97:, increased capillary density in muscle and hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction–increased intracellular oxidative enzymes. There are a range of responses to hypoxia at the cellular level, shown by discovery of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), which determine the general responses of the body to oxygen deprivation. Physiological functions at high altitude are not normal and evidence also shows impairment of neuropsychological function, which has been implicated in mountaineering and aviation accidents. Methods of mitigating the effects of the high altitude environment include oxygen enrichment of breathing air and/or an increase of pressure in an enclosed environment. Other effects of high altitude include
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Room air at altitude can be enriched with oxygen without introducing an unacceptable fire hazard. At an altitude of 8000 m the equivalent altitude in terms of oxygen partial pressure can be reduced to below 4000 m without increasing the fire hazard beyond that of normal sea level atmospheric air. In
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Compared with acclimatized newcomers, native Andean and
Himalayan populations have better oxygenation at birth, enlarged lung volumes throughout life, and a higher capacity for exercise. Tibetans demonstrate a sustained increase in cerebral blood flow, elevated resting ventilation, lower hemoglobin
506:
Full hematological adaptation to high altitude is achieved when the increase of red blood cells reaches a plateau and stops. The length of full hematological adaptation can be approximated by multiplying the altitude in kilometres by 11.4 days. For example, to adapt to 4,000 metres (13,000 ft)
3187:
Dufour, SP; Ponsot, E.; Zoll, J.; Doutreleau, S.; Lonsdorfer-Wolf, E.; Geny, B.; Lampert, E.; Flück, M.; Hoppeler, H.; Billat, V.; Mettauer, B.; Richard, R.; Lonsdorfer, J. (April 2006). "Exercise training in normobaric hypoxia in endurance runners. I. Improvement in aerobic performance capacity".
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This conundrum led to the development of the altitude training modality known as "Live-High, Train-Low", whereby the athlete spends many hours a day resting and sleeping at one (high) altitude, but performs a significant portion of their training, possibly all of it, at another (lower) altitude. A
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For athletes, high altitude produces two contradictory effects on performance. For explosive events (sprints up to 400 metres, long jump, triple jump) the reduction in atmospheric pressure means there is less resistance from the atmosphere and the athlete's performance will generally be better at
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Full acclimatization requires days or even weeks. Gradually, the body compensates for the respiratory alkalosis by renal excretion of bicarbonate, allowing adequate respiration to provide oxygen without risking alkalosis. It takes about four days at any given altitude and can be enhanced by drugs
603:
in the United States. The correlation between elevation and suicide risk was present even when the researchers control for known suicide risk factors, including age, gender, race, and income. Research has also indicated that oxygen levels are unlikely to be a factor, considering that there is no
46:
are mostly the consequences of reduced partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. The medical problems that are direct consequence of high altitude are caused by the low inspired partial pressure of oxygen, which is caused by the reduced atmospheric pressure, and the constant gas fraction of
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The ambient air temperature is predictably affected by altitude, and this also has physiological effects on people exposed to high altitudes. The temperature effects and their mitigation are not inherently different from temperature effects from other causes, but the effects of temperature and
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Many deaths in high-altitude mountaineering have been caused by the effects of the death zone, either directly by loss of vital functions or indirectly through wrong decisions made under stress or physical weakening leading to accidents. In the death zone, the human body cannot acclimatize. An
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series of studies conducted in Utah in the late 1990s showed significant performance gains in athletes who followed such a protocol for several weeks. Another study from 2006 has shown performance gains from merely performing some exercising sessions at high altitude, yet living at sea level.
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People who develop acute mountain sickness can sometimes be identified before the onset of symptoms by changes in fluid balance hormones regulating salt and water metabolism. People who are predisposed to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema may present a reduction in urine production before
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Ponsot, E; Dufour, S.P.; Zoll, J.; Doutrelau, S.; N'Guessan, B.; Geny, B.; Hoppeler, H.; Lampert, E.; Mettauer, B.; Ventura-Clapier, R.; Richard, R. (April 2006). "Exercise training in normobaric hypoxia in endurance runners. II. Improvement of mitochondrial properties in skeletal muscle".
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Athletes can also take advantage of altitude acclimatization to increase their performance. The same changes that help the body cope with high altitude increase performance back at sea level. However, this may not always be the case. Any positive acclimatization effects may be negated by a
82:, the ambient pressure can drop below the vapor pressure of water at body temperature, but at such altitudes even pure oxygen at ambient pressure cannot support human life, and a pressure suit is necessary. A rapid depressurisation to the low pressures of high altitudes can trigger
659:, mostly caused by convection and the adiabatic expansion of air with decreasing pressure. At the peak of Mount Everest, the average summer temperature is −19 °C (−2 °F) and the average winter temperature is −36 °C (−33 °F). At such low temperatures,
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high altitude. For endurance events (races of 800 metres or more), the predominant effect is the reduction in oxygen, which generally reduces the athlete's performance at high altitude. One way to gauge this reduction is by monitoring VO
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qualifiers, including their capital cities. In their ruling, FIFA's executive committee specifically cited what they believed to be an unfair advantage possessed by home teams acclimated to the elevation. The ban was reversed in 2008.
