Allegorical interpretations of Plato

1211:... the most valuable of Luther's hermeneutical principles his insistence on the primacy of the literal or grammatico-historical sense. He resolutely set aside the verbal legerdemain involved in the multiple exegesis of the Schoolmen, and firmly took his stand on the plain and obvious meaning of the Word... he emphatically urged the priority and superiority of the literal sense. For a thousand years the Church had buttressed its theological edifice by means of an authoritative exegesis which depended on allegory as its chief medium of interpretation. Luther struck a mortal blow at this vulnerable spot. From his own experience in the monastery he knew the futility of allegorisation – and stigmatised it as "mere jugglery," "a merry chase." "monkey tricks," and "looney talk." 171: 1441:

followers attribute metaphysical theories to him that are not spelled out in the dialogues. The Tübingen School collects further references to these metaphysical theories from later in antiquity and concludes that Plato did in fact have a systematic, oral teaching that he kept out of the dialogues. This is esoteric in the literal sense: Plato taught it within the walls of his school. These oral teachings were supposedly transmitted down through the centuries, and this accounts for the reliability of the evidence from late antiquity.

1433: 3722: 950: 1223: 1938:'s history of the Reformation's separation of Neo-Platonism from Platonism concluded that its motives were theological and so illegitimate: '... many theologians, most but not all of them Protestants, were highly suspicious of the evil influence of Platonism on Christian theology ... the separation of Platonism from Neo-Platonism seems to have been inspired by the wish to dissociate Plato from his later followers, who were regarded as anti-Christian, and thus maintain the venerable view of Plato as 262:

utterance... More important is the Platonic arrangement of the theory of ideas as a vast hierarchical construct, from lower to higher forms... By questioning the essential value of material nature, the Platonic dialectic opens the way to a spiritualizing of nature, and in the case of Plato himself this leads to the use of allegory precisely at the moment in his dialogues when the analysis of nature has reached the highest point of transcendence describable in natural, human terms.

1400:(1768 – 1834), sometimes known as the 'founder of hermeneutics,' published translations of Plato's dialogues that were long standard in Germany and reinforced the German search for Plato's esoteric philosophy through new kinds of subtle interpretation. Schleiermacher's influential 'General Introduction' to his Plato translations rejected ancient esoteric interpretations of Plato but praised and extended Tennemann's rationalist esotericism. Writing during the rise of 1946:...the divide between Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism is justified on the part of Brucker by means of assumptions that are untenable. Hence it becomes very difficult to maintain a divide between the two periods ... I think we ought to abandon the divide completely, since it cannot be justified in the essentialistic manner proposed by Brucker. Given the fact that the division obscures more than it reveals, we would be better off without it. 30: 1457:

Nikulin remarked '... the majority of the scholars in the Anglo-American world remain unconvinced that the Tübingen interpretation offered a glimpse into the historical Plato.' John Dillon, however, has argued for a moderate view. He accepts the early evidence that Plato had a more elaborate metaphysics than appears in the dialogues, but doubts there was any continuous, oral transmission in later centuries.

1323: 1051: 1079:. Lubac, in his three-volume work on the history of this technique, said 'the doctrine of the "fourfold sense," which had, from the dawn of the Middle Ages, been at the heart of exegesis, kept this role right to the end.' Protestants later complained that the Roman Catholic Church used allegory to make the Bible mean whatever it desired and thus to buttress the authority of the Church: 211: 1499: 1023:) exposition of herself is distasteful to Nature, who, just as she has withheld an understanding of herself from the uncouth sense of men by enveloping herself in variegated garments, has also desired to have her secrets handled by more prudent individuals through fabulous narratives... Only eminent men of superior intelligence gain a revelation of her truths ... (I.17-18). 1065:(184/185 – 253/254 CE) was 'the major scripture scholar in early Christianity ...' He adopted and extended the approach of Philo of Alexandria, and applied allegorical interpretation to the books of the Christian New Testament. Origen spent the first half of his career in Alexandria and knew Plato's writings well. Ramelli summarizes the relation between Philo and Origen: 1118: 162:), which referred to hidden or deeper meanings. Today, allegory is often said to be a sustained sequence of metaphors within a literary work, but this was not the ancient definition; at the time, a single passage, or even a name, could be considered allegorical. Generally, the changing meanings of such terms must be studied within each historical context. 1273:

to the facts ... can entertain a doubt... They endeavored to conceal the absurdities of the ancient religion by casting over its fables the veil of allegory, and thus represented them as founded upon immortal truths... the Alexandrian philosophers, though they founded their system chiefly upon the doctrine of Plato, departed from him in many particulars.

1932:) and the Neo-Pythagoreans, to Plotinus and the Neo-Platonists. Thus Plotinus' philosophy was 'not the starting-point of Neo-Platonism but its intellectual culmination.' Further research reinforced this view and by 1954 Merlan could say 'The present tendency is toward bridging rather than widening the gap separating Platonism from Neo-Platonism.' 1036:(c. 25 BCE – c. 50 CE), a Jewish scholar with a Greek education, systematically applied the allegorical approach to the Jewish scriptures. This had far-reaching consequences for later controversies over methods for interpreting the Christian Bible and these in turn set the stage for the modern rejection of allegorical interpretations of Plato. 1167: 1883: 805: 296: 236:'s poems contained allegories. Plato refers to these debates and made allegories and the nature of allegory a prominent theme in his dialogues. He uses many allegorical devices and explicitly calls attention to them. In the Parable of the Cave, for example, Plato tells a symbolic tale and interprets its elements one by one ( 1058:, translated into Latin by Ficino, with its original stamped, checkerboard binding in calf over wooden boards. Holes for chain staples and the manuscript title on the text block show chained volumes were shelved with spines to the rear. This copy is thought to have belonged to the royal library of King Philip II of Spain. 1043:) were so similar that Plato must have borrowed his philosophy from the Jews. Philo held that, before Plato wrote his dialogues, he must have traveled to Egypt and studied the teachings of the Jewish prophet Moses. Philo's wide-ranging, allegorical re-interpretations of Jewish scripture even found evidence that Plato's 2229:,' most interpreters at that time treated Homer allegorically. Socrates says 'Indeed, even the ancients seem to think about Athena just as those who are currently skilled concerning Homer do. For the majority of these in interpreting the poet say that he has made out Athena to be mind and thought' (407a8-b2). 1193:

Catholics asserted an expertise in reading the Bible that gave them special access to its deeper truths. The ancient technique of allegorical interpretation, the mainstay of Catholic exegesis, thus became a fiercely contested political issue. This controversy came later to transform the way Plato was read.

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that similarly used evidence from the Neo-Platonists to discern Plato's unwritten doctrines. In 1983, Kenneth Sayre argued that the dialogues properly interpreted contained definite allusions to Plato's esoteric metaphysics. Adherents of the Tübingen School are common in Germany and Italy but in 2012

1272:

The Eclectic sect is not commonly known among ancient writers under any distinct name; for this obvious reason, that its most celebrated supporters chose rather to pass themselves upon the world as Platonists, than to assume a new title; but that the sect really existed as such , no one, who attends

1267:

Brucker was openly contemptuous toward the Neo-Platonists: 'Lost in subtleties these pretenders to superior wisdom were perpetually endeavoring to explain by imaginary resemblances, and arbitrary distinctions, what they themselves probably never understood.' Brucker recognized that the Neo-Platonists

885:

Yet when Aristotle discussed passages in Plato's dialogues he interpreted them literally. Aristotle's writings are hostile to Pythagoreanism and generally to unclear words in public speeches. Aristotle shows either that Plato's immediate students usually read the dialogues literally or that Aristotle

1175:

The fable of the cicadas (230c) demands that we treat it as an allegory since higher things too, like poetic ones, are almost all allegorical... Thus it seemed to the Platonists, not only to Hermias but to Iamblichus too. In part, I follow in their footsteps, but in part I walk a crooked line based

876:

An inheritance has been handed down from the most ancient to later times in the form of a myth, that there are gods and that the divine surrounds all of nature. The rest were expressed mythically, which is appropriate for convincing uneducated people ... They even said the gods had human shapes and

1074:

Although Origen was a controversial figure, his influence on other, major Christian theologians such as Eusebius, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, and Jerome was 'wide and deep.' Origen held that passages in the Bible had a literal sense and, in addition, two allegorical senses. This was later broadened,

1070:

very technique of philosophical allegoresis of Scripture, and that Origen both was well aware of this and acknowledged his debt... Philo was the first systematic philosophical interpreter of the Bible who read it allegorically, and Origen was the first, and the greatest, who did so in Christianity.

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says, for example, that the narrator Antiphon could not have been ignorant of the dialogue's 'secret' or 'deeper meanings' (682). Proclus himself see the dialogue's characters as symbols of metaphysical principles: Parmenides is a representation of the divine, Zeno of the Intellect, and Socrates of

911:

As interest in Plato spread from Athens to Alexandria and other cities across the Mediterranean, there was a turn from the doctrines espoused by the Academy toward the direct reading of the dialogues themselves. From this period onwards, the allegorical approach to reading Plato increasingly became

261:

The Platonic theory of ideas has two aspects which lead to allegorical interpretations of both signs and things ... To speak of "the idea of a thing" is almost to invoke the allegorical process, for the idea transcends the thing, much as the allegorist's fiction departs from the literal sense of an

1958:

philosophical insight... ingressive mode of exposition has, I suggest, been chosen by Plato because of his acute sense of the psychological distance that separates his world view from that of his audience... Plato's metaphysical vision ... is recognizably that of Plotinus and the Neoplatonists ...

