442:
surfaces of the anodes are eaten away during the electrolysis. Compared to Söderberg anodes, computer-controlled prebaked anodes can be brought closer to the molten aluminium layer at the bottom of the cell without any of them touching the layer and interfering with the electrolysis. This smaller distance decreases the resistance caused by the electrolyte mixture and increases the efficiency of prebaked anodes over Söderberg anodes. Prebake technology also has much lower risk of the anode effect (see below), but cells using it are more expensive to build and labor-intensive to use, as each prebaked anode in a cell needs to be removed and replaced once it has been used. Alumina is added to the electrolyte from between the anodes in prebake cells.
166:
427:, it slowly sinks within its frame. More material to the top of the anode is continuously added in the form of briquettes made from coke and pitch. The lost heat from the smelting operation is used to bake the briquettes into the carbon form required for the reaction with alumina. The baking process in Söderberg anodes during electrolysis releases more
459:
current of the cell focuses to go through only them. This heats up the gas layer and causes it to expand, thus further reducing the surface area where electrolyte and anode are in contact with each other. The anode effect decreases the energy-efficiency and the aluminium production of the cell. It also induces the formation of
449:
The inside of the cell's bath is lined with cathode made from coke and pitch. Cathodes also degrade during electrolysis, but much more slowly than anodes do, and thus they need neither be as high in purity, nor be maintained as often. Cathodes are typically replaced every 2–6 years. This requires the
441:
anodes are baked in very large gas-fired ovens at high temperature before being lowered by various heavy industrial lifting systems into the electrolytic solution. There are usually 24 prebaked anodes in two rows per cell. Each anode is lowered vertically and individually by a computer, as the bottom
434:
and other pollutants than electrolysis with prebaked anodes and, partially for this reason, prebaked anode-using cells have become more common in the aluminium industry. More alumina is added to the electrolyte from the sides of the Söderberg anode after the crust on top of the electrolyte mixture is
281:
is added so that the cryolite ratio is 2–3 to further reduce the melting point, so that the electrolysis can happen at temperatures between 940 and 980 °C (1700 to 1800°F). The density of liquid aluminum is 2.3 g/ml at temperatures between 950 and 1000 °C (1750° to 1830°F). The density
458:
The anode effect is a situation where too many gas bubbles form at the bottom of the anode and join, forming a layer. This increases the resistance of the cell, because smaller areas of the electrolyte touch the anode. These areas of the electrolyte and anode heat up when the density of the electric
262:
to about 1000 °C (1832°F). Besides having a relatively low melting point, cryolite is used as an electrolyte because, among other things, it also dissolves alumina well, conducts electricity, dissociates electrolytically at higher voltage than alumina, and also has a lower density than aluminum
445:
Prebaked anodes contain a smaller percentage of pitch, as they need to be more solid than Söderberg anodes. The remains of prebaked anodes are used to make more new prebaked anodes. Prebaked anodes are either made in the same factory where electrolysis happens, or are brought there from elsewhere.
336:
every 1 to 3 days in order to avoid having to use extremely high temperature valves and pumps. Alumina is added to the cells as the aluminum is removed. Collected aluminium from different cells in a factory is finally melted together to ensure uniform product and made into metal sheets. The
331:
than solid aluminium at room temperature, liquid aluminium is denser than molten cryolite at temperatures around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). The aluminium sinks to the bottom of the electrolytic cell, where it is periodically collected. The liquid aluminium is removed from the cell via a
951:
379:
forces induced by the electrolysing current to agitate the electrolyte. In non-agitating static pool cells, the impurities either rise to the top of the metallic aluminium, or sink to the bottom, leaving high-purity aluminium in the middle area.
400:
is used as a binder. The materials most often used in anodes, coke and pitch resin, are mainly residues from the petroleum industry and need to be of high enough purity so no impurities end up into the molten aluminum or the electrolyte.