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Mitigation may be by supplementary oxygen, pressurisation of the habitat or environmental protection suit, or a combination of both. In all cases the critical effect is the raising of oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas.
580:(CMS). Andeans possess a similar suite of adaptations but exhibit elevated hemoglobin concentration and a normal resting ventilation. These adaptations may reflect the longer history of high altitude habitation in these regions.
564:. The indigenous inhabitants of these regions thrive well in the highest parts of the world. These humans have undergone extensive physiological and genetic changes, particularly in the regulatory systems of oxygen
267:
Humans have survived for two years at 5,950 m (19,520 ft, 475 millibars of atmospheric pressure), which is the highest recorded permanently tolerable altitude; the highest permanent settlement known,
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At altitudes above 7,500 m (24,600 ft, 383 millibars of atmospheric pressure), sleeping becomes very difficult, digesting food is near-impossible, and the risk of HAPE or HACE increases greatly.
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life for an extended time span. This point is generally tagged as 8,000 m (26,000 ft, less than 356 millibars of atmospheric pressure). All 14 summits in the death zone above 8000 m, called
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Gore, CJ; Hopkins, WG (November 2005). "Counterpoint: positive effects of intermittent hypoxia (live high:train low) on exercise performance are not mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume".
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to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen. There is a limit to the level of adaptation; mountaineers refer to the altitudes above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) as the
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Levine, BD; Stray-Gundersen, J (November 2005). "Point: positive effects of intermittent hypoxia (live high:train low) on exercise performance are mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume".
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from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.
526:, even in acclimatized women, which interferes with fetal growth. Consequently, children born at high-altitudes are found to be born shorter on average than children born at sea level.
1436:(Report). Vol. USARIEM-TN94-2. US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009
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It is estimated that 81.6 million people live at elevations above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). Genetic changes have been detected in high-altitude population groups in
3152:
Stray-Gundersen, J; Chapman, RF; Levine, BD (September 2001). ""Living high-training low" altitude training improves sea level performance in male and female elite runners".
2515:"Lower Obesity Rate during Residence at High Altitude among a Military Population with Frequent Migration: A Quasi Experimental Model for Investigating Spatial Causation"
412:
The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the
66:
reaches around 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) above sea level, the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to decrease rapidly. However, the human body has both short-term and
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Levine, BD; Stray-Gundersen, J (July 1997). ""Living high-training low": effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance".
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The performance-enhancing effect of altitude training could be due to increased red blood cell count, more efficient training, or changes in muscle physiology.
260:, to treat these conditions on site. Research also indicates elevated risk of permanent brain damage in people climbing to above 5,500 m (18,045 ft).
843:
826:, Italy, from 1988 to 1996, and again in 2004. The advantage of its high altitude in sprinting and jumping events held out hope of world records, with sponsor
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prevalence in the United States. This is not explained by migration alone. On the other hand, people living at higher elevations also have a higher rate of
1954:
Moore, LG; Shriver, M; Bemis, L; Hickler, B; et al. (April 2004). "Maternal
Adaptation to High-altitude Pregnancy: An Experiment of Nature—A Review".
839:
404:. A sudden change from sea-level pressure to pressures as low as those at 5,500 m (18,000 ft) can cause altitude-induced decompression sickness.
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is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the
807:. The world records in most short sprint and jump records were broken there. Other records were also set at altitude in anticipation of those Olympics.
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max begins to decrease significantly at moderate elevation, starting at 1,500 metres and dropping 8 to 11 percent for every additional 1000 metres.
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Beall, C. M.; Goldstein, M. C. (August 1987). "Hemoglobin concentration of pastoral nomads permanently resident at 4,850-5,450 meters in Tibet".
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The
International Society for Mountain Medicine recognizes three altitude regions which reflect the lowered amount of oxygen in the atmosphere:
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1601:
Rose, MS; Houston, CS; Fulco, CS; Coates, G; Sutton, JR; Cymerman, A (December 1988). "Operation
Everest. II: Nutrition and body composition".
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oxygen in atmospheric air over the range in which humans can survive. The other major effect of altitude is due to lower ambient temperature.
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Hamlin, Michael J; Hopkins, Will G; Hollings, Stephen C (Oct 2015). "Effects of altitude on performance of elite track-and-field athletes".
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matches held at more than 2,500 metres above sea level, effectively barring select stadiums in
Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador from hosting
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Zubieta-Calleja, G. R.; Paulev, P-E.; Zubieta-Calleja, L.; Zubieta-Castillo, G. (2007). "Altitude adaptation through hematocrit change".
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de-training effect as the athletes are usually not able to exercise with as much intensity at high altitudes compared to sea level.
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Anand, Inder S.; Chandrashekhar, Y. (1996). "18, Fluid
Metabolism at High Altitudes.". In Marriott, B.M.; Carlson, S.J. (eds.).