1386:

attributed to Plato, Tennemann asserted Plato had both practical and philosophical reasons for withholding his 'unwritten doctrines.' Tennemann finally laid out his grand project of close reading and comparisons between the dialogues that, he claimed, had enabled him to reconstruct much of Plato's

1069:

Allegory was a powerful tool that allowed Philo to interpret Scripture in the light of Platonism... Origen tends expressly to refer to Philo as a predecessor precisely in points that are crucial to his Scriptural allegorical method. This strongly suggests that Philo was his main inspirer for the

1391:

Tennemann, not any classical author, is the real father of the modern Esoterists . He shares with them a positive and negative assumption: the belief that any philosopher worthy of the name has a system, and the rejection – whether articulate or understood – of the attempt of the Neoplatonists to

1262:

The Eclectic sect , thus raised upon the foundations of superstition, enthusiasm , and imposture, proved the occasion of much confusion and mischief both to the Christian religion and philosophy... Pagan ideas and opinions were by degrees mixed with the pure and simple doctrine of the Gospel ...

1158:

Ficino's commentaries and translations ensured that the Neo-Platonist, allegorical approach to Plato became the norm throughout Western Europe. Ficino was reading Neo-Platonists such as Proclus as early as the 1460s. As Hankins said, Ficino, 'like the allegorists believed that Plato had employed

1092:

The degree to which Neo-Platonism and its allegorical methods influenced Muslim tradition is controversial and different scholars have different views. It is clear that the writings of Plotinus, Proclus, and other Neo-Platonists were translated into Arabic from an early date. Blending with local

266:

Many believe Plato was influenced by the Pythagoreans. Like other ancient sects, they were reputed to have secret doctrines and secret rituals. Ancient writers, however, especially associated them with 'symbols' used to conceal their secrets. The Pythagoreans seemed to extend the meaning of this

1355:

purposely threw a veil of obscurity over his public instructions, which was only removed for the benefit of those who were thought worthy of being admitted to his more private and confidential lectures. This concealed method of philosophizing he was induced to adopt from a regard to his personal

1334:

After early modern Protestant scholars ended the tradition of reading Plato allegorically, German philosophers developed new ways of finding deeper meanings in Plato. These 'modern esotericists' later assembled historical evidence that, they argued, showed that Plato expounded secret or esoteric

1083:

To maintain the fourfold sense was for mediaeval Romanism a matter of life and death. It was necessary for her power that dogmatic prepossession and traditional authority should reign supreme. The more ingeniously texts were manipulated in her interests, the more loudly she proclaimed that such

953:

The earliest depiction of a Roman book cabinet or armarium, with scrolls inside on the upper shelf. From a sarcophagus dated to 200–300 CE, i.e, about the time Plotinus was in Rome. Though found in Ostia, a port near Rome, the Greek inscription suggests a Greek resident. The open case containing

889:

In the two centuries following Plato's death in 347 BCE, there was sustained interest in Plato's philosophy but little surviving evidence of careful efforts among his early followers to interpret the dialogues (these do not, of course, purport to give Plato's own views). The first generations of

1246:

Protestant scholars began critical studies of the text of the Greek New Testament that led to a re-appraisal of all ancient literature. Protestants soon came to emphasize that the 'Alexandrians' or Neo-Platonists had introduced allegorical interpretation into Christianity, and thus hostility to

940:

is sometimes thought to have avoided allegorical interpretation, but Dillon's survey found 'relative continuity' with the later Neo-Platonists: 'at least at the latter end of the Middle Platonic period, there were developments in exegesis which anticipated to some extent the allegorizing of the

1440:

In the middle of the twentieth century, the so-called Tübingen School, initiated by the German scholars Hans Joachim Krämer and Konrad Gaiser, pushed esoteric interpretations of Plato in a novel direction. It is well-known that Aristotle refers to Plato's 'unwritten teachings' and that Plato's

1377:

Tennemann emphasized that Plato's dialogues were the 'only pure and clear source' for evidence about Plato's philosophy, and thus rejected the ancient allegorical commentaries. Like the Neo-Platonists, however, Tennemann argued at length that Plato did have a 'secret' or 'esoteric philosophy.'

1957:

Why so much deviousness on Plato's part? Why do dialogues ... obscurely hint at doctrines ...? In the case of Plato, his lifetime loyalty to the dialogue form suggests a temperamental aversion to direct statement, reinforced by much reflection on the obstacles to successful communication for

1192:

and the religious wars that devastated much of Western Europe were in significant part about religious authority and therefore about how to interpret the Bible. Protestants charged that many Catholic traditions and doctrines (even the dogma that God was a Trinity) had no basis in the Gospels;

2293:, 6) and by his sometime student Aristoxenus (D. L. 8.15-16). See also Burkert, op. cit., 1972, p. 179, cf. n. 96. In ancient Greek, the word 'symbol' originally meant the broken half of some small object which two parties split apart in order to use the matching pieces as proofs of identity. 1346:

among other things which Plato received from foreign philosophy, he was careful to borrow the art of concealing his real opinions. His inclination towards this kind of concealment appears from the obscure language which abounds in his writings, and may indeed be learned from his own express

1003:

generally communicates its meaning through allegory or undermeanings. A teacher, he says, does not 'speak clearly, but will content himself with indications; for one should express mystical truths mystically and not publicize secret doctrines about the gods' (928). The dialogue's method of

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Writings of a genuinely profound and theoretical character ought not to be communicated except with the greatest caution and considered judgement, lest we inadvertently expose to the slovenly hearing and neglect of the public the inexpressible thoughts of god-like souls (718, cf. 1024).

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The decline of allegorical interpretations of Plato was part of a European-wide rejection of traditional allegory across literature, religion, and philosophy. During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, '... allegory is forced out by the standard-bearers of modernity: empiricism,

1277:

For Brucker, the allegorical commentators on Plato were 'mad, liars, impostors, vain and foolish forgers of a most detestable and false philosophy ...' Thus by the mid 1700s, allegorical interpretation was blamed on the Neo-Platonists and the Neo-Platonists were no longer Platonists.

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the norm. This historic shift coincided with the resurgence of interest in Pythagoreanism about the first century BCE. Neo-Pythagoreans such as Numenius soon began claiming that Pythagorean doctrines were symbolically embedded in Plato's dialogues. One of Numenius' works was entitled

1428:

This required a kind of subtle interpretation since, in Plato, '... the real investigation is overdrawn with another, not like a veil, but, as it were, an adhesive skin, which conceals from the inattentive reader ... the matter which is to be properly considered or discovered ...'

1125:(detail, c. 1482). Florentine painters led the Renaissance shift from religious to pagan, allegorical themes. Lorenzo de' Medici was the patron of both Botticelli and Ficino, and extant letters suggest Ficino may have been consulted about the subjects of Botticelli's paintings. 1149:

Their publication ... was an intellectual event of the first magnitude since they established Plato as a newly discovered authority for the Renaissance who could now take precedence over Aristotle, and whose work ... was of sufficient profundity to be set above his rival's.

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term to include short phrases that played the role of secret passwords or answered ritualized riddles. Struck traces the way this usage was further stretched to encompass literary symbolism and thus why the Pythagoreans are sometimes credited with inventing such symbolism.

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doctrines orally that were transmitted through his students and their successors. These approaches reject ancient and Renaissance allegoresis but retain the distinction between the surface, literal meaning of the dialogues and Plato's concealed, esoteric doctrines.

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All mediaeval thought up to the twelfth century was Neoplatonic rather than Aristotelian; and such popular authors of the Middle Ages as Augustine, Boethius, and the Pseudo-Dionysius carried Christian Neoplatonism to England as they did to all other parts of Western

871:

After Aristotle left the Academy and founded his own school, he did not seem to share the ambivalence toward allegoresis expressed in Plato's dialogues. He regarded the ancient Greek myths, for example, as allegorical expressions of philosophical truths:

890:'dogmatists' after Plato in the early Academy were generally concerned with Plato's doctrines, arguments, and problems, but not with detailed readings of Plato's texts. Apparently no commentaries on the dialogues were written in the early Academy until 202:, and many others, it became well-known again in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. On the left, Virtue is calling Hercules to the higher path of glory through hardship, while Vice is enticing him toward the easy life of pleasure (Annibale Carracci, 894:(died about 290 BCE). The dogmatists were followed by 'skeptics' who interpreted the dialogues primarily as professions of Socratic ignorance. Dörrie points out that the notion of comprehensively interpreting Plato's texts had not yet emerged: 104:(1st c. CE), these views influenced the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic interpretation of these religions' respective sacred scriptures. They spread widely during the Renaissance and contributed to the fashion for allegory among poets such as 2993:

already counted Plato an esotericist: 'he purposely threw a veil of obscurity over his public instructions ... This concealed method of philosophizing he was induced to adopt from a concern for his personal safety ...' (Brucker, op. cit, p.