543:. The method was complicated and consumed materials that were in themselves expensive at that time. This meant that the cost to produce the small amount of aluminium made in the early 19th century was very high, higher than for
320:
Cells in factories are operated 24 hours per day so that the molten material in them will not solidify. Temperature within the cell is maintained via electrical resistance. Oxidation of the carbon
282:
of the electrolyte should be less than 2.1 g/ml, so that the molten aluminum separates from the electrolyte and settles properly to the bottom of the electrolysis cell. In addition to AlF
871:
66:
the molten salt bath, typically in a purpose-built cell. The Hall–Héroult process applied at industrial scale happens at 940–980 °C (1700 to 1800°F) and produces 99.5–99.8% pure
375:
Agitation of the molten material in the cell increases its production rate at the expense of an increase in cryolite impurities in the product. Properly designed cells can leverage
356:). In modern facilities, fluorides are almost completely recycled to the cells and therefore used again in the electrolysis. Escaped HF can be neutralized to its sodium salt,
419:
or self-baking anodes, there is a single anode per electrolysis cell. The anode is contained within a frame and, as the bottom of the anode turns mainly into CO
1156:
1264:
1424:
651:
to make items like metal airplanes by the thousands, or Howard Lund to make aluminium fishing boats. In 2012 it was estimated that 12.7 tons of CO
1211:
566:
Production costs using older methods did come down, but when aluminium was selected as the material for the cap/lightning rod to sit atop the
821:
605:; however, the extent to which she was involved has been disputed. In 1888, Hall opened the first large-scale aluminium production plant in
617:
1012:
985:
742:
312:
The theoretical minimum energy requirement for this process is 6.23 kWh/(kg of Al), but the process commonly requires 15.37 kWh.
431:
975:
1058:
563:
of France was said to have reserved his few sets of aluminium dinner plates and eating utensils for his most honored guests.
556:
133:
has a melting point of 2072 °C (3762°F) so electrolysing it is impractical. In the Hall–Héroult process, alumina, Al
1314:
1225:
1249:
1455:
1450:
1368:
1239:
1204:
1189:
621:
259:
795:
324:
increases the electrical efficiency at a cost of consuming the carbon electrodes and producing carbon dioxide.
467:) in significant quantities, increases formation of CO and, to a lesser extent, also causes the formation of
1307:
1083:
290:
may be added to alter different properties (melting point, density, conductivity etc.) of the electrolyte.
77:
Because Hall–Héroult processing consumes copious electrical energy and its electrolysis stage creates much
560:
837:
Obaidat, Mazin; Al-Ghandoor, Ahmed; Phelan, Patrick; Villalobos, Rene; Alkhalidi, Ammar (17 April 2018).
1460:
1302:
1269:
1197:
1110:
942:
908:
669:
376:
365:
949:, "Process of Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride Salts by Electrolysis", issued 1889-04-02
531:
Prior to the Hall–Héroult process, elemental aluminium was made by heating ore along with elemental
337:
electrolytic mixture is sprinkled with coke to prevent the anode's oxidation by the oxygen evolved.
173:
In the Hall–Héroult process the following simplified reactions take place at the carbon electrodes:
114:
1254:
946:
602:
591:
567:
71:
1358:
1289:
1284:
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924:
896:
492:
460:
266:
39:
35:
1353:
1126:
1008:
1002:
981:
817:
738:
349:
345:
586:
The Hall–Héroult process was invented independently and almost simultaneously in 1886 by the
1414:
1393:
1319:
1176:
1118:
964:
Héroult, Paul; French patent no. 175,711 (filed: 23 April 1886; issued: 1 September 1886).
916:
850:
774:
571:
521:
468:
294:
287:
165:
111:
1244:
648:
424:
357:
196:
130:
43:
598:
1114:
1036:
912:
277:
is called the cryolite ratio and it is 3 in pure cryolite. In industrial production, AlF
1294:
1274:
679:
633:
528:, a mixture of hydrated aluminium oxides and compounds of other elements such as iron.
503:. The anode effect is mainly a problem in Söderberg technology cells, not in prebaked.
500:
227:
217:
153:, to lower its melting point for easier electrolysis. The carbon source is generally a
94:
78:
624:
in recognition of the importance of the process in the commercialization of aluminum.
1444:
1338:
928:
664:
587:
393:
90:
55:
1181:
1164:
1138:
1221:
1101:
Das, Subodh (2012). "Achieving Carbon
Neutrality in the Global Aluminum Industry".
897:"The Point of a Monument: A History of the Aluminum Cap of the Washington Monument"
644:
552:
82:
63:
17:
1429:
1419:
496:
389:
361:
154:
126:
1259:
1157:
Introduction to
Aluminium Electrolysis. Understanding the Hall–Heroult Process
1122:
684:
606:
428:
1130:
632:
Aluminium produced via the Hall–Héroult process, in combination with cheaper
1383:
1378:
735:
Handbook of
Aluminum: Volume 2: Alloy production and materials manufacturing
637:
536:
118:
86:
67:
51:
1363:
1348:
839:"Energy and Exergy Analyses of Different Aluminum Reduction Technologies"
794:
Marks, Jerry; Roberts, Ruth; Bakshi, Vikram; Dolin, Eric (January 2000).