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decreases with altitude as well. It is about half of its sea-level value at 5,000 m (16,000 ft), the altitude of the
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Bigard, AX; Brunet, A; Guezennec, CY; Monod, H (1991). "Skeletal muscle changes after endurance training at high altitude".
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Grocott, Michael P.W.; Martin, Daniel S.; Levett, Denny Z.H.; McMorrow, Roger; Windsor, Jeremy; Montgomery, Hugh E. (2009).
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of altitude would require 45.6 days. The upper altitude limit of this linear relationship has not been fully established.
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Tibetans and
Andeans are two groups which are relatively well adapted to high altitude, but display noticeably different
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increases approximately 9% with every increase of altitude by 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Symptoms of sunburn include
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1552:. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US): Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research.
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389:. Exposure to pressure below this limit results in a rapid loss of consciousness, followed by a series of changes to
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Nutritional Needs In Cold And In High-Altitude
Environments: Applications for Military Personnel in Field Operations
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1885:"From mountain to bedside: understanding the clinical relevance of human acclimatisation to high-altitude hypoxia"
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Sports organizations acknowledge the effects of altitude on performance: for example, the governing body for the
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2474:"Association of Elevation, Urbanization and Ambient Temperature with Obesity Prevalence in the United States"
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Even below the
Armstrong limit, an abrupt decrease in atmospheric pressure can cause venous gas bubbles and
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Ward-Smith, AJ (1983). "The influence of aerodynamic and biomechanical factors on long jump performance".
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US Army
Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report
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793:, has ruled that performances achieved at an altitude greater than 1,000 metres will be approved for
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322:, a Swiss physician and alpinist. It refers to altitudes above a certain point where the amount of
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West, J.B. (Spring 2001). "Safe upper limits for oxygen enrichment of room air at high altitude".
1251:
Zubieta-Castillo, G.; Zubieta-Calleja, G.R.; Zubieta-Calleja, L.; Zubieta-Castillo, Nancy (2008).
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or in heavy smokers at high altitude. The cause for the increased suicide risk is as yet unknown.
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production (because reduced glucose breakdown decreases the amount of lactate formed), decreased
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will result in deterioration of bodily functions, loss of consciousness, and, ultimately, death.
269:
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Travel to each of these altitude regions can lead to medical problems, from the mild symptoms of
188:
256:). The higher the altitude, the greater the risk. Expedition doctors commonly stock a supply of
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Blumthaler, M; Ambach, W; Ellinger, R (1997). "Increase in solar UV radiation with altitude".
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1496:"Evidence of brain damage after high-altitude climbing by means of magnetic resonance imaging"
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819:. Many of the other records set at Mexico City were later surpassed by marks set at altitude.
800:
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2433:"Lower Mortality From Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke at Higher Altitudes in Switzerland"
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Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (1998). "Maximal and submaximal exercise performance at altitude".
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2259:"Convergent evolution in human and domesticate adaptation to high-altitude environments"
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Azad P, Stobdan T, Zhou D, Hartley I, Akbari A, Bafna V, Haddad GG (December 2017).
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due to the reduced blocking of ultraviolet by the thinner atmosphere. The amount of
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721:, because the air is warmed to body temperature and humidified from body moisture.
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functions, and eventually death, unless pressure is restored within 60–90 seconds.
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176:) is 21.136 kilopascals (158.53 mmHg). In healthy individuals, this saturates
94:
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Brenner, Barry; Cheng, David; Clark, Sunday; Camargo, Carlos A. Jr (Spring 2011).
1253:"Facts that Prove that Adaptation to life at Extreme Altitude (8842m) is possible"
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2308:"Andean, Tibetan, and Ethiopian patterns of adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia"
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Brown DJ, Brugger H, Boyd J, Paal P (November 2012). "Accidental hypothermia".
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers
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Even when acclimatized, prolonged exposure to high altitude can interfere with
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Westerterp, Klaas (1 June 2001). "Energy and Water Balance at High Altitude".
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purposes, but carry the notation of "A" to denote they were set at altitude.
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Eosinophilic, polymorphic, and pruritic eruption associated with radiotherapy
2815:
The Pocket Outdoor Survival Guide: The Ultimate Guide for Short-Term Survival
2333:
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2101:"High-altitude adaptation in humans: from genomics to integrative physiology"
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concentration (at elevations below 4000 metres), and less susceptibility to
511:
503:. Pulmonary artery pressure increases in an effort to oxygenate more blood.
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137:
117:
98:
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held for almost 23 years and has only been beaten once without altitude or
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2577:"Positive Association between Altitude and Suicide in 2584 U.S. Counties"
2396:
Moore, Lorna G (June 2001). "Human Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude".