1154:

Ficino's translations helped make Renaissance Platonism into 'an attacking progressive force besieging the conservative cultural fortress which defended the Aristotelianism of the Schoolmen ... the firmest support of the established order.'

1109:(1126–1198). On the other hand, some verses in the Qur'an are regarded as allegorical and some see this as an early endorsement of allegory. Some Islamic sects, such as Sufism, are largely based on allegorical interpretation of the Qur'an. 1338:

Though Brucker rejected the allegories of the Neo-Platonists, he continued the tradition of regarding Plato as an esoteric writer who concealed his deeper philosophy. Brucker, however, made no attempt to reveal Plato's inner doctrines:

1962:

Although Kahn does not see any extensive use of allegory or symbolism in Plato's dialogues, his approach calls for a kind of subtle interpretation that reaches conclusions he compares to those discovered by Neo-Platonist allegoresis.

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Allegoresis is viewed by Plato as an uncertain method and dangerous where children are concerned, but he never denies outright the possibility of its being used in a more philosophical way. In the passage rejecting allegory from the

932:

it would seem safe to say that something quite esoteric is regularly being detected beneath Plato's text, concealing details of the allegedly Pythagorean metaphysic that Pythagoreans, almost as a matter of faith, supposed to exist

1411:

to that analytical exposition which we now have been in possession of for a short time, in perfection far exceeding former attempts, it is a necessary supplementary process to restore to their natural connection those limbs,

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allegory became hostility to Neo-Platonism. Violent disputes soon raged over whether the Neo-Platonists had corrupted the early Christian theologians and thus led the Church away from the 'pure' Christianity of the Gospels.

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assertions. 'It is a difficult thing,' says he, 'to discover the nature of the Creator of the universe; and being discovered it is impossible, and would even be impious, to expose the discovery to vulgar understandings' (

941:

Neo-Platonists.' The routine attribution of hidden meanings to Plato among Middle Platonists can be found, for example, in Plutarch (c. 45 – 125 CE), a priest of the Elysian mysteries and perhaps a Platonic successor.

244:, Socrates criticizes those who offer rationalizing, allegorical explanations for myths (229c6 ff.). Plato's own views on allegorical interpretation, or 'allegoresis', have long been debated. Ford concluded that: 1088:

In sum, the techniques of allegorical interpretation applied to Plato's dialogues became central to the European tradition of reading both philosophical and – after Philo's intervention – religious texts.

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traditions, allegory and allegorical interpretation thereafter became central to Muslim philosophy, theology, and literature. To varying degrees, they influenced Muslim philosophical theologians such as

257:

The core of Plato's philosophy is the Theory of Forms (or Ideas), and many writers have seen in this metaphysical theory a justification for the use of literary allegory. Fletcher, for example, wrote:

253:(378d), the reasons are primarily pedagogical and social rather than theological or methodological... Plato's disquiet is focused on popularisers of subtle interpretation, not on the method itself ... 1598: 1304:(1759 – 1824) marks the final rejection of allegorical methods. He influentially advocated that classics should turn from literary methods and become a more rigorous 'science of antiquity' ( 3107:(Brescia: Editrice Morcelliana, 2013). For a brief overview, see David J. Murphy's review (which lists the main texts of the Tübingen School) of Thomas A. Szlezák and Karl-Heinz Stanzel, 1404:, Schleiermacher argued that Tennemann's 'analytic' dissection of Plato needed to be supplemented by a more romantic or psychological, holistic interpretation of Plato's entire oeuvre: 1129:

Though almost all of Plato's dialogues were unavailable in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, Neo-Platonism and its allegorical philosophy became well-known through various channels:

958:

Modern historians call the followers of Plato in the early centuries CE 'Neo-Platonists.' They were the most important and vigorous advocates of the allegorical interpretation of Plato.

1330:(1792) Said to be the first, modern monograph on Plato, Tennemann's study interpreted Plato as a rationalist, and believed a logical, philosophical system lay concealed in the dialogues. 2374:

Dillon accepts the view of Proclus (In Tim. I 76, 1-2) that Crantor '... perhaps makes his most distinctive contribution to the history of Platonism, the idea of a commentary' (Dillon,

1032:

In the Hellenistic period (3rd – 1st centuries BCE) allegorical interpretation was predominately a Greek technique associated with interpreters of Homer, the Stoics, and finally Plato.

2537: 1953:

In 1996, the prominent American scholar, Charles Kahn, advocated an 'ingressive interpretation' that reads beneath the surface and finds Neo-Platonic themes within Plato's dialogues:

154:(Greek for "saying other") became more frequent in the early centuries CE and referred to language that had some other meaning in addition to its usual or literal meaning. Earlier in 2942:

English translation by W. Enfield: Brucker, The History of Philosophy (London: Thomas Tegg, 1839), p. 125. Original Latin: Historia Critica Philosophiae (Leipzig, 1742–1744), 5 vols.

72:

in addition to their usual literal meaning. These allegorical interpretations of Plato were dominant for more than fifteen hundred years, from about the 1st century CE through the

954:

surgical tools on the cabinet top, the other scrolls, and a basin for bleeding patients within the cabinet suggest a learned physician (Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y., 48.76.1).

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historiography, realism, and plain, rational speech... these shifts produced the end of allegory based on Platonic Ideas, Christian theology, or syncretic versions of these ...'

877:

were similar to the other animals ... If the first , that they believed the gods are fundamental realities, is taken separately , then they surely spoke an inspired truth ... (

2026: 147:. Historians have come to reject any simple division between Platonism and Neoplatonism, and the tradition of reading Plato allegorically is now an area of active research. 902:) of a text would appear obvious and even banal. However, even in modern philology, this demand was first recognized as valid in the last two or at most three generations... 1180:

Ficino's Christian, Neoplatonic and allegorical reading of Plato 'tended to shape the accepted interpretation of these works from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.'

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was known centuries before Plato. Philo's theories had little immediate effect upon Jewish theologians, who seem never to have mentioned him or his voluminous writings.

1203:) implied the text of the Bible could be read by itself without the Catholic Church's elaborate traditions of allegoresis. Together with other leading figures in the 1230:(16th – 17th c.) were in part about religious authority and whose interpretation of the Bible was legitimate, and thus allegory became a political issue. In just the 2256: 1470:

extended them into the controversial view that philosophical writing generally contained concealed meanings that could be discovered by 'reading between the lines.'

1924:

For several centuries after the Protestant Reformation, Neo-Platonism was condemned as a decadent and 'oriental' distortion of Platonism. In a famous 1929 essay,

3136:

Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato with a Collection of the Fundamental Documents

2047: 1392:

find their own system in Plato's writings. It is the combination of these two assumptions that has given birth to the modern Esoteric interpretation of Plato.'

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rejected claims that Plato was an allegorist. After this rupture, the ancient followers of Plato who read the dialogues as sustained allegories were labelled "

131:, scholars began to study the allegorical approach to Plato in its own right both as essential background to Plato studies and as an important episode in the 2404:(Düsseldorf: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1975), pp. 35, 42, surveys and periodizes the various ancient approaches to Plato's dialogues. See also references below. 3937: 1141:

Plato's dialogues were preserved in the Byzantine Empire and Latin translations of individual dialogues began to appear in Italy early in the Renaissance.

1234:(1618–1648) there were perhaps five to ten million casualties and the German population was reduced in some regions by 25 to 40 percent. Depiction of the 3942: 2208:

For Anaxagoras and Metrodorus, see Diogenes Laertius, II.1 and Plato's 'Ion,' 530c3-d3. For Antisthenes the Cynic, see the discussion in R. Pfeiffer,

1075:

especially by the medieval Scholastics, into the famous doctrine that Biblical passages had a 'fourfold sense' – the literal, moral, allegorical, and

2662:(Cambridge University Press, ), p. 82. See also Mehdi Aminrazavi, 'Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 3916: 1972: 1138:

From the Twelfth Century, the works of Aristotle became increasingly available and his philosophy came to dominate late medieval Scholasticism.

1015:

That is why Plato, when he was moved to speak about the Good, did not dare to tell what it was ... philosophers make use of fabulous narratives (

3352: 1911: 1145:(1433 – 1499) published the first complete translation in 1484 and this rapidly spread direct knowledge of Plato throughout Western Europe: 1928:

showed that key conceptions of Neo-Platonism could be traced from their origin in Plato's dialogues, through his immediate followers (e.g.,

1050: 898:... the hermeneutical question was not posed ... Today, the demand that an interpretation must set out from an evaluation of the entirety ( 1528: 1250:

These theological controversies shaped modern classical scholarship. They are reflected in the great scholarly history of philosophy by

835: 2461:

John Dillon, 'Pedantry and Pedestrianism? Some Reflections on the Middle Platonic Commentary Tradition,' in H. Tarrant and D. Baltzly,

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For a discussion of the background and reception, see the introductory essays edited by Peter M. Steiner in Friedrich Schleiermacher,

1466: 203: 1170:

Bust of Marsilio Ficino in the cathedral in Florence (by A. Ferrucci, 1521). He seems to play his translation of Plato like a lyre.

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http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml&query=Dictionary%20of%20the%20History%20of%20Ideas

3807: 2550:

For the above, see Ilaria L. E. Ramelia, ᾽Philo as Origen's Declared Model: Allegorical and Historical Exegesis of Scripture,᾽

1693: 330: 69: 1004:

instruction is 'to employ symbols and indications and riddles, a method proper to the most mystical of doctrines ...' (1027).

