron-carbon phase called
1283:
as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making
2262:
2237:
2112:
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905:
While the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation is prevented (forming martensite), most heat-treatable alloys are
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1944:
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typically found in chemical compounds. The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications, and in
2118:
1974:
1914:
1573:
926:. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when
2040:
1242:
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to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of
2381:
569:, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium,
2052:
2007:
1986:
1956:
1926:
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675:(solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid state, such as found in ancient methods of
126:
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trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial
2329:
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mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition.
1316:
began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of
950:
2279:
1374:
1749:
1180:. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make
954:
Different atomic mechanisms of alloy formation, showing pure metal, substitutional, interstitial, and a combination of the two
2471:
1445:
Due to their high reactivity, most metals were not discovered until the 19th century. A method for extracting aluminium from
982:. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix.
835:
64:
1402:, being a pioneer in steel metallurgy, took an interest and produced a steel alloy containing around 12% manganese. Called
1369:, a center of steel production in England, were known to routinely bar visitors and tourists from entering town to deter
2624:
1388:
After
Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740, he began experimenting with the addition of elements like
898:
432:
Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely
723:
may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the
496:, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals
2554:
2322:
958:
When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called
1457:. Although his attempts were unsuccessful, by 1855 the first sales of pure aluminium reached the market. However, as
1136:(an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for
469:
107:
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2306:
1097:
to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as
79:
53:
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1336:
developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The
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of metal elements (a single phase, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a
60:
31:
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2209:
1458:
1325:
755:. For many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a
732:
alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and
Nakamura.
631:
378:
934:
was one of the first "age hardening" alloys used, becoming the primary building material for the first
557:
are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like
93:
715:
of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as
2353:
2345:
1677:
1668:
Zhang, X.; Suhl, H. (1985). "Spin-wave-related period doublings and chaos under transverse pumping".
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The base metal iron of the iron-carbon alloy known as steel, undergoes a change in the arrangement (
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where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in
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were put into use. The
Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of
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for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form
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975:
627:
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1969:
1909:
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used a chromium-nickel steel to make the crankshaft for their airplane engine, while in 1908
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1275:. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD.
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1978:
1948:
1918:
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1623:, John Wiley & sons, inc, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison
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of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as
676:
578:
492:—occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and
406:
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324:
alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools.
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from the original meteorite used to make the hatchet's head can be seen on its surface.
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Roberts, George Adam; Krauss, George; Kennedy, Richard and
Kennedy, Richard L. (1998)
2689:
2659:
2496:
2456:
2401:
1522:
1496:
1385:), so "alloy steel" became the popular term for ternary and quaternary steel-alloys.
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1308:
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1005:
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814:, in which the carbon remains trapped within the crystals, creating internal stresses
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Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient
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Sheffield Steel and
America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence
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Sheffield Steel and
America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence
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Sheffield Steel and
America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence
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Sheffield Steel and
America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence
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structure, but tend to behave heterogeneously, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.
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by hammering, bending, extruding, et cetera, and are permanent unless the metal is
602:
522:
514:
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223:
100:
1320:. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.
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element, although it is also sometimes used for mixtures of elements; herein only
830:
by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during
617:
are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the
17:
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2584:
2091:
By George Adam Roberts, Richard Kennedy, G. Krauss – ASM International 1998 p. 4
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1345:
1114:
1102:
1062:
1025:, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of
923:
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in the iron, forming a particular single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called
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An alloy is technically an impure metal, but when referring to alloys, the term
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452:, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a
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with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a
262:
226:
for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or
2232:
Woldman’s Engineering Alloys, 9th Edition 1936, American Society for Metals,
1689:
1287:. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of
397:, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding
2674:
2629:
2544:
1654:
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Hogan, C. (1969). "Density of States of an Insulating Ferromagnetic Alloy".