2374:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1998)107:27+<25::AID-AJPA3>3.0.CO;2-L
2357:"Human adaptation to high altitude: Regional and life-cycle perspectives"
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2307:
2042:"Global and country-level estimates of human population at high altitude"
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max, a measurement of the maximum capacity of an individual to utilize O
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1208:"Arterial Blood Gases and Oxygen Content in Climbers on Mount Everest"
30:
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679:
671:
451:. Eventually, the body undergoes physiological changes such as lower
323:
59:
1252:
353:
2866:"High Elevation Travel & Altitude Illness CDC Yellow Book 2024"
1636:
Kayser, B. (October 1992). "Nutrition and high altitude exposure".
207:, and only a third at 8,848 m (29,029 ft), the summit of
2472:
Voss, JD; Masuoka, P; Webber, BJ; Scher, AI; Atkinson, RL (2013).
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that occurs when exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the
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fraction remains constant to about 100 km (62 mi), so pO
29:
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below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F) in humans. Symptoms range from
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EMedicine Specialties > Emergency Medicine > Environmental
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253:
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Voss, JD; Allison, DB; Webber, BJ; Otto, JL; Clark, LL (2014).
1166:"Limits to human performance: elevated risks on high mountains"
229:
Very high altitude = 3,500–5,500 metres (11,500–18,000 ft)
691:
683:
1471:
Into Thin Air: A Personal Account of the Mt. Everest Disaster
1406:. International Society for Mountain Medicine. Archived from
773:
during strenuous exercise. For an unacclimated individual, VO
2706:
Handford, C; Thomas, O; Imray, CHE (May 2017). "Frostbite".
2185:"Three High-Altitude Peoples, Three Adaptations to Thin Air"
591:
is observed for residents at higher altitudes. Similarly, a
416:, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (
717:
In addition to cold injuries, breathing cold air can cause
358:
2950:
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
556:
to high-altitude environments, associated with heritable
226:
High altitude = 1,500–3,500 metres (4,900–11,500 ft)
2257:
Witt, Kelsey E.; Huerta-Sánchez, Emilia (22 July 2019).
420:). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of
132:
Pressure as a function of the height above the sea level
74:, where it is generally believed that no human body can
3012:"Some Olympic Losers Seek Consolation at High Altitude"
2431:
Faeh, David; Gutzwiller, Felix; Bopp, Matthias (2009).
1566:
West, JB (2002). "Highest permanent human habitation".
1541:
1539:
830:
offering a car as a bonus. One record was set, in the
637:
practice this can be done using oxygen concentrators.
443:
in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).
369:
At an altitude of 19,000 m (63,000 ft), the
232:
Extreme altitude = above 5,500 metres (18,000 ft)
2888:
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology
678:
of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the
89:
The physiological responses to high altitude include
27:
Environmental effects on physiology and mental health
3434:
1561:
1559:
4486:
4458:
4413:
4382:
4356:
4340:
4256:
4231:
4160:
4083:
4057:
4050:
3976:
3852:
3826:
3737:
3655:
3562:
3438:
3034:
3032:
1164:Huey, Raymond B.; Eguskitza, Xavier (2 July 2001).
595:exists between increasing elevation and decreasing
572:, when compared to the general lowland population.
522:. High altitude causes decreased blood flow to the
3082:"All-time women's best long jump: Non-legal marks"
3039:
2162:. University of Michigan Press. pp. 175–301.
1780:Harris, N Stuart; Nelson, Sara W (16 April 2008).
1427:
1425:
1353:
1351:
1991:"Evaluation of Linear Growth at Higher Altitudes"
1081:. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC.
1032:Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
655:The temperature of the atmosphere decreases by a
3063:"All-time men's best long jump: Non-legal marks"
822:An elite athletics meeting was held annually in
298:is in the death zone, as are the summits of all
1801:"Effect of Altitude on the Heart and the Lungs"
1072:"Human Adaptation to High Terrestrial Altitude"
552:in Africa. This adaptation means irreversible,
3104:
3102:
1370:). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009
4027:
3540:
3384:"Fifa suspends ban on high-altitude football"
2983:Kenney, WL; Wilmore, JH; Costill, DL (2019).
2191:. National Geographic Society. Archived from
1065:
1063:
1061:
710:and mental confusion, to hallucinations and
187:Atmospheric pressure decreases following the
8:
2764:
2762:
2659:Richard M. Goody; James C.G. Walker (1972).
2355:Moore, LG; Niermeyer, S; Zamudio, S (1998).
1494:Fayed, N; Modrego, P.J.; Morales, H (2006).
3378:
3376:
3041:"Anche il volo di Bubka finisce in Ferrari"
2708:Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America
1279:Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine
1137:Wild winds: adventures in the highest Andes
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
4678:
4054:
4034:
4020:
4012:
3547:
3533:
3525:
3435:
2570:
2568:
1116:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
124:Pressure effects as a function of altitude
2600:
2548:
2538:
2489:
2448:
2372:
2323:
2282:
2216:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2124:
2075:
2065:
2016:
2006:
1900:
1883:Martin, D; Windsor, J (1 December 2008).
1816:
1775:
1773:
1754:"Altitude-induced Decompression Sickness"
1358:Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004).
1246:
1244:
1201:
1199:
1086:
1070:Young, Andrew J; Reeves, John T. (2002).