3932: 1993: 1853: 1317: 886:

himself was never initiated into the Pythagorean sect and thus missed the allegories later readers found in the dialogues.

764: 3118: 2094:

For Ficino's influence on Spenser and Shakespeare, see Sears Jayne, 'Ficino and the Platonism of the English Renaissance,'

1950:

Thus recent scholarship has transformed Neo-Platonism from an aberration that could be ignored into a phase of Platonism.

3975: 1862: 1765: 1613: 1166: 3955: 1809: 1780: 1652: 2899:, 1833 (various editions and translations). See Nicholas Halmi, 'Symbol and Allegory' in Christopher John Murray, ed., 3950: 3873: 1868: 404: 375: 3345: 1904: 1364: 2315:

For a brief, recent overview, see Tarrant, 'Platonic Interpretation and Eclectic Theory,' in Tarrant and Baltzly,

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for example, forthrightly interprets passages allegorically and acknowledges his debts to ancient Neo-Platonists:

3802: 1227: 320: 3087: 1720: 1397: 1235: 170: 2584:

Ramelia, ᾽Philo as Origen's Declared Model: Allegorical and Historical Exegesis of Scripture,᾽ op. cit., p. 5.

1432: 1420:

so that while every dialogue is taken not only as a whole in itself but also in its connection with the rest

1019:); not without a purpose, however, nor merely to entertain, but because they realize that a frank and naked ( 4002: 3997: 3721: 2628:

Majid Fakhry, 'Philosophy and Theology: from the Eighth Century CE to the Present,' in J. L. Esposito, ed.,

1573: 1239: 828: 3155:

for 'the walls': originally, therefore, a teaching for insiders. It later came to mean a mystical teaching.

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Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasaid Society

1263:

corrupted the pure religion of Christ; and his church became a field of contention, and a nursery of error.

949: 3992: 3987: 3768: 1658: 1618: 1222: 1189: 85: 3086:

This is not the same as the theological movement also known as the 'Tübingen School' and associated with

3965: 3762: 3657: 3565: 3530: 3502: 3418: 3338: 2289:

This late reputation for secrecy is already attested in the fourth century by Aristotle (in Iamblichus,

1897: 1715: 1700: 1482: 1373:) and portrayed him as a precursor to Enlightenment rationalism and Kant's philosophy. Echoing Luther's 1301: 739: 561: 554: 512: 470: 449: 325: 132: 1176:

on probability and reason. Socrates himself, moreover, obviously feels the need for allegory here ...

2422:

See esp. H. Tarrant, 'The Phaedo in Numenian Allegorical Interpretation,' in S. Delcomminette et al.,

920:

Tarrant summarized the views of the Neo-Pythagoreans, saying that they believed (italics original):

3868: 3606: 3551: 3488: 3390: 3383: 2538:"'"Clarifications" of Obscurity: Conditions for Proclus's Allegorical Reading of Plato's Parmenides'" 2521:

Page references are to the 1864 edition of Cousin. Translations are from G. R. Marrow and J. Dillon,

1775: 1710: 1623: 1452:

and English-speaking scholars thereafter tended to be skeptical. In 1974, however, Findlay published

1251: 687: 617: 610: 603: 533: 463: 365: 355: 2959:(11 volumes, 1798 – 1819). References below are to the discussion of Plato in the 1799 volume II of 1258:(1742–1744) that, for example, blames the Neo-Platonists for corrupting the Roman Catholic Church: 17: 4015: 3699: 3599: 3592: 3516: 3397: 1750: 1735: 1668: 1219:

that only the Church and its traditions could authoritatively interpret the meaning of the Bible.

1033: 861: 715: 694: 666: 491: 442: 113: 101: 1159:

allegory as a device for hiding esoteric doctrines from the vulgar ...' His commentary on Plato's

4037: 3982: 3878: 3650: 3643: 3572: 3544: 3439: 3404: 2855:

The Decline and Fall of the Neoplatonic Interpretation of Plato: an outline and some observations

2077: 2061: 1982: 1730: 1683: 1445: 1401: 821: 708: 701: 631: 624: 568: 456: 370: 279: 150:

The definitions of "allegory", "symbolism", and "figurative meaning" evolved over time. The term

136: 45: 1039:

Philo of Alexandria believed that the doctrines in Plato's dialogues and Jewish scriptures (the

2554:

n. 7, 2012, pp. 1-17. For Philo's relations to Plato, see the writings of David T. Runia, esp.

4042: 3738: 3692: 3558: 3467: 2663: 2069: 1887: 1322: 809: 540: 505: 484: 335: 37: 4009: 3960: 3911: 3906: 3812: 3795: 3748: 3664: 3627: 3613: 3537: 3481: 3432: 2051: 2043: 1935: 1823: 1818: 1628: 1523: 1231: 1216: 937: 769: 749: 744: 722: 659: 638: 547: 498: 380: 315: 155: 33: 2214:

Homer the Theologian: Neoplatonist Allegorical Reading and the Growth of the Epic Tradition

3790: 3474: 3376: 3122: 2137:

Plutarch says "allegories ... which the ancients called undermeanings" in an essay in the

1760: 1755: 1745: 1740: 1608: 1603: 1518: 1449: 1142: 1044: 645: 421: 310: 179: 175: 105: 97: 2540:. Krems: Institut für Realienkunde des Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit, 2013, 15-31. 1285:

of Diderot and D'Alembert, which labelled Neo-Platonism a 'superstition' in the article

852:

shows that some of Plato's earliest followers were not reading the dialogues literally:

29: 3819: 3782: 3634: 3460: 2210:

History of Classical Scholarship: from the beginnings to the end of the Hellenistic Age

1785: 1770: 790: 596: 109: 2666:

A. L. Ivry, 'The Utilization of Allegory in Islamic philosophy,' in Jon Whitman, ed.,

1011:

shows that in the fifth century CE allegorical interpretations of Plato were routine:

4031: 3898: 3883: 3863: 3743: 3453: 3446: 3325: 2081: 2017: 1838: 1196: 963: 930:

true Pythagoreanism can be teased out of Platonic texts by in-depth interpretation...

589: 582: 390: 385: 305: 3293:

Leo Catana, 'The Origin of the Division between Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism,'

3970: 3837: 3685: 2328:

As emphasized by Pépin, op. cit., p. 121 ff. (with references to earlier debates),

2128:(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004). Translated by Catherine Tihanyi. 1833: 1490: 754: 519: 199: 182:(Eros is love, Athena is wisdom). Greek philosophical allegory may have begun with 140: 124: 2912:

Jay David Bolter, 'Friedrich August Wolf and the Scientific Study of Antiquity,'

1464:

learned about the esoteric interpretations of Plato as a student in Germany. His

3825: 3234:

The Other Plato: The Tübingen Interpretation of Plato's Inner-Academic Teachings

3115: 3101:

The Other Plato: The Tübingen Interpretation of Plato's Inner-Academic Teachings

2329: 2240:

The Origins of Criticism: literary culture and poetic theory in classical Greece

2126:

How Philosophers Saved Myths: Allegorical Interpretation and Classical Mythology

2121: 1925: 1553: 1461: 1281:

Brucker's negative view of Neo-Platonism was spread across Europe by the French

1238:, one of the decisive battles of the Thirty Years War, by Pieter Snayers (1620, 1204: 73: 210: 194:

the Sophist, and his famous tale of "Hercules at the Crossroads". Discussed by

127:" and regarded as an aberration. In the wake of Tate's pioneering 1929 article 3888: 3754: 3671: 3258:

E. R. Dodds, 'The Parmenides of Plato and the Origin of the Neoplatonic One,'

2495:: IV 2,2; vi 8 22; vi 8 19, iii 4 5; iii 7 13. See also Jean-Michel Charrue, 2056: 2021: 1929: 1663: 1084:

interpretations alone were "spiritual " and were due to "illuminating grace."