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1403:
1389:
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1073:. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and
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1001:
931:
886:
866:
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799:
794:(slowly cooled) steel forms a heterogeneous, lamellar microstructure called
688:
656:
590:
554:
433:
402:
390:
362:
358:
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200:
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2185:
Aluminium: Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications
517:
can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like
420:
1697:
1291:
around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of
1279:, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in
2491:
1492:
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began using vanadium steels for parts like crankshafts and valves in his
1413:
1350:
1276:
1265:
1261:
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826:, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be
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phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the
2594:
2396:
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2187:
by Joseph William Richards – Henry Cairy Baird & Co 1887 Page 25—42
1790:
1517:
1468:
1446:
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370:
354:
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239:
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1164:, a natural alloy of silver and gold, was often used for making coins
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Metallographer's Guide: Practice and Procedures for Irons and Steels
1782:
978:
between the atoms of the crystal matrix. This is referred to as an
838:. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by
27:
Mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements
1240:
1169:
1156:
1141:
1070:
1048:
1040:
995:
949:
785:
766:
751:, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the
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state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a
445:
425:
419:
331:
298:
274:
188:
156:
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By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 Page 57—62
365:, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as
2146:
By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 pp. 66—68
2134:
By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 pp. 57—62
1349:
usually only refers to steels that contain other elements— like
1296:
1213:
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739:, but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of
724:
489:
386:
282:
254:
2318:
2030:
2028:
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production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state
505:) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include
2299:
1759:. University of Birmingham. TALAT Lecture 1204. slideshare.net
1303:
produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the ancient world.
1090:
1086:
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36:
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2175:
By Geoffrey Tweedale – Cambridge University Press 1987 p. 75
1621:
Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties
1101:, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of
605:, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel.
1711:
1709:
1707:
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metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be
2020:
Japan and China: Japan, its history, arts, and literature
1491:
for levers and knobs, and aluminium alloys developed for
1109:, developing much of the information contained in modern
513:. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms.
818:
Alloying elements are added to a base metal, to induce
1610:
By ASM International – ASM International 1978 Page 407
195:
are described. Most alloys are metallic and show good
1475:, and molybdenum, and various alloys were developed.
735:
Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single
413:
will alter its electrical characteristics, producing
242:
of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a
2635:
List of boiling and freezing information of solvents
1588:
ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
1021:
The use of alloys by humans started with the use of
593:, may consist of a multitude of different elements.
2593:
2525:
2455:
2352:
2163:
by Harry Chandler – ASM International 1998 Page 3—5
1739:
by Harry Chandler – ASM International 1998 Page 1—3
1503:, a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy.
1343:Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, but the term
1340:led to the first large scale manufacture of steel.
810:(quickly cooled) steel forms a single phase called
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2077:Experimental Techniques in Materials and Mechanics
1911:The economy of later Renaissance Europe, 1460–1600
1769:Rickard, T.A. (1941). "The Use of Meteoric Iron".
1392:(in the form of a high-manganese pig-iron called
881:into a more concentrated form of iron carbide (Fe
2257:. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
782:) showing the differences in atomic arrangement
2156:
2154:
2152:
1771:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
529:can be made by adding other elements, such as
2330:
444:state, they may not always be soluble in the
8:
2210:"Doehler-Jarvis Company Collection, MSS-202"
861:happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in
2079:By C. Suryanarayana – CRC Press 2011 p. 202
1951:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–167.
1113:. For example, arrowheads from the Chinese
393:, and its ability to be greatly altered by
2337:
2323:
2315:
1260:The first known smelting of iron began in
630:, chemical additives, or other methods of
1941:Ancient Egyptian materials and technology
1715:Dossett, Jon L.; Boyer, Howard E. (2006)
1608:Metals Handbook: Properties and selection
1559:Steel Metallurgy for the Non-metallurgist
1420:. Mushet's steel was quickly replaced by
899:diffusionless (martensite) transformation
369:. Although both metals are very soft and
246:of different crystals within the metal).
187:of which in most cases at least one is a
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
1938:Nicholson, Paul T. and Shaw, Ian (2000)
381:. Adding a small amount of non-metallic
340:, being poured into molds during casting
138:
1539:
842:. Nearly all metals can be softened by
790:Photomicrographs of steel. Top photo:
728:example, impurities in semiconducting
1921:. Cambridge University Press. p. 31.