1949:
1947:
1129:
1127:
702:areas. Hypothermia is defined as a body
346:extended stay in the death zone without
127:
1782:"Altitude Illness – Cerebral Syndromes"
1005:
667:become risks to humans. Frostbite is a
272:, is at 5,100 m (16,700 ft).
2689:"12 Extreme Facts about Mount Everest"
1989:Baye, Kaleab; Hirvonen, Kalle (2020).
1926:Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
1854:10.1152/physiologyonline.2001.16.3.134
1759:. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
1447:
1381:
1159:
1157:
1109:
872:Athletes training at high altitude in
264:respiratory symptoms become apparent.
4193:Radiation-induced erythema multiforme
3086:Track and Field all-time performances
3067:Track and Field all-time performances
2306:Beall, Cynthia M. (1 February 2006).
1079:Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments
7:
4666:
3913:oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
3431:, High Altitude Pathology Institute.
2581:High Altitude Medicine & Biology
2398:High Altitude Medicine & Biology
1473:. New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday.
1311:from the original on 18 October 2012
994:Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
216:
180:, the oxygen-binding red pigment in
164:) in sea-level air is 20.9%, so the
4510:Pseudoverrucous papules and nodules
4198:Radiation-induced hypertrophic scar
2771:The New England Journal of Medicine
2312:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2183:Hillary Mayell (24 February 2004).
431:In addition, at high altitude, the
136:The human body can perform best at
3839:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
3010:Valsecchi, Piero (6 August 1996).
2159:Human Adaptation and Accommodation
2040:Tremblay, JC; Ainslie, PN (2021).
536:High-altitude adaptation in humans
497:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
491:enzyme concentration, increase in
44:effects of high altitude on humans
25:
2989:. United States: Human Kinetics.
2742:"Frostbite - Symptoms and causes"
2450:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.819250
1818:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.650796
1404:"Non-Physician Altitude Tutorial"
756:, swelling, itching, and nausea.
622:High altitude breathing apparatus
554:long-term physiological responses
318:) was first conceived in 1953 by
4701:
4689:
4677:
4665:
4654:
4653:
4296:Inner ear decompression sickness
3274:(5): 2055–7, discussion 2057–8.
2986:Physiology of Sport and Exercise
2478:International Journal of Obesity
2008:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.2386
1503:The American Journal of Medicine
1360:"Altitude Acclimatization Guide"
1331:"Introduction to the Atmosphere"
880:(elevation 1,856 m or 6,089 ft).
471:mass, a higher concentration of
385:. This altitude is known as the
363:second highest mountain on Earth
4690:
3351:10.1152/japplphysiol.00361.2005
3280:10.1152/japplphysiol.00820.2005
3237:10.1152/japplphysiol.00877.2005
3202:10.1152/japplphysiol.00742.2005
3080:Larsson, Peter (10 June 2020).
2670:. Prentice-Hall. Archived from
1799:Bärtsch, P; Gibbs, JSR (2007).
1260:Adaptation Biology and Medicine
1170:Journal of Experimental Biology
940:, adaptation to chronic hypoxia
928:1999 South Dakota Learjet crash
724:There is also a higher risk of
608:at high altitude in those with
516:intrauterine growth restriction
373:is sufficiently low that water
84:altitude decompression sickness
3418:Essentials of Human Physiology
3061:Larsson, Peter (10 May 2020).
2864:Hackett, Peter; Shlim, David.
2812:Fears, J. Wayne (2011-02-14).
1968:10.1016/j.placenta.2004.01.008
1842:News in Physiological Sciences
1305:"Hypoxemia (low blood oxygen)"
215:drops, the body responds with
1:
4530:environmental skin conditions
4323:High-altitude pulmonary edema
3303:Journal of Applied Physiology
3268:Journal of Applied Physiology
3225:Journal of Applied Physiology
3190:Journal of Applied Physiology
3154:Journal of Applied Physiology
3111:Journal of Applied Physiology
2900:10.1016/S1011-1344(96)00018-8
2105:Journal of Molecular Medicine
1679:Wyss-Dunant, Edouard (1953).
1568:High Altitude Medical Biology
501:right ventricular hypertrophy
242:high-altitude pulmonary edema
4520:Tropical anhidrotic asthenia
4329:High-altitude cerebral edema
3315:10.1152/jappl.1991.71.6.2114
3166:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.3.1113
3050:. 1 August 1994. p. 23.
2927:10.1016/0021-9290(83)90116-1
2540:10.1371/journal.pone.0093493
1889:Postgraduate Medical Journal
1615:10.1152/jappl.1988.65.6.2545
1515:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.062
736:that is hot to the touch or
250:high-altitude cerebral edema
4542:frictional/traumatic/sports
4168:Chronic radiation keratosis
3871:Ventilation/perfusion ratio
3722:pulmonary stretch receptors
3123:10.1152/jappl.1997.83.1.102
2840:"Adapting to High Altitude"
938:2,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid
923:1996 Mount Everest disaster
326:is insufficient to sustain
4751:
4634:Pseudoacanthosis nigricans
3903:alveolar–arterial gradient
2661:"Atmospheric Temperatures"
2638:10.1089/152702901750067918
2410:10.1089/152702901750265341
1729:"Human Exposure to Vacuum"
1140:. Ed Darack. p. 153.