928:

in Plato, who for one reason or another is reluctant to reveal them, and that

857: 853: 673: 395: 225: 187: 183: 57: 2867:

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers,

2610:(Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1998). See also Farrar, op. cit., p. 294 ff. 2073: 2065: 1444:

The Tübingen School was famously attacked by the prominent American scholars

1296:(1749 – 1832) famously elevated the 'symbol' and denigrated allegory in his 985:

contain extended allegorical interpretations. Proclus' commentary on Plato's

3775: 3730: 3678: 3425: 2510:

Studies of the Fifth and Sixth Essays of Proclus' Commentary on the Republic

2022:"Myth, Allegory, and Inspired Symbolism in Early and Late Antique Platonism" 1988: 1805: 1725: 1678: 1098: 1008: 680: 414: 287: 77: 3109:

Platonisches Philosophieren. Zehn Vorträge zu Ehren von Hans Joachim Krämer

2873:édie.eu/index.php/science-mathematiques/philosophie/1068928316-ECLECTISME. 1268:

thought of themselves simply as Platonists but denied this was the case:

1117: 3858: 3831: 3620: 3523: 3312:

Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form

3044:Über die Philosophie Platons: Die Einleitungen zur Übersetzung des Platon 2226: 1977: 1828: 1705: 1648: 1543: 1498: 1106: 1102: 1094: 974:

III.5 is an extended allegorical interpretation of passages from Plato's

959: 652: 477: 345: 340: 229: 195: 191: 120: 89: 81: 3168:(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945). See also H. Cherniss, 2508:

For a discussion of Proclus' use of allegory, see ch. 4 of A. Sheppard,

3706: 2534:

For a discussion of Proclus' use of allegory in Plato's Parmenides see

1688: 1673: 1593: 1563: 1558: 1076: 982: 891: 848:

Within the Academy, a famous dispute over the creation myth in Plato's

526: 93: 2951:

Tennemann's interpretation of Plato appeared in his 1792, four-volume

981:

Surviving commentaries on Plato's dialogues by Neo-Platonists such as

3509: 3193:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981, 2nd ed.), pp. 379-403. 2361:; for his contrast between clear speech, metaphors, and enigmas, see 2039: 2035: 1568: 1293: 1113:

Renewed dominance of the allegorical Plato in the Renaissance: Ficino

1062: 435: 144: 61: 56:

held that his writings contain passages with double meanings, called

2692:

Sears Jayne, 'Ficino and the Platonism of the English Renaissance,'

2632:(Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 271–3. See also Dimitri Gutas, 3411: 3361: 3189:, v. 35, 1963, pp. 641-655. Reprinted with a further appendix in: 1843: 1548: 1533: 1431: 1321: 1221: 1165: 1116: 1049: 948: 428: 295: 233: 209: 169: 65: 53: 28: 3099:

For a recent introduction and overview, see Dmitri Nikulin, ed.,

2772:

Castiglione's Allegory: Veiled Policy in The Book of the Courtier

2645:

For an overview see Fakhry, p. 269 ff. or Parviz Morewedge, ed.,

2304:

Birth of the Symbol: Ancient Readers at the Limits of Their Texts

2120:

For a brief but general overview of the history of allegory, see

3495: 1538: 1424:

may at last be understood as a Philosopher and a perfect Artist.

1207:, Luther therefore attacked and rejected Catholic allegoresis: 990:

the particular Intellect (628). Proclus argues generally that:

575: 224:

As a young man, Plato encountered debates in the circles around

41: 3334: 2869:

v. XII, 3rd edition, 1774, p. 682. A 1755 version is online at

2165:

to mean what is later subsumed under allegory. See Jean Pépin,

3033:(Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell Internat, 1977), pp. 66-7. 2789:

Captive to the Word: Martin Luther, doctor of sacred scripture

2212:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), p. 36. See Robert Lamberton, 3247:

The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy, 347 – 274 BCE

3055:

References below are to the English translation: W. Dobson,

2709:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), v. I, p. xxiii. 2276:(Cambridge: Harverd University Press, 1972) and W. Burkert, 1460:

The influential American philosopher and political theorist

1367:(1761 – 1819) influentially denied that Plato was a mystic ( 1312:

Rise of modern esotericism: Tennemann to the Tübingen School

2668:

Interpretation and Allegory: Antiquity to the Modern Period

2664:

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/

2989:

v. II, pp. 200, 202, 205, 207, 214, 220-1. Brucker's 1742

2761:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), v. I, p. 171. 2735:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), v. I, p. xiv. 1985:, for the Cherniss-Vlastos critique of the Tübingen school 1416:

as expositions continuously more complete as they advance

966:, often says that Plato's dialogues have 'undermeanings' ( 158:, it was common instead to speak of "undermeanings" (Gk., 3314:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 65-67. 3105:

Il Disordine ordinato: la filosofia dialettica di Platone

3330: 3057:

Schleiermacher's Introductions to the Dialogues of Plato

2955:(Jena: 1792–1795) and was summarized in his influential 2357:

For criticism of the Pythagoreans see, e.g., book II of

1436:

An engraving of Schleiermacher from his early adulthood.

2809:

For a short survey, see Novotny, op. cit., pp. 507–511.

2569:

The Fourfold Sense of Scripture in Christian Mysticism,

2341:

See, for example, the extensive discussions of Plato's

2197:

Prodicus the Sophist: Text, Translation, and Commentary

76:

and into the 18th century, and were advocated by major

2242:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 86-7. 1028:

Effects on Jewish, Christian, and Islamic hermeneutics

3299:

The Historiographical Concept 'System of Philosophy',

2822:(London: Thomas Tegg, 1839), p. 344. Original Latin: 2783:

For the views of Protestant historians, see Farrer's

1387:lost esoteric philosophy. According to Tigerstedt, 3925: 3897: 3847: 3729: 3582: 3368: 2251:Angus Fletcher, 'Allegory in Literary History,' in 2027:

The International Journal of the Platonic Tradition

3219:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983) and 2870: 2681:Sufi Commentaries on the Qur'an in Classical Islam 2216:(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 36:of Plato. The Greek inscription reads: "Plato of 2378:(Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 218). 2169:(Paris: Etudes Augustiniennes, 1976), pp. 85-86. 1503:Reconstructed bust believed to represent Plotinus 945:Dominance of the allegorical Plato: Neo-Platonism 3275:(The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1954, 1968), p. 3. 3249:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2003), esp. pp. 16–29. 2658:Peter Heath, 'Allegory in Islamic Literatures,' 1474:Rise of revisionism: Dodds, Tigerstedt, and Kahn 206:, detail, 1596, National Museum of Capodimonte). 2933:(Almqvist & Wiksell Internat, 1977), p. 68. 2608:Medieval Exegesis: The Four Senses of Scripture 1406: 1389: 1378:Drawing on the criticism of writing in Plato's 1341: 914:On the Disagreement of the Academics with Plato 3262:, v. 22, No. 3/4, 1928, pp. 129-142, esp. 140. 3223:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). 3170:Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy 2857:(Societas Scientariarum Fennica, 1974), p. 58. 2556:Philo of Alexandria and The "Timaeus" of Plato 2263:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012). 2182:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004). 1188:In the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century, the 1054:Oxford University's 1492 edition of Plotinus' 918:On the Secrets or Reserved Doctrines in Plato. 3346: 3116:http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2002/2002-08-06.html 2916:v. 21, 1980, pp. 83–99. See also F. A. Wolf, 2791:(Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1969), pp. 164-5. 2048:International Society for Neoplatonic Studies 2011: 2009: 1905: 829: 8: 2818:English translation by W. Enfield: Brucker, 2774:(London: Ashgate Publishing, 2008), p. 169. 2512:(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1980). 2280:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987). 1368: 3221:Metaphysics and Method in Plato's Statesman 3103:(Albany: SUNY, 2012) or Maurizio Migliori, 2901:Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760-1850 2722:(The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff, 1977), p. 408. 1184:The literalist turn: from Luther to Brucker 3579: 3353: 3339: 3331: 3328:– includes complete text of Plato's myths 3204:Plato: The Written and Unwritten Doctrines 3181:Gregory Vlastos, review of H. J. Kraemer, 2886:(Cambridge: University Press, 1997), p. 2. 2274:Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism 1912: 1898: 1477: 1454:Plato: The Written and Unwritten Doctrines 1421: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1357: 1352: 1343: 836: 822: 274: 3297:v. 46, n. 2, 2013, pp. 166-200. See also 3147:The word 'esoteric' comes from the Greek 2575:(Oxford: University Press, 2000), p. 119. 2523:Proclus' Commentary on Plato's Parmenides 2055: 3938:List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues 3217:Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved 2606:Henri de Lubac, published in English as 2199:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 907:The allegorical turn: Neo-Pythagoreanism 3134:Hans Joachim Krämer and John R. Catan, 2759:Commentaries on Plato: Phaedrus and Ion 2733:Commentaries on Plato: Phaedrus and Ion 2707:Commentaries on Plato: Phaedrus and Ion 2452:(London: Duckworth, 2000), pp. 84 – 85. 2261:Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode 2005: 1973:Allegorical interpretation of the Bible 1489: 777: 731: 403: 353: 286: 2918:Darstellung der Alterthumswissenschaft 2552:Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations, 1300:In classical scholarship, the work of 3917:List of speakers in Plato's dialogues 3284:Tigerstedt, op. cit., 1974, pp. 48-9. 3059:(Cambridge: Pitt Press, 1836), p. 11. 3046:(Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag, 1996). 2897:Einzelheiten, Maximen und Reflexionen 2844:Brucker, op. cit., pp. 326, 344, 348. 2597:(London: Macmillan, 1886), p. 201 ff. 2259:, pp. 43-44. See also A. Fletcher, 864:all interpreted a key passage in the 7: 2914:Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 2696:, vol. 4, no. 3, 1952, pp. 214-238. 2525:(Princeton: University Press, 1992). 2426:(Leiden: Brill, 2015), pp. 135–153. 2306:(Princeton: University Press, 2004). 1849:Allegorical interpretations of Plato 1199:'s famous slogan 'scripture alone' ( 760:Allegorical interpretations of Plato 129:Plato and Allegorical Interpretation 68:, that give the dialogues layers of 18:Allegorical Interpretations of Plato 2953:System der Platonischen Philosophie 2391:(New York: Routledge, 1995), ch. V. 2225:According to Plato's dialogue the ' 1396:The renowned Protestant theologian 1356:safety, and from motives of vanity 924:... that Pythagorean doctrines are 174:Greek allegory arguably began with 2499:(Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1978). 2439:(Paris: Les belles Lettres, 1973). 2424:Ancient Readings of Plato's Phaedo 2332:, op. cit., p. 38 ff., and others. 2253:Dictionary of the History of Ideas 1467:Persecution and the Art of Writing 787: 270: 190:but is clear in Socrates' friend, 25: 3183:Arete bei Platon und Aristoteles, 2746:Plato in the Italian Renaissance, 2465:(London: Duckworth, 2006), p. 24. 2098:, v. 4, no. 3, 1952, pp. 214-238. 1996:, debate over Plato's esotericism 166:Allegory within Plato's dialogues 3720: 2647:Neoplatonism and Islamic Thought 2619:Farrar, p. 299, cf. pp. 296–300. 2016:Kutash, Emilie (December 2020). 1881: 1497: 803: 294: 3166:The Riddle of the Early Academy 2660:Cambridge Companion to Allegory 2478:, p. 370 ff.; cf. H. Tarrant, 2474:See, for example, in Plutarch, 2195:(2.1.21–34) and Robert Mayhew, 3943:Cultural influence of Plato's 3273:From Platonism to Neoplatonism 3236:(Albany: SUNY, 2012), preface. 2748:p. 345. (Leiden: Brill, 1990). 2573:Mysticism and Sacred Scripture 1256:Critical History of Philosophy 1: 2826:(Leipzig, 1742–1744), 5 vols. 2824:Historia Critica Philosophiae 2785:The History of Interpretation 1766:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 1614:The Consolation of Philosophy 1328:System of Platonic Philosophy 962:, regarded as the founder of 3956:Platonism in the Renaissance 3808:Plato's political philosophy 2787:, op. cit., and A. S. Wood, 2720:The Posthumous Life of Plato 2111:, v. 23, no. 3-4, p. 142 ff. 1942:.' In 2013, Catana argued 1940:anima naturaliter Christiana 119:In the early modern period, 3951:Neoplatonism and Gnosticism 3326:Plato's Myths as Psychology 3113:Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2961:Geschichte der Philosophie 2683:(London: Routledge, 2006). 2630:The Oxford History of Islam 1994:Plato's unwritten doctrines 1854:Plato's unwritten doctrines 1318:Plato's unwritten doctrines 1215:Catholics responded at the 765:Plato's unwritten doctrines 376:Analogy of the divided line 217:, with fragment of Plato's 4059: 3206:(London: Routledge, 2013). 2835:Brucker, op. cit., p. 345. 2636:(London: Routledge, 1998). 2571:in Steven T. Katzin, ed., 2536:Calian, George F. (2013). 2480:Plato's First Interpreters 2463:Reading Plato in Antiquity 2450:Plato's First Interpreters 2402:Von Platon zum Platonismus 2319:(Duckworth, 2006), p. 10. 2317:Plato's Early Interpreters 1365:Wilhelm Gottlieb Tennemann 1315: 271:Plato's early interpreters 3718: 2820:The History of Philosophy 2595:History of Interpretation 2497:Plotin, Lecteur de Platon 2057:10.1163/18725473-BJA10002 1228:European wars of religion 165: 3088:Ferdinand Christian Baur 2757:M. Allen and M. Ficino, 2731:M. Allen and M. Ficino, 2705:M. Allen and M. Ficino, 2153:1131-33), Aristophanes ( 1721:Johannes Scotus Eriugena 1599:De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum 1398:Friedrich Schleiermacher 1236:Battle of White Mountain 999:Proclus claims that the 3260:The Classical Quarterly 3202:John Niemeyer Findlay, 3020:v. II, p. 216-8, 220-2. 2963:(Leipzig: Barth, 1799). 2670:(Leiden: Brill, 2000). 1574:Microcosm and macrocosm 1298:Maxims and Reflections. 1240:Bayerisches Armeemuseum 3301:(Leiden: Brill, 2008). 2800:Wood, op. cit., 164-5. 2694:Comparative Literature 2649:(Albany: SUNY, 1992). 2558:(Leiden: Brill, 1986). 2149:II. 378d), Euripides ( 2096:Comparative Literature 1960: 1948: 1619:De Coelesti Hierarchia 1437: 1426: 1394: 1369: 1361: 1331: 1275: 1265: 1243: 1213: 1190:Protestant Reformation 1178: 1171: 1152: 1136: 1126: 1086: 1072: 1059: 1025: 1007:A late neo-Platonist, 997: 955: 935: 904: 883: 264: 255: 221: 207: 204:The Choice of Hercules 78:Platonist philosophers 49: 3907:The Academy in Athens 3763:Platonic epistemology 3232:Dmitri Nikulin, ed., 2957:History of Philosophy 2413:See Burkert, op. cit. 2278:Ancient Mystery Cults 1955: 1944: 1888:Philosophy portal 1716:Maximus the Confessor 1701:Simplicius of Cilicia 1435: 1325: 1306:Altertumswissenschaft 1302:Friedrich August Wolf 1270: 1260: 1225: 1209: 1173: 1169: 1147: 1131: 1120: 1081: 1067: 1053: 1013: 992: 952: 922: 896: 874: 810:Philosophy portal 745:The Academy in Athens 259: 246: 240:, 514a1 ff.). In the 213: 173: 133:history of philosophy 121:classical scholarship 52:Many interpreters of 32: 2976:v. II, pp. 203, 221. 2884:Reinventing Allegory 2593:Frederic W. Farrar, 2157:1425-31), Xenophon ( 1776:Cambridge Platonists 1711:David the Invincible 1624:De divisione naturae 1252:Johann Jakob Brucker 900:des gesamten Habitus 366:Allegory of the cave 331:Political philosophy 4016:Poitier Meets Plato 3933:Unwritten doctrines 3138:(SUNY Press, 1990). 2903:, v. 2, pp. 1113-4. 2882:Theresa M. Kelley, 2180:Birth of the Symbol 2143:De Audiendis Poetis 2109:Classical Quarterly 1751:Thierry of Chartres 1736:Solomon ibn Gabirol 1669:Julian the Apostate 1034:Philo of Alexandria 215:Papirus Oxyrhynchus 114:William Shakespeare 102:Philo of Alexandria 3983:Oxyrhynchus Papyri 3172:(Baltimore, 1944). 3164:Harold Cherniss, 3121:2018-04-12 at the 3031:Interpreting Plato 2931:Interpreting Plato 2929:E. N. Tigerstedt, 2853:E. N. Tigerstedt, 2482:, op. cit., p. 24. 