674:
548:
404:
There are two primary anode technologies using the Hall–Héroult process:
183:
142:
59:
1373:
1343:
920:
855:
838:
779:
762:
601:—both 22 years old. Some authors claim Hall was assisted by his sister
525:
328:
302:
176:
47:
293:
The mixture is electrolysed by passing a low voltage (under 5 V)
1388:
974:
Kass-Simon, Gabrielle; Farnes, Patricia; Nash, Deborah, eds. (1990).
796:"Perfluorocarbon (PFC) Generation During Primary Aluminum Production"
763:"The Role of Anode Manufacturing Processes in Net Carbon Consumption"
756:
754:
595:
575:
540:
532:
333:
1037:"Alcoa, An. American Enterprise. By Charles C. Carr. (Book review)"
524:. It occurs in many minerals, but its primary commercial source is
610:
517:
321:
306:
305:, while the oxygen from the alumina combines with carbon from the
258:(1848°F). With a small percentage of alumina dissolved in it, its
189:
164:
122:
340:
The cell produces gases at the anode. The exhaust is primarily CO
110:
Elemental aluminium cannot be produced by the electrolysis of an
1398:
544:
301:
through it. This causes liquid aluminium to be deposited at the
1193:
397:
74:
requires no electrolysis, thus it is not treated in this way.
1165:"Studies on the Hall-Heroult Aluminum Electrowinning Process"
643:
This, in turn, helped make it possible for pioneers like
640:) an inexpensive commodity rather than a precious metal.
423:
during the electrolysis, the anode loses mass and, being
551:. Bars of aluminium were exhibited alongside the French
273:) is usually added to the electrolyte. The ratio NaF/AlF
1159:, Aluminium Verlag GmbH, (Germany), 1993, pp. 260.
816:(96th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
655:
emissions are generated per ton of aluminium produced.
1004:
Aluminum dreams : the making of light modernity
520:
in the Earth's crust, but it is rarely found in its
1407:
1328:
1232:
616:In 1997, the Hall–Héroult process was designated a
1059:"Production of Aluminum: The Hall–Héroult Process"
263:at the temperatures required by the electrolysis.
872:"Aluminum: It Used To Be More Precious Than Gold"
733:Totten, George E.; MacKenzie, D. Scott (2003).
980:. Indiana University Press. pp. 173–176.
392:which has been purified at high temperatures.
1205:
8:
761:Khaji, Khalil; Al Qassemi, Mohammed (2016).
1212:
1198:
1190:
636:, helped make aluminium (and incidentally
1180:
1169:Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society
1007:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 270.
854:
778:
1425:Standard electrode potential (data page)
728:
726:
724:
722:
720:
344:produced from the anode consumption and
718:
716:
714:
712:
710:
708:
706:
704:
702:
700:
696:
495:, and, although not detrimental to the
372:is usually vented into the atmosphere.
1084:"Lund Boat Company Founder Dies at 91"
129:aluminium salt could be used instead,
977:Women of Science: Righting the Record
814:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
250:Pure cryolite has a melting point of
7:
1063:National Historic Chemical Landmarks
737:. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
618:National Historic Chemical Landmark
574:, it was still more expensive than
141:, is dissolved in molten synthetic
1329:Materials produced by electrolysis
309:to produce mostly carbon dioxide.
25:
675:Solid oxide Hall–Héroult process
223:is formed at the anode than CO:
125:elemental aluminium. Although a
1182:10.1590/S0103-50532000000300008
1163:Prasad, Shiva (May–June 2000).
516:Aluminium is the most abundant
388:Electrodes in cells are mostly
1265:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide
557:Exposition Universelle of 1855
169:A Hall–Héroult industrial cell
1:
1155:Grjotheim, U and Kvande, H.,
895:George J. Binczewski (1995).
1315:Electrochemical fluorination
1226:Standard electrode potential
450:whole cell to be shut down.
1369:Hydrogen evolution reaction
1065:. American Chemical Society
348:(HF) from the cryolite and
1477:
1240:Betts electrolytic process
649:aluminium-magnesium alloys
54:'s chief ore, through the
46:(obtained most often from
27:Aluminium smelting process
1123:10.1007/s11837-012-0237-0
1035:Giddens, Paul H. (1953).