1044:10.1164/rccm.201207-1323CI
989:Organisms at high altitude
861:
644:
625:
619:
593:dose–response relationship
533:
283:
58:determines the content of
4730:Mountaineering and health
4649:
4405:Space adaptation syndrome
4313:Chronic mountain sickness
4218:Radiation recall reaction
4208:Radiation-induced morphea
4111:Warm water immersion foot
3784:respiratory minute volume
3696:ventral respiratory group
3414:"Section 4/4ch7/s4ch7_32"
2720:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.006
2117:10.1007/s00109-017-1584-7
1932:(Suppl 5(Pt 2)): 811–18.
1580:10.1089/15270290260512882
1454:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1388:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
964:Helios Airways Flight 522
803:were held at altitude in
748:. Other symptoms include
652:pressure are cumulative.
578:chronic mountain sickness
240:to the potentially fatal
4587:Weathering nodule of ear
4203:Radiation-induced keloid
4188:Radiation-induced cancer
4118:Non-freezing cold injury
4096:Immersion foot syndromes
3691:dorsal respiratory group
3585:obligate nasal breathing
2189:National Geographic News
1902:10.1136/pgmj.2008.068296
1716:. PBS. 24 February 1998.
1710:"Everest:The Death Zone"
1028:"High-Altitude Medicine"
969:High-altitude adaptation
901:a short-lived moratorium
801:The 1968 Summer Olympics
604:indication of increased
217:altitude acclimatization
18:Altitude acclimatization
4515:Sclerosing lymphangitis
4106:Tropical immersion foot
3893:pulmonary gas pressures
2962:10.1123/ijspp.2014-0261
2915:Journal of Biomechanics
2228:10.1002/ajpa.1330730404
2067:10.1073/pnas.2102463118
1432:Cymerman, A; Rock, PB.
1182:10.1242/jeb.204.18.3115
647:Atmospheric temperature
365:, is in the death zone.
238:acute mountain sickness
158:concentration of oxygen
4735:Respiratory physiology
4602:Painful fat herniation
4582:Vibration white finger
4291:Decompression sickness
4148:Erythrocyanosis crurum
3647:mechanical ventilation
3556:Respiratory physiology
2818:. Simon and Schuster.
2361:Am. J. Phys. Anthropol
2275:10.1098/rstb.2018.0235
1650:10.1055/s-2007-1024616
1469:Krakauer, Jon (1999).
1026:West, John B. (2012).
881:
850:were also beaten, but
589:cardiovascular disease
402:decompression sickness
366:
303:
156:, by definition). The
133:
39:
4557:Fissure of the nipple
4525:UV-sensitive syndrome
4450:Adverse drug reaction
4279:Middle ear barotrauma
4269:Arterial gas embolism
3898:alveolar gas equation
3834:pulmonary circulation
2783:10.1056/NEJMra1114208
2593:10.1089/ham.2010.1058
2156:Frisancho AR (1993).
1335:PhysicalGeography.net
1227:10.1056/NEJMoa0801581
871:
548:of the Americas, and
422:respiratory alkalosis
356:
334:, are located in the
293:
131:
68:long-term adaptations
33:
4552:Equestrian perniosis
3953:respiratory quotient
3808:body plethysmography
3727:Hering–Breuer reflex
3602:pulmonary surfactant
1727:Geoffrey A. Landis.
1644:(Suppl 1): S129–32.
1532:on 22 November 2010.
1098:on 16 September 2012
760:Athletic performance
628:Supplementary oxygen
371:atmospheric pressure
348:supplementary oxygen
142:atmospheric pressure
62:in blood. After the
4639:Narcotic dermopathy
4547:Black heel and palm
4500:Dermatosis neglecta
4374:Psychological abuse
4213:Radiation poisoning
3796:Lung function tests
3630:hyperresponsiveness
3047:Corriere della Sera
2531:2014PLoSO...993493V
2058:2021PNAS..11802463T
2052:(18): e2102463118.
1266:(Suppl 5): 348–355.
1134:Darack, Ed (2002).
734:red or reddish skin
320:Edouard Wyss-Dunant
4609:Uranium dermatosis
4562:Pulling boat hands
4471:Lightning injuries
3963:diffusion capacity
3958:arterial blood gas
3938:carbonic anhydrase
3672:pneumotaxic center
2693:New Zealand Herald
2491:10.1038/ijo.2013.5
2325:10.1093/icb/icj004
2269:(1777): 20180235.