2167:Mythe et Allégorie 1983:Harold F. Cherniss 1810:in the Renaissance 1731:Brethren of Purity 1684:Augustine of Hippo 1446:Harold F. Cherniss 1438: 1402:German romanticism 1332: 1244: 1172: 1127: 1060: 956: 778:Related categories 405:The works of Plato 371:Analogy of the Sun 222: 208: 137:literary criticism 70:figurative meaning 50: 46:Capitoline Museums 4025: 4024: 3739:Euthyphro dilemma 3716: 3715: 3693:Second Alcibiades 3151:for 'inside' and 3007:v. II, p. 205 ff. 2387:R. J. Hankinson, 2302:Peter T. Struck, 2161:III, 6), all use 2046:on behalf of the 2018:Finamore, John F. 1922: 1921: 846: 845: 506:Second Alcibiades 336:Euthyphro dilemma 100:. Beginning with 16:(Redirected from 4050: 3976:and Christianity 3961:Middle Platonism 3912:Socratic problem 3874:The Divided Line 3813:Philosopher king 3796:Form of the Good 3749:Cardinal virtues 3724: 3580: 3433:First Alcibiades 3355: 3348: 3341: 3332: 3315: 3308: 3302: 3291: 3285: 3282: 3276: 3269: 3263: 3256: 3250: 3243: 3237: 3230: 3224: 3213: 3207: 3200: 3194: 3191:Platonic Studies 3179: 3173: 3162: 3156: 3145: 3139: 3132: 3126: 3097: 3091: 3084: 3078: 3075: 3069: 3066: 3060: 3053: 3047: 3040: 3034: 3027: 3021: 3014: 3008: 3001: 2995: 2991:Critical History 2983: 2977: 2970: 2964: 2949: 2943: 2940: 2934: 2927: 2921: 2910: 2904: 2893: 2887: 2880: 2874: 2864: 2858: 2851: 2845: 2842: 2836: 2833: 2827: 2816: 2810: 2807: 2801: 2798: 2792: 2781: 2775: 2768: 2762: 2755: 2749: 2742: 2736: 2729: 2723: 2716: 2710: 2703: 2697: 2690: 2684: 2677: 2671: 2656: 2650: 2643: 2637: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2611: 2604: 2598: 2591: 2585: 2582: 2576: 2565: 2559: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2532: 2526: 2519: 2513: 2506: 2500: 2489: 2483: 2472: 2466: 2459: 2453: 2446: 2440: 2433: 2427: 2420: 2414: 2411: 2405: 2398: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2372: 2366: 2355: 2349: 2339: 2333: 2326: 2320: 2313: 2307: 2300: 2294: 2287: 2281: 2272:Walter Burkert, 2270: 2264: 2249: 2243: 2236: 2230: 2223: 2217: 2206: 2200: 2189: 2183: 2176: 2170: 2135: 2129: 2118: 2112: 2105: 2099: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2059: 2044:Brill Publishers 2013: 1936:E. N. Tigerstedt 1914: 1907: 1900: 1886: 1885: 1884: 1863:Neoplatonism and 1824:Middle Platonism 1819:Platonic Academy 1696: 1695:Pseudo-Dionysius 1629:Chaldean Oracles 1524:Form of the Good 1501: 1478: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1410: 1372: 1363:The philosopher 1359: 1354: 1345: 1232:Thirty Years War 1217:Council of Trent 1105:(980–1037), and 1101:(c. 870 – 950), 1021:apertam nudamque 938:Middle Platonism 838: 831: 824: 808: 807: 806: 789: 770:Pseudo-Platonica 750:Middle Platonism 732:Related articles 499:First Alcibiades 381:Philosopher king 316:Form of the Good 298: 275: 176:personifications 156:classical Athens 21: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4048: 4047: 4028: 4027: 4026: 4021: 3921: 3893: 3850: 3843: 3791:Theory of Forms 3725: 3712: 3584: 3578: 3364: 3359: 3323: 3318: 3309: 3305: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3271:Philip Merlan, 3270: 3266: 3257: 3253: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3227: 3214: 3210: 3201: 3197: 3180: 3176: 3163: 3159: 3146: 3142: 3133: 3129: 3123:Wayback Machine 3098: 3094: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3054: 3050: 3041: 3037: 3028: 3024: 3015: 3011: 3002: 2998: 2984: 2980: 2971: 2967: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2928: 2924: 2920:(Berlin, 1807). 2911: 2907: 2894: 2890: 2881: 2877: 2871:http://encyclop 2865: 2861: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2817: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2782: 2778: 2769: 2765: 2756: 2752: 2744:James Hankins, 2743: 2739: 2730: 2726: 2717: 2713: 2704: 2700: 2691: 2687: 2679:Kristin Sands, 2678: 2674: 2657: 2653: 2644: 2640: 2627: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2605: 2601: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2567:Ewert Cousins, 2566: 2562: 2549: 2545: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2520: 2516: 2507: 2503: 2490: 2486: 2476:Isis and Osiris 2473: 2469: 2460: 2456: 2447: 2443: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2399: 2395: 2386: 2382: 2373: 2369: 2356: 2352: 2345:in Aristotle's 2340: 2336: 2327: 2323: 2314: 2310: 2301: 2297: 2288: 2284: 2271: 2267: 2250: 2246: 2237: 2233: 2224: 2220: 2207: 2203: 2190: 2186: 2177: 2173: 2145:, 4.19. Plato ( 2136: 2132: 2119: 2115: 2106: 2102: 2093: 2089: 2015: 2014: 2007: 2003: 1969: 1918: 1882: 1880: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1864: 1858: 1801: 1800: 1791: 1790: 1761:Marsilio Ficino 1756:Gemistus Pletho 1746:Michael Psellos 1741:Isaac the Blind 1694: 1644: 1643: 1634: 1633: 1609:The City of God 1604:Liber de Causis 1589: 1588: 1579: 1578: 1519:Theory of forms 1514: 1513: 1504: 1476: 1450:Gregory Vlastos 1375:solo scriptura, 1320: 1314: 1186: 1143:Marsilio Ficino 1115: 1045:Theory of Forms 1030: 947: 909: 881:1074a38 – b13). 868:figuratively. 842: 804: 802: 795: 794: 793: 786: 311:Theory of forms 273: 180:Greek mythology 168: 143:, and literary 106:Dante Alighieri 98:Marsilio Ficino 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4056: 4054: 4046: 4045: 4040: 4030: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4019: 4012: 4007: 4006: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3980: 3979: 3978: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3927: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3903: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3855: 3853: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3841: 3834: 3829: 3822: 3820:Platonic solid 3817: 3816: 3815: 3805: 3803:Theory of soul 3800: 3799: 3798: 3788: 3787: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3760: 3759: 3758: 3746: 3741: 3735: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3710: 3703: 3696: 3689: 3682: 3675: 3668: 3661: 3654: 3647: 3640: 3639: 3638: 3635:Seventh Letter 3624: 3617: 3610: 3603: 3596: 3588: 3586: 3577: 3576: 3569: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3541: 3534: 3527: 3520: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3492: 3485: 3478: 3471: 3464: 3457: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3408: 3401: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3372: 3370: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3358: 3357: 3350: 3343: 3335: 3322: 3321:External links 3319: 3317: 3316: 3310:C. H. Kahn, 3303: 3286: 3277: 3264: 3251: 3238: 3225: 3208: 3195: 3174: 3157: 3140: 3127: 3092: 3079: 3077:Dobson, p. 18. 3070: 3068:Dobson, p. 14. 3061: 3048: 3035: 3022: 3009: 2996: 2978: 2965: 2944: 2935: 2922: 2905: 2888: 2875: 2859: 2846: 2837: 2828: 2811: 2802: 2793: 2776: 2770:W. R. Albury, 2763: 2750: 2737: 2724: 2711: 2698: 2685: 2672: 2651: 2638: 2621: 2612: 2599: 2586: 2577: 2560: 2543: 2527: 2514: 2501: 2484: 2467: 2454: 2441: 2428: 2415: 2406: 2393: 2380: 2376:Heirs of Plato 2367: 2350: 2334: 2321: 2308: 2295: 2282: 2265: 2244: 2231: 2218: 2201: 2191:See Xenophon, 2184: 2171: 2130: 2113: 2100: 2087: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1997: 1991: 1986: 1980: 1975: 1968: 1965: 1920: 1919: 1917: 1916: 1909: 1902: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1877: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1861: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1802: 1799:Related topics 1798: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1786:Roman Ingarden 1783: 1778: 1773: 1771:Giordano Bruno 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1645: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1590: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1515: 1511: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1494: 1493: 1487: 1486: 1475: 1472: 1384:Seventh Letter 1316:Main article: 1313: 1310: 1242:, Ingolstadt). 1201:sola scriptura 1185: 1182: 1114: 1111: 1029: 1026: 946: 943: 908: 905: 844: 843: 841: 840: 833: 826: 818: 815: 814: 813: 812: 797: 796: 785: 784: 783: 780: 779: 775: 774: 773: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 734: 733: 729: 728: 727: 726: 719: 712: 705: 698: 691: 684: 677: 670: 663: 656: 649: 642: 635: 628: 621: 614: 607: 600: 593: 586: 579: 572: 565: 558: 551: 544: 537: 530: 523: 516: 509: 502: 495: 488: 481: 474: 467: 460: 453: 446: 439: 432: 425: 418: 408: 407: 401: 400: 399: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 360: 359: 351: 350: 349: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 321:Theory of soul 318: 313: 308: 300: 299: 291: 290: 284: 283: 272: 269: 200:Neo-Platonists 167: 164: 125:Neo-Platonists 110:Edmund Spenser 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4055: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4018: 4017: 4013: 4011: 4010:Plato's Dream 4008: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3946: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3896: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3884:Ship of State 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3864:Ring of Gyges 3862: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3851:and metaphors 3846: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3794: 3793: 3792: 3789: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3771: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3764: 3761: 3757: 3756: 3752: 3751: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3744:Platonic love 3742: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3728: 3723: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3702: 3701: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3688: 3687: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3669: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3653: 3652: 3648: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3631: 3630: 3629: 3625: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3540: 3539: 3535: 3533: 3532: 3528: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3512: 3511: 3507: 3505: 3504: 3500: 3498: 3497: 3493: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3484: 3483: 3479: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3463: 3462: 3458: 3456: 3455: 3454:Hippias Minor 3451: 3449: 3448: 3447:Hippias Major 3444: 3442: 3441: 3437: 3435: 3434: 3430: 3428: 3427: 3423: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3395: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3351: 3349: 3344: 3342: 3337: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3327: 3320: 3313: 3307: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3290: 3287: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3248: 3245:John Dillon, 