American Federation of Labor

697:. However, in the 1930s the A.F. of L. began chartering these federal labor unions as an industrial organizing strategy. The dues in these federal labor unions (FLUs) were kept intentionally low to make them more accessible to low paid industrial workers; however, these low dues later allowed the Internationals in the Federation to deny members of FLUs voting membership at conventions. In 1933, Green sent William Collins to Detroit to organize automobile workers into a federal labor union. That same year workers at the Westinghouse plant in East Springfield MA, members of federal labor union 18476, struck for recognition. In 1933, the A.F. of L. received 1,205 applications for charters for federal labor unions, 1006 of which were granted. By 1934, the A.F. of L. had successfully organized 32,500 autoworkers using the federal labor union model. Most of the leadership of the craft union internationals that made up the federation, advocated for the FLU's to be absorbed into existing craft union internationals and for these internationals to have supremacy of jurisdiction. At the 1933 A.F. of L. convention in Washington, DC, John Frey of the 738:

that made automobiles, rubber, glass and steel. In 1935 Lewis led the dissenting unions in forming a new Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the A.F. of L. Both the new CIO industrial unions, and the older A.F. of L. crafts unions grew rapidly after 1935. President Franklin D. Roosevelt became a hero to them. He won reelection in a landslide in 1936, and by a closer margin in 1940. Labor unions gave strong support in 1940, compared to very strong support in 1936. The Gallup Poll showed CIO voters declined from 85% in 1935 to 79% in 1940. A.F. of L. voters went from 80% to 71%. Other union members went from 74% to 57%. Blue collar workers who were not union members went 72% to 64%.

945:, the A.F. of L. adopted a philosophy of "business unionism" that emphasized unions' contribution to businesses' profits and national economic growth. The business unionist approach also focused on skilled workers' immediate job-related interests, while refusing to "rush to the support of any one of the numerous society-saving or society destroying schemes" involved in larger political issues. This approach was set by Gompers, who was influenced by a fellow cigar maker (and former socialist) Ferdinand Laurrel. Despite his socialist contacts, Gompers himself was not a socialist. 949: 788:

skilled workers in craft unions and became an organization of mostly white men. Although the A.F. of L. preached a policy of egalitarianism in regard to African-American workers, it actively discriminated against them. The A.F. of L. sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its affiliates, particularly in the construction and railroad industries, a practice that often excluded black workers altogether from union membership and thus from employment in organized industries.

604: 388:

property rights of owners, and took a pragmatic view of politics which favored tactical support for particular politicians over formation of a party devoted to workers' interests. The A.F. of L.'s leadership believed the expansion of the capitalist system was seen as the path to betterment of labor, an orientation making it possible for the A.F. of L. to present itself as what one historian has called "the conservative alternative to working class radicalism".

384:

income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The A.F. of L.'s founding convention declaring "higher wages and a shorter workday" to be "preliminary steps toward great and accompanying improvements in the condition of the working people." Participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the group's constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates.

1027:

desire to protect men's jobs. If women's hours could be limited, reasoned A.F. of L. officials, they would infringe less on male employment and earning potential. But the A.F. of L. also took more selfless efforts. Even from the 1890s, the A.F. of L. declared itself vigorously in favor of women's suffrage. It often printed pro-suffrage articles in its periodical, and in 1918, it supported the National Union of Women's Suffrage.

817:

conditions, lives, or wages of women workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3% of working women were organized into unions. In 1910, even as the A.F. of L. surged forward in membership, that number had dipped to 1.5%. It improved to 6.6% over the next decade, but women remained mostly outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them into the mid-1920s.