647:to utilize aluminium and
622:American Chemical Society
44:aluminium oxide (alumina)
42:. It involves dissolving
870:Kean, Sam (2010-07-30).
327:While solid cryolite is
1250:Castner–Kellner process
286:, other additives like
1233:Electrolytic processes
1001:Sheller, Mimi (2014).
609:. It later became the
368:or bag filters. The CO
216:In reality, much more
170:
83:fluorocarbon compounds
1270:Electrolysis of water
812:Haynes, W.M. (2015).
582:Independent discovery
168:
1280:Hall–Héroult process
1220:Articles related to
1041:Pennsylvania History
943:US patent 400664
670:History of aluminium
561:Emperor Napoleon III
89:, it contributes to
32:Hall–Héroult process
1255:Chloralkali process
1115:2012JOM....64b.285D
1090:. October 24, 2003.
947:Charles Martin Hall
913:1995JOM....47k..20B
603:Julia Brainerd Hall
592:Charles Martin Hall
568:Washington Monument
499:, are still potent
377:magnetohydrodynamic
364:are captured using
260:melting point drops
244:+ 3 C → 4 Al + 3 CO
213:+ 3 C → 2 Al + 3 CO
18:Aluminum extraction
1456:Aluminium industry
1451:Chemical processes
1359:Electrolysed water
1290:Kolbe electrolysis
1285:Hofmann voltameter
921:10.1007/BF03221302
856:10.3390/su10041216
780:10.3390/met6060128
461:tetrafluoromethane
267:Aluminium fluoride
171:
155:coke (fossil fuel)
106:Difficulties faced
72:Recycling aluminum
40:smelting aluminium
36:industrial process
1438:
1437:
1088:In-Depth Outdoors
823:978-1-4822-6096-0
346:hydrogen fluoride
16:(Redirected from
1468:
1415:Electrochemistry
1394:Sodium hydroxide
1320:Wohlwill process
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749:
748:
730:
572:Washington, D.C.
518:metallic element
501:greenhouse gases
469:hexafluoroethane
300:
288:lithium fluoride
257:
255:
21:
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1475:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1467:
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1403:
1384:Potassium metal
1379:Magnesium metal
1324:
1245:Castner process
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1150:Further reading
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628:Economic impact
584:
522:elemental state
514:
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422:
415:In cells using
408:technology and
386:
371:
358:sodium fluoride
355:
343:
318:
299:100–300 kA
298:
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131:aluminium oxide
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1295:Hoopes process
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1275:Electrowinning
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1187:
1175:(3): 245–251.
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1109:(2): 285–290.
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1014:978-0262026826
1013:
993:
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876:Slate Magazine
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843:Sustainability
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680:Hoopes process
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634:electric power
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115:aluminium salt
107:
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95:climate change
79:carbon dioxide
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1374:Lithium metal
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
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1347:
1345:
1344:Calcium metal
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1047:(2): 209–210.
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1005:
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989:
987:0-253-20813-0
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907:(11): 20–25.
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744:0-8247-0896-2
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665:Bayer process
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613:corporation.
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512:Existing need
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1389:Sodium metal
1339:(extraction)
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1260:Downs cell
1069:2014-02-21
881:2024-02-23
773:(6): 128.
691:References
685:Downs cell
607:Pittsburgh
384:Electrodes
226:2 O + C →
117:, because
87:byproducts
1336:Aluminium
1308:Magnesium
1131:1047-4838
929:111724924
638:magnesium
596:Frenchman
537:potassium
425:amorphous
417:Söderberg
406:Söderberg
256:1 °C
202:Overall:
119:hydronium
68:aluminium
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1408:See also
1364:Fluorine
1349:Chlorine
1139:59383624
1020:19 April
659:See also
590:chemist
588:American
549:platinum
491:are not
439:Prebaked
435:broken.
410:prebaked
195:O + C →
143:cryolite
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1303:Bromine
1111:Bibcode
909:Bibcode
620:by the
555:at the
526:bauxite
507:History
303:cathode
182:Al + 3
177:Cathode
123:oxidize
112:aqueous
101:Process
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1354:Copper
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334:siphon
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161:Theory
127:molten
1135:S2CID
925:S2CID
799:(PDF)
611:Alcoa
539:in a
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322:anode
307:anode
233:+ 4 e
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1127:ISSN
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545:gold
493:CFCs
432:PAHs
390:coke
352:(AlF
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