3242: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3178: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3080: 3074: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3052: 3049: 3045: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3000: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2969: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2815: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2767: 2764: 2760: 2754: 2751: 2747: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2715: 2712: 2708: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2676: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2652: 2648: 2642: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2581: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2547: 2544: 2539: 2531: 2528: 2524: 2518: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2448:H. Tarrant, 2445: 2442: 2438: 2432: 2429: 2425: 2419: 2416: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2397: 2394: 2390: 2384: 2381: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2222: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2205: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2185: 2181: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2134: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2000: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1964: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1915: 1910: 1908: 1903: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1893: 1892: 1889: 1879: 1878: 1870: 1866: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1795: 1794: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1781:Thomas Taylor 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1638: 1637: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1583: 1582: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1508: 1507: 1500: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1442: 1434: 1430: 1425: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1360: 1350: 1340: 1336: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1311: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1218: 1212: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1197:Martin Luther 1194: 1191: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1168: 1164: 1162: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1124: 1121:Botticelli's 1119: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1097:(d. c. 866), 1096: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1071: 1066: 1064: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1037: 1035: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1005: 1002: 996: 991: 988: 984: 979: 977: 973: 969: 965: 964:Neo-Platonism 961: 951: 944: 942: 939: 934: 931: 927: 921: 919: 915: 906: 903: 901: 895: 893: 887: 882: 880: 873: 869: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 839: 834: 832: 827: 825: 820: 819: 817: 816: 811: 801: 800: 799: 798: 792: 788: 782: 781: 776: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 737: 736: 735: 730: 725: 724: 720: 718: 717: 713: 711: 710: 706: 704: 703: 699: 697: 696: 692: 690: 689: 685: 683: 682: 678: 676: 675: 671: 669: 668: 664: 662: 661: 657: 655: 654: 650: 648: 647: 643: 641: 640: 636: 634: 633: 629: 627: 626: 622: 620: 619: 615: 613: 612: 608: 606: 605: 601: 599: 598: 594: 592: 591: 590:Hippias Minor 587: 585: 584: 583:Hippias Major 580: 578: 577: 573: 571: 570: 566: 564: 563: 559: 557: 556: 552: 550: 549: 545: 543: 542: 538: 536: 535: 531: 529: 528: 524: 522: 521: 517: 515: 514: 510: 508: 507: 503: 501: 500: 496: 494: 493: 489: 487: 486: 482: 480: 479: 475: 473: 472: 468: 466: 465: 461: 459: 458: 454: 452: 451: 447: 445: 444: 440: 438: 437: 433: 431: 430: 426: 424: 423: 419: 417: 416: 412: 411: 410: 409: 406: 402: 397: 394: 392: 391:Ring of Gyges 389: 387: 386:Ship of State 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 363: 362: 361: 358: 357: 352: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 302: 301: 297: 293: 292: 289: 285: 281: 277: 276: 268: 263: 258: 254: 252: 245: 243: 239: 235: 232:over whether 231: 227: 220: 216: 212: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 172: 163: 161: 157: 153: 148: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 47: 43: 40:, Athenian" ( 39: 35: 31: 27: 19: 4014: 3971:Neoplatonism 3966:Commentaries 3944: 3848: 3838:Hyperuranion 3836: 3824: 3781: 3774: 3767: 3753: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3686:Rival Lovers 3684: 3677: 3670: 3663: 3656: 3649: 3642: 3633: 3626: 3619: 3612: 3605: 3598: 3591: 3585:authenticity 3571: 3564: 3557: 3550: 3543: 3536: 3529: 3522: 3515: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3487: 3480: 3473: 3466: 3459: 3452: 3445: 3438: 3431: 3424: 3417: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3389: 3382: 3375: 3324: 3311: 3306: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3280: 3272: 3267: 3259: 3254: 3246: 3241: 3233: 3228: 3220: 3216: 3211: 3203: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3135: 3130: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3082: 3073: 3064: 3056: 3051: 3043: 3038: 3030: 3029:Tigerstedt, 3025: 3017: 3012: 3004: 2999: 2990: 2986: 2981: 2973: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2938: 2930: 2925: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2883: 2878: 2866: 2862: 2854: 2849: 2840: 2831: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2805: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2771: 2766: 2758: 2753: 2745: 2740: 2732: 2727: 2719: 2718:F. Novotny, 2714: 2706: 2701: 2693: 2688: 2680: 2675: 2667: 2659: 2654: 2646: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2615: 2607: 2602: 2594: 2589: 2580: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2530: 2522: 2517: 2509: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2462: 2457: 2449: 2444: 2436: 2435:des Places, 2431: 2423: 2418: 2409: 2401: 2396: 2389:The Skeptics 2388: 2383: 2375: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2353: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2324: 2316: 2311: 2303: 2298: 2290: 2285: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2260: 2252: 2247: 2239: 2238:A. L. Ford, 2234: 2221: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2179: 2174: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2125: 2116: 2108: 2103: 2095: 2090: 2031: 2025: 1961: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1934: 1923: 1867: / 1865:Christianity 1848: 1834:Spirituality 1491:Neoplatonism 1465: 1459: 1453: 1443: 1439: 1427: 1407: 1395: 1390: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1362: 1348: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1327: 1305: 1297: 1290: 1286: 1283:Encyclopedia 1282: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1255: 1249: 1245: 1214: 1210: 1200: 1195: 1187: 1179: 1174: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1140: 1137: 1132: 1128: 1122: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1073: 1068: 1061: 1055: 1040: 1038: 1031: 1020: 1016: 1014: 1006: 1000: 998: 993: 986: 980: 975: 971: 967: 957: 936: 929: 925: 923: 917: 916:and another 913: 910: 899: 897: 888: 884: 878: 875: 870: 865: 849: 847: 759: 755:Neoplatonism 740:Commentaries 721: 714: 707: 700: 693: 686: 679: 672: 665: 658: 651: 644: 637: 630: 623: 616: 609: 602: 595: 588: 581: 574: 567: 560: 553: 546: 539: 532: 525: 520:Rival Lovers 518: 511: 504: 497: 490: 483: 476: 469: 462: 455: 448: 441: 434: 427: 420: 413: 356:The Republic 354: 326:Epistemology 265: 260: 256: 250: 247: 241: 237: 223: 218: 214: 159: 151: 149: 141:hermeneutics 128: 118: 51: 26: 3826:Anima mundi 3783:Theia mania 3600:Definitions 3583:Of doubtful 3018:Geschichte, 3016:Tennemann, 3005:Geschichte, 3003:Tennemann, 2987:Geschichte, 2985:Tennemann, 2974:Geschichte, 2972:Tennemann, 2363:On Rhetoric 2193:Memorabilia 2178:P. Struck, 2151:Phoenicians 2122:Luc Brisson 2050:: 128–152. 1926:E. R. Dodds 1554:Anima mundi 1462:Leo Strauss 1326:Tennemann, 1287:Eclectisme. 1205:Reformation 667:Definitions 74:Renaissance 4032:Categories 3889:Myth of Er 3849:Allegories 3755:Sophrosyne 3731:Philosophy 3672:On Justice 3658:Hipparchus 3566:Theaetetus 3531:Protagoras 3503:Parmenides 3419:Euthydemus 3215:K. Sayre, 2255:online at 2001:References 1930:Speusippus 1869:Gnosticism 1839:Isma'ilism 1664:Iamblichus 1529:Hypostasis 1077:anagogical 1001:Parmenides 987:Parmenides 858:Xenocrates 854:Speusippus 674:On Justice 562:Protagoras 555:Euthydemus 513:Hipparchus 471:Parmenides 450:Theaetetus 396:Myth of Er 226:Anaxagoras 188:Empedocles 184:Parmenides 58:allegories 4038:Platonism 3776:Peritrope 3679:On Virtue 3607:Demodocus 3559:Symposium 3552:Statesman 3489:Menexenus 3426:Euthyphro 3391:Clitophon 3384:Charmides 2365:, III.2). 2347:Politics. 2291:Vit. Pit. 2159:Symposium 2107:J. Tate, 2082:225696088 2074:1872-5082 2066:1872-5473 1989:Platonism 1806:Platonism 1726:Al-Farabi 1679:Macrobius 1370:Schwärmer 1161:Phaedrus, 1123:Primavera 1099:Al-Farabi 1009:Macrobius 976:Symposium 968:hyponoiai 688:Demodocus 681:On Virtue 611:Clitophon 604:Menexenus 534:Charmides 485:Symposium 464:Statesman 415:Euthyphro 288:Platonism 160:hyponoiai 145:symbolism 4043:Allegory 3945:Republic 3869:The Cave 3859:Atlantis 3832:Demiurge 3769:Amanesis 3700:Sisyphus 3628:Epistles 3621:Epinomis 3614:Epigrams 3593:Axiochus 3538:Republic 3524:Philebus 3517:Phaedrus 3398:Cratylus 3295:Apeiron, 3119:Archived 2895:Goethe, 2491:See his 2437:Numenius 2400:Dörrie, 2359:De Caelo 2343:Republic 2227:Cratylus 2163:hyponoia 1978:Allegory 1967:See also 1829:Kabbalah 1706:Boethius 1659:Porphyry 1653:students 1649:Plotinus 1544:Demiurge 1512:Concepts 1483:a series 1481:Part of 1382:and the 1380:Phaedrus 1349:Timaeus, 1107:Averroes 1103:Avicenna 1095:Al-Kindi 1017:fabulosa 960:Plotinus 723:Epigrams 716:Axiochus 695:Sisyphus 660:Epistles 653:Epinomis 618:Republic 492:Phaedrus 478:Philebus 443:Cratylus 346:Atlantis 341:Demiurge 280:a series 278:Part of 251:Republic 242:Phaedrus 230:Socrates 219:Republic 196:Xenophon 192:Prodicus 152:allegory 90:Syrianus 86:Porphyry 82:Plotinus 80:such as 3879:The Sun 3707:Theages 3651:Halcyon 3644:Eryxias 3573:Timaeus 3545:Sophist 3440:Gorgias 3405:Critias 3377:Apology 3111:in the 2493:Enneads 2330:Brisson 2139:Moralia 2020:(ed.). 1808: ( 1689:Proclus 1674:Hypatia 1651: ( 1594:Enneads 1564:Theurgy 1559:Henosis 1134:Europe. 1056:Enneads 983:Proclus 970:). 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Knowledge

Allegorical interpretations of Plato

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