1835:
1833:
873:with the iron, and will be forced to
214:In an alloy, the atoms are joined by
7:
1061:on Earth, except for one deposit of
65:adding citations to reliable sources
2161:Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist
2107:. ASM International. pp. 13–.
1737:Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist
1004:and a hatchet that was forged from
143:From left to right: three alloys (
25:
2282:; Neville, Francis Henry (1911).
2253:Buchwald, Vagn Fabritius (2005).
1562:. ASM International. p. 56.
2280:Roberts-Austen, William Chandler
2121:from the original on 2016-05-02.
1576:from the original on 2016-05-05.
1188:was commissioned by the King of
41:
2255:Iron and steel in ancient times
2199:by W.H. Dennis – Routledge 2017
2002:. Shire Publications. pp. 3–4;
1719:. ASM International. pp. 1–14.
1483:were developed for pistons and
1375:William Chandler Roberts-Austen
1299:and impurities. This method of
655:to make pig iron (liquid-gas),
52:needs additional citations for
2047:. ASM International. pp. 2–3.
1619:Mills, Adelbert Phillo (1922)
545:, resulting in alloys such as
1:
1981:. Taylor and Francis. p. 45.
1815:
1803:
1590:. ASM International. p. 211.
1264:, around 1800 BC. Called the
1246:
2625:Inorganic nonaqueous solvent
1268:, it produced very soft but
1081:(Turkey), humans learned to
401:to steel, its resistance to
2022:. Oxford University. p. 317
1908:Miskimin, Harry A. (1977)
1556:Verhoeven, John D. (2007).
798:, consisting of the phases
249:Examples of alloys include
2722:
2610:Acid dissociation constant
1085:metals such as copper and
922:alloys were discovered by
405:can be enhanced, creating
29:
1057:Iron is usually found as
344:An alloy is a mixture of
2089:Tool Steels, 5th Edition
1870:. pbs.org. November 2014
1841:History of metallography
1750:Precipitation Hardnening
1690:10.1103/PhysRevA.32.2530
1586:Davis, Joseph R. (1993)
1069:, which was used by the
473:A gate valve, made from
2575:Solubility table (data)
2442:Apparent molar property
2307:The American Cyclopædia
2291:Encyclopædia Britannica
2101:Bramfitt, B.L. (2001).
2018:Brinkley, Frank (1904)
1717:Practical heat treating
1655:10.1103/PhysRev.188.870
1045:Bronze axe 1100 BC
920:precipitation hardening
907:precipitation hardening
377:will have much greater
197:electrical conductivity
2540:Total dissolved solids
2535:Solubility equilibrium
2460:and related quantities
1843:. MIT Press. pp. 2–4.
1410:Robert Forester Mushet
1301:Japanese swordsmithing
1257:
1165:
1128:has been smelted from
1054:
1046:
1013:
1010:Widmanstätten patterns
964:interstitial mechanism
955:
815:
806:(dark). Bottom photo:
783:
477:
429:
341:
172:
32:Alloy (disambiguation)
2640:Partition coefficient
2620:Polar aprotic solvent
2197:Metallurgy: 1863–1963
1998:Hull, Charles (1992)
1459:extractive metallurgy
1412:found that by adding
1244:
1194:Archimedes' principle
1160:
1052:
1044:
999:
953:
789:
770:
632:extractive metallurgy
480:Some alloys, such as
472:
423:
335:
273:(silver and copper),
142:
2555:Enthalpy of solution
2482:Volume concentration
2477:Number concentration
1971:Practical Hydraulics
1892:. Springer. p. 180.