838: 780: 795:, and issued a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese Exclusion. Meat vs. Rice. American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism. Which shall survive?". The A.F. of L. also began one of the first organized labor boycotts when they began putting white stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars rolled by Chinese workers. 1055:. After the A.F. of L. expelled the CIO in 1936, the CIO undertook a major organizing effort. In 1947, when the Taft-Hartley Act was passed, political activities were stirred. In resistance to the new law, the CIO joined the A.F. of L., and political co-operation set the path for union unity. The two groups merged, eight years later, into the AFL–CIO coalition with George Meany as the new president. 905:, helped form the union. The A.F. of L. also used its influence, including refusal of charters or expulsion, to heal splits within affiliated unions, to force separate unions seeking to represent the same or closely related jurisdictions to merge, or to mediate disputes between rival factions where both sides claimed to represent the leadership of an affiliated union. The A.F. of L. also chartered " 481: 397: 541: 217: 6576: 333: 380:, 30 locals left the organization, while the membership of the Knights in Chicago fell from 25,000 in 1886 to just 3,500 in 1887. Factional warfare broke out in the K of L, with Terence Powderly blaming the organization's travails on "radicals" in its ranks, while those opposing Powderly called for an end to what they perceived as "autocratic leadership". 532:(NCLC). In state after state reformers launched crusades to pass laws restricting child labor, with the ultimate goals of rescuing young bodies and increasing school attendance. The frustrations included the Supreme Court striking down two national laws as unconstitutional, and weak enforcement of state laws due to the political influence of employers. 40: 460:, who believed the only way to help workers was to remove large industry from private ownership, denounced labor's efforts at cooperation with the capitalists in the National Civic Federation. The A.F. of L. nonetheless continued its association with the group, which declined in importance as the decade of the 1910s drew to a close. 3755: 804:

attempts to organize and, more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the A.F. of L. at its founding openly included women, and others passed bylaws barring women's membership entirely. The A.F. of L. hired its first female organizer,

677:. It greatly strengthened organized unions, especially by weakening the company unions that many workers belonged to. It was to the members advantage to transform a company union into a local of an A.F. of L. union, and thousands did so, dramatically boosting the membership. The Wagner Act also set up to the 4302: 709:

also pushed for FLU's to turn over their members to the authority of the craft internationals between 1933 and 1935. In 1934, one hundred FLUs met separately and demanded that the A.F. of L. continue to issue charters to unions organizing on an industrial basis independent of the existing craft union

692:

by chartering federal labor unions, which would organize across an industry and be chartered by the Federation, not through existing craft unions, guilds, or brotherhoods. As early as 1923, the A.F. of L. had chartered federal labor unions, including six news writer locals that had formerly been part

497:

was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. Nativism was a factor when the A.F. of L. even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro-American members) an

315:

or defaulted on payment of union dues. The body authored a "treaty" to be presented to the forthcoming May 24, 1886, convention of the Knights of Labor, which demanded that the K of L cease attempting to organize members of International Unions into its own assemblies without permission of the unions

310:

Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates and letters of approval from 12 other unions. At this preliminary gathering, held in Donaldson Hall on the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets, the K of L was charged with conspiring with anti-union bosses to provide labor

1010:

narrowly read the Act and codified the federal courts' existing power to issue injunctions rather than limit it. The court read the phrase "between an employer and employees" (contained in the first paragraph of the Act) to refer only to cases involving an employer and its own employees, leaving the

987:

The A.F. of L. concentrated its political efforts during the last decades of the Gompers administration on securing freedom from state control of unions—in particular an end to the court's use of labor injunctions to block the right to organize or strike and the application of the anti-trust laws to

737:

of the Hat, Cap, and Millinery Workers, in addition to the members of the FLU's themselves. Lewis argued that the A.F.of L. was too heavily oriented toward traditional craftsmen, and was overlooking the opportunity to organize millions of semiskilled workers, especially those in industrial factories

595:

strikes ultimately failed. Many African Americans had taken war jobs; other became strikebreakers in 1919. Racial tensions were high, with major race riots. The economy was very prosperous during the war but entered a postwar recession. In general, workers lost out and the A.F. of L. lost influence.

572:

The A. F. of L. was strongly committed to the national war aims and cooperated closely with Washington. It used the opportunity to grow rapidly. It