1688:The Mountain World
882:
787:sport of athletics
479:tissue, increased
459:volume, increased
433:heart beats faster
426:respiratory center
379:normal temperature
367:
304:
189:Barometric formula
134:
40:
4717:
4716:
4466:Electrical injury
4308:Altitude sickness
4156:
4155:
4009:
4008:
3917:Oxygen saturation
3883:zones of the lung
3622:airway resistance
3522:
3521:
3424:on 24 March 2016.
3412:Nosek, Thomas M.
2996:978-1-4925-7485-9
2825:978-1-62636-680-0
2626:High Alt Med Biol
2195:on March 30, 2021
2169:978-0-472-09511-7
2111:(12): 1269–1282.
1811:(19): 2191–2202.
1681:"Acclimatisation"
1480:978-0-385-49478-6
1147:978-1-884980-81-7
1038:(12): 1229–1237.
979:Hypoxia (medical)
954:Aviation medicine
944:Altitude sickness
903:on international
864:Altitude training
811:'s record in the
606:mood disturbances
424:, inhibiting the
342:mountain ranges.
332:eight-thousanders
300:eight-thousanders
205:Everest Base Camp
80:extreme altitudes
52:oxygen saturation
16:(Redirected from
4742:
4705:
4693:
4692:
4681:
4680:
4669:
4668:
4657:
4656:
4493:physical factors
4489:skin conditions
4421:Hypersensitivity
4138:Cold intolerance
4055:
4042:Consequences of
4036:
4029:
4022:
4013:
3818:nitrogen washout
3677:apneustic center
3592:respiratory rate
3549:
3542:
3535:
3526:
3436:
3425:
3420:. Archived from
3400:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3339:J. Appl. Physiol
3333:
3327:
3326:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3184:
3178:
3177:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3106:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3043:
3036:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2809:
2803:
2802:
2766:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2665:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2604:
2572:
2563:
2562:
2552:
2542:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2376:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2327:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2286:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2128:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2079:
2069:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2020:
2010:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1951:
1942:
1941:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1895:(998): 622–627.
1880:
1874:
1873:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1820:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1777:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1758:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1731:. Archived from
1724:
1718:
1717:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1685:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1638:Int J Sports Med
1633:
1627:
1626:
1603:J. Appl. Physiol
1598:
1592:
1591:
1563:
1554:
1553:
1543:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1525:. Archived from
1500:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1429:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1387:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1368:USARIEM–TN–04–05
1355:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1238:
1212:
1203:
1194:
1193:
1161:
1152:
1151:
1131:
1122:
1121:
1115:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1097:
1091:. Archived from
1090:
1076:
1067:
1056:
1055:
1023:
933:2008 K2 disaster
858:Endurance events
832:men's pole vault
781:Explosive events
704:core temperature
441:digestive system
314:(originally the
166:partial pressure
91:hyperventilation
21:
4750:
4749:
4745:
4744:
4743:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4720:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4645:
4535:Electrical burn
4492:
4491:resulting from
4490:
4488:
4482:
4454:
4441:Arthus reaction
4409:
4390:Motion sickness
4378:
4352:
4336:
4252:
4248:Oxygen toxicity
4227:
4152:
4079:
4046:
4044:external causes
4040:
4010:
4005:
3996:oxygen toxicity
3972:
3860:ventilation (V)
3848:
3844:pulmonary shunt
3822:
3813:peak flow meter
3733:
3651:
3558:
3553:
3523:
3518:
3517:
3447:
3411:
3408:
3403:
3393:
3391:
3382:
3381:
3374:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3186:
3185:
3181:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3108:
3107:
3100:
3090:
3088:
3079:
3071:
3069:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3038:
3037:
3030:
3020:
3018:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2870:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2848:
2846:
2844:www.palomar.edu
2838:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2811:
2810:
2806:
2768:
2767:
2760:
2750:
2748:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2687:
2686:
2682:
2674:
2663:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2574:
2573:
2566:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2484:(10): 1407–12.
2471:
2470:
2466:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2001:(10): 977–984.
1995:JAMA Pediatrics
1988:
1987:
1983:
1953:
1952:
1945:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1779:
1778:
1771:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1738:
1736:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1683:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1529:
1509:(2): 168.e1–6.
1498:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1481:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1446:
1439:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1423:
1413:
1411:
1410:on 24 June 2011
1402:
1401:
1397:
1380:
1373:
1371:
1357:
1356:
1349:
1339:
1337:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1314:
1312:
1307:. Mayo Clinic.