1879:Rapp, George (2009)
1861:Emperor's Ghost Army
1839:Smith, Cyril (1960)
1371:industrial espionage
1363:Age of Enlightenment
1111:alloy phase diagrams
1053:A bronze doorknocker
992:History and examples
968:substitutional alloy
701:thermal conductivity
667:(solid-gas), or the
619:structural integrity
521:or hard alloys like
234:. An alloy may be a
61:improve this article
30:For other uses, see
2467:Molar concentration
2437:Dilution (equation)
1968:Kay, Melvyn (2008)
1827:Buchwald, pp. 39–41
1682:1985PhRvA..32.2530Z
1647:1969PhRv..188..870H
1245:Puddling in China,
910:over time, forming
832:plastic deformation
669:cementation process
553:. Small amounts of
228:interstitial alloys
2507:Isotopic abundance
2472:Mass concentration
2346:Chemical solutions
2043:2016-04-24 at the
1977:2016-06-03 at the
1947:2016-05-02 at the
1917:2016-05-05 at the
1888:2016-04-28 at the
1866:2017-11-01 at the
1755:2012-12-02 at the
1453:in 1807, using an
1258:
1166:
1055:
1047:
1014:
1008:. Evidence of the
980:interstitial alloy
976:interstitial sites
956:
816:
784:
772:Allotropes of iron
683:(solid-solid), or
663:or other forms of
478:
430:
342:
285:with non-metallic
173:
2683:
2682:
2264:978-87-7304-308-0
2238:978-0-87170-691-1
2114:978-1-61503-146-7
1882:Archaeomineralogy
1670:Physical Review A
1596:978-0-87170-496-2
1569:978-1-61503-056-9
1314:Benjamin Huntsman
1149:from their ores.
893:), and pure iron
877:out of solution,
719:, ductility, and
346:chemical elements
185:chemical elements
155:) and three pure
137:
136:
129:
111:
18:Alloying elements
16:(Redirected from
2713:
2580:Solubility chart
2407:Phase separation
2367:Aqueous solution
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2332:
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2294:(11th ed.).
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2240:
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1676:(4): 2530–2533.
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1547:
1544:
1513:Alloy broadening
1481:magnesium alloys
1449:was proposed by
1422:tungsten carbide
1418:high-speed steel
1338:Bessemer process
1266:bloomery process
1251:
1248:
1140:objects such as
1037:Bronze and brass
717:tensile strength
579:magnesium alloys
547:high-speed steel
438:saturation point
373:, the resulting
216:metallic bonding
145:beryllium copper
132:
125:
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2550:Solvation shell
2521:
2459:
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2447:Miscibility gap
2432:Serial dilution
2427:Supersaturation
2377:Buffer solution
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2298:
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1997:
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1979:Wayback Machine
1967:
1963:
1949:Wayback Machine
1937:
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1919:Wayback Machine
1907:
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1890:Wayback Machine
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1859:
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1757:Wayback Machine
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1635:Physical Review
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1536:
1509:
1464:Wright brothers
1443:
1427:Wright brothers
1400:Robert Hadfield
1293:pattern welding
1256:to wrought iron
1249:
1239:
1202:
1182:sterling silver
1155:
1153:Precious metals
1123:
1039:
1027:iron meteorites
1019:
994:
986:Stainless steel
948:
884:
765:
713:Young's modulus
679:(solid-solid),
677:pattern welding
640:
589:, inconel, and
409:, while adding
407:stainless steel
375:aluminium alloy
330:
328:Characteristics
293:respectively),
271:sterling silver
224:atomic fraction
218:rather than by
193:metallic alloys
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116:
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2615:Protic solvent
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2599:
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2588:
2587:
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2577:
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2567:
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2560:Lattice energy
2557:
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2412:Eutectic point
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2372:Solid solution
2369:
2364:
2362:Ideal solution
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2285:"Alloys"
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2273:External links
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1528:List of alloys
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1520:
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1497:aircraft skins
1442:
1439:
1334:Henry Bessemer
1289:crucible steel
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840:heat treatment
836:recrystallized
764:
763:Heat treatment
761:
721:shear strength
685:crucible steel
665:case hardening
661:carbonitriding
639:
636:
581:. Some modern
463:supersaturated
458:microstructure
450:solid solution
395:heat treatment
329:
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244:microstructure
236:solid solution
220:covalent bonds
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2174:
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1987:0-415-35115-4
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1957:0-521-45257-0
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1017:Meteoric iron
1016:
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1006:meteoric iron
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933:
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921:
916:
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912:intermetallic
908:
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849:
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837:
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829:
828:work hardened
825:
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769:
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746:
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737:melting point
733:
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730:ferromagnetic
726:
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673:blister steel
671:used to make
670:
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653:blast furnace
650:
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644:melting point
637:
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629:
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484:—an alloy of
483:
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415:silicon steel
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279:silicon steel
276:
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264:
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232:intermetallic
229:
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88:
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81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
2565:Raoult's law
2517:Ternary plot
2512:Mixing ratio
2416:
2305:
2289:
2254:
2247:Bibliography
2228:
2217:. Retrieved
2213:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2184:
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2168:
2160:
2143:
2139:
2131:
2127:
2103:
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2060:
2036:
2019:
2014:
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1994:
1970:
1964:
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1840:
1823:
1811:
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1587:
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1558:
1551:
1542:
1500:
1477:
1455:electric arc
1451:Humphry Davy
1444:
1435:Model T Ford
1408:
1395:spiegeleisen
1393:
1387:
1344:
1342:
1322:
1305:
1273:wrought iron
1259:
1227:
1203:
1178:colored gold
1167:
1124:
1056:
1020:
984:
979:
972:
967:
963:
959:
957:
917:
904:
862:
852:
817:
802:(light) and
734:
693:
641:
624:metal oxides
603:iron sulfide
597:
595:
527:Alloy steels
523:spring steel
515:Carbon steel
509:, brass and
479:
431:
350:wrought iron
343:
319:
248:
213:
192:
176:
174:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
2670:Lyonium ion
2585:Miscibility
2570:Henry's law
2037:Tool steels
1818:, pp. 35–37
1806:, pp. 13–22
1346:alloy steel
1332:. In 1858,
1250: 1637
1115:Qin dynasty
1103:temperature
1063:native iron
924:Alfred Wilm
875:precipitate
681:shear steel
583:superalloys
361:), such as
2701:Metallurgy
2690:Categories
2665:Amphiphile
2660:Lipophilic
2655:Hydrophile
2650:Hydrophobe
2527:Solubility
2422:Saturation
2392:Suspension
2219:2024-08-16
1534:References
1431:Henry Ford
1383:Edgar Bain
1355:molybdenum
1318:tool steel
1254:mild steel
1210:Bronze Age
1186:Archimedes
946:Mechanisms
879:nucleating
812:martensite
780:gamma iron
776:alpha iron
709:reactivity
697:electrical
598:impurities
585:, such as
559:phosphorus
551:tool steel
535:molybdenum
519:mild steel
265:(gold and
263:white gold
87:newspapers
2706:Chemistry
2675:Lyate ion
2630:Solvation
2545:Solvation
2487:Normality
1493:airframes
1489:pot metal
1404:mangalloy
1390:manganese
1367:Sheffield
1330:oxidation
1285:cast-iron
1233:shrines.
1204:The term
1067:Greenland
1002:meteorite
936:Zeppelins
932:duralumin
918:In 1906,
887:cementite
867:austenite
859:diffusion
855:allotropy
848:magnesium
844:annealing
824:toughness
800:cementite
689:diffusion
657:nitriding
649:crucibles
591:hastelloy
555:manganese
434:insoluble
403:corrosion
391:toughness
363:aluminium
359:malleable
307:duralumin
201:ductility
169:magnesium
117:July 2024
2645:Polarity
2604:Category
2492:Molality
2354:Solution
2119:Archived
2041:Archived
1975:Archived
1945:Archived
1915:Archived
1886:Archived
1864:Archived
1816:Buchwald
1804:Buchwald
1753:Archived
1574:Archived
1507:See also
1414:tungsten
1351:vanadium
1326:Puddling
1277:Pig iron
1262:Anatolia
1218:antimony
1190:Syracuse
1162:Electrum
1134:amalgams
1130:cinnabar
1121:Amalgams
1099:hardness
1079:Anatolia
1075:platinum
1059:iron ore
962:and the
940:aircraft
928:quenched
863:solution
820:hardness
808:Quenched
796:pearlite
792:Annealed
757:eutectic
753:liquidus
571:titanium
539:vanadium
531:chromium
511:pig iron
503:smelting
482:electrum
399:chromium
379:strength
322:titanium
315:amalgams
251:red gold
189:metallic
165:aluminum
161:titanium
2595:Solvent
2397:Colloid
2387:Mixture
2310:. 1879.