1303:
1302:
1298:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1255:
1250:
1249:
1242:
1210:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1163:
1162:
1155:
1148:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1108:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1088:10.1.1.175.3270
1074:
1069:
1068:
1059:
1025:
1024:
1007:
1003:
998:
918:
866:
860:
817:wind assistance
791:World Athletics
783:
776:
772:
768:
762:
649:
643:
630:
624:
618:
562:genetic changes
538:
532:
477:skeletal muscle
410:
408:Acclimatization
387:Armstrong limit
288:
282:
214:
202:
198:
182:red blood cells
175:
171:
163:
126:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4748:
4746:
4738:
4737:
4732:
4722:
4721:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4711:
4699:
4687:
4675:
4663:
4650:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4611:
4606:
4605:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4592:Wrestler's ear
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4572:Surfer's knots
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4539:
4538:
4537:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4496:
4494:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4480:
4475:
4474:
4473:
4462:
4460:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4417:
4415:
4414:Adverse effect
4411:
4410:
4408:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4386:
4384:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4364:Physical abuse
4360:
4358:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4344:
4342:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4326:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4250:
4245:
4235:
4233:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4183:Radiation burn
4180:
4178:Radiation acne
4175:
4170:
4164:
4162:
4158:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4114:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4093:
4087:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4061:
4059:
4052:
4048:
4047:
4041:
4039:
4038:
4031:
4024:
4016:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3942:chloride shift
3935:
3932:Haldane effect
3929:
3924:
3919:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3873:
3862:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3789:FEV1/FVC ratio
3786:
3781:
3779:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3743:
3741:
3735:
3734:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3719:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3704:chemoreceptors
3700:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3661:
3659:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3649:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3612:elastic recoil
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3544:
3537:
3529:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3488:
3448:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:Classification
3433:
3432:
3426:
3407:
3406:External links
3404:
3402:
3401:
3372:
3345:(4): 1249–57.
3328:
3309:(6): 2114–21.
3293:
3258:
3215:
3196:(4): 1238–48.
3179:
3160:(3): 1113–20.
3144:
3098:
3053:
3028:
3002:
2995:
2975:
2940:
2905:
2894:(2): 130–134.
2878:
2856:
2831:
2824:
2804:
2777:(20): 1930–8.
2758:
2733:
2714:(2): 281–299.
2698:
2680:
2677:on 2016-06-03.
2651:
2616:
2564:
2505:
2464:
2443:(6): 495–501.
2423:
2404:(2): 257–279.
2388:
2367:(S27): 25–64.
2347:
2298:
2249:
2222:(4): 433–438.
2206:
2175:
2168:
2148:
2091:
2032:
1981:
1943:
1916:
1875:
1832:
1791:
1769:
1745:
1719:
1701:
1671:
1628:
1609:(6): 2545–51.
1593:
1555:
1535:
1486:
1479:
1461:
1421:
1395:
1347:
1322:
1296:
1285:(8): 793–801.
1269:
1240:
1195:
1176:(18): 3115–9.
1153:
1146:
1123:
1057:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
935:
930:
925:
919:
917:
914:
862:Main article:
859:
856:
782:
779:
774:
770:
766:
761:
758:
712:cardiac arrest
642:
639:
620:Main article:
617:
614:
585:mortality rate
534:Main article:
531:
528:
414:carotid bodies
409:
406:
391:cardiovascular
357:The summit of
312:mountaineering
294:The summit of
284:Main article:
281:
278:
234:
233:
230:
227:
212:
200:
196:
173:
169:
161:
125:
122:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4747:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4710:
4709:
4704:
4700:
4698:
4697:
4688:
4686:
4685:
4676:
4674:
4673:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4652:
4651:
4648:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4619:Skin pop scar
4617:
4616:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4567:Runner's rump
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4544:
4543:
4540:
4536:
4533:
4532:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4485:
4479:
4476:
4472:
4469:
4468:
4467:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4423:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4330:
4327:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4303:High altitude
4301:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4274:Aerosinusitis
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4255:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4230:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4159:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4056:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4037:
4032:
4030:
4025:
4023:
4018:
4017:
4014:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3984:high altitude
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:Insufficiency
3975:
3968:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3948:oxyhemoglobin
3946:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3831:
3829:
3825:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3720:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3654:
3648:
3645:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3617:hysteresivity
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3550:
3545:
3543:
3538:
3536:
3531:
3530:
3527:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3390:. 28 May 2008
3389:
3385:
3379:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3262:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3231:(5): 2053–5.
3230:
3226:
3219:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3183:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3148:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3117:(1): 102–12.
3116:
3112:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3087:
3083:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3042:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3017:
3013:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2979:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2882:
2879:
2867:
2860:
2857:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2832:
2827:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2808:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2702:
2699:
2694:
2690:
2684:
2681:
2673:
2669:
2662:
2655:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2617:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2525:(4): e93493.
2524:
2520:
2516:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2152:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2033:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1735:on 2009-07-21
1734:
1730:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1702:
1689:
1682:
1675:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1550:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1435:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1396:
1391:
1385:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1113:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1000:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
949:Altitude tent
947:
945:
942:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
920:
915:
913:
910:
906:
902:
898:
893:
890:
886:
879:
875:
870:
865:
857:
855:
853:
852:wind assisted
849:
845:
841:
838:in 1994; the
837:
833:
829:
825:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
796:
792:
788:
780:
778:
759:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
722:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
670:
666:
662:
658:
653:
648:
641:Other hazards
640:
638:
634:
629:
623:
615:
613:
611:
607:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
581:
579:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
544:in Asia, the
543:
537:
529:
527:
525:
521:
520:pre-eclampsia
517:
513:
508:
504:
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