1791:2844401
1698:9896377
1678:Bibcode
1643:Bibcode
1518:CALPHAD
1501:Brastil
1469:iridium
1447:bauxite
1270:ductile
1222:bismuth
1174:Mycenae
1146:mirrors
1138:gilding
1126:Mercury
895:ferrite
891:carbide
871:soluble
804:ferrite
749:solidus
705:density
615:calcium
607:Lithium
587:incoloy
475:Inconel
411:silicon
371:ductile
355:soluble
336:Liquid
291:silicon
240:mixture
205:opacity
181:mixture
149:Inconel
101:scholar
76:"Alloy"
2696:Alloys
2261:
2236:
2111:
2051:
2006:
2000:Pewter
1985:
1955:
1925:
1896:
1847:
1789:
1723:
1696:
1594:
1566:
1485:wheels
1473:cobalt
1441:Others
1381:, and
1359:cobalt
1231:shinto
1206:pewter
1200:Pewter
745:liquid
638:Theory
628:fluxes
611:sodium
577:, and
575:nickel
567:oxygen
563:sulfur
543:nickel
507:pewter
494:nickel
486:silver
442:liquid
383:carbon
367:copper
338:bronze
313:, and
311:bronze
303:pewter
295:solder
287:carbon
267:silver
259:copper
209:luster
207:, and
157:metals
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
2417:Alloy
1787:JSTOR
1357:, or
1281:China
1170:Egypt
1142:armor
1089:from
1083:smelt
1071:Inuit
741:solid
725:atoms
454:phase
446:solid
426:brass
299:brass
275:steel
179:is a
177:alloy
153:steel
108:JSTOR
94:books
2259:ISBN
2234:ISBN
2109:ISBN
2049:ISBN
2004:ISBN
1983:ISBN
1953:ISBN
1923:ISBN
1894:ISBN
1845:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1694:PMID
1592:ISBN
1564:ISBN
1495:and
1297:slag
1237:Iron
1214:lead
1172:and
1144:and
1105:and
1095:zinc
1031:work
889:(or
778:and
743:and
699:and
695:The
613:and
565:and
490:gold
488:and
428:lamp
387:iron
283:iron
257:and
255:gold
80:news
1779:doi
1686:doi
1651:doi
1639:188
1091:ore
1087:tin
1065:in
774:, (
549:or
541:or
498:tin
385:to
289:or
277:or
269:),
261:),
183:of
175:An
63:by
2692::
2304:.
2288:.
2212:.
2151:^
2117:.
2027:^
1832:^
1785:.
1775:71
1773:.
1706:^
1692:.
1684:.
1674:32
1672:.
1649:.
1637:.
1572:.
1471:,
1377:,
1353:,
1247:c.
1220:,
1216:,
1196:.
1033:.
1000:A
942:.
822:,
711:,
707:,
691:.
659:,
634:.
609:,
573:,
561:,
537:,
533:,
525:.
424:A
417:.
317:.
309:,
305:,
301:,
297:,
203:,
199:,
167:,
163:,
151:,
147:,
2606:)
2602:(
2338:e
2331:t
2324:v
2267:.
2222:.
2055:.
1989:.
1959:.
1929:.
1851:.
1793:.
1781::
1727:.
1700:.
1688::
1680::
1657:.
1653::
1645::
1598:.
883:3
501:(
281:(
253:(
171:)
159:(
130:)
124:(
119:)
115:(
105:·
98:·
91:·
84:·
57:.
34:.
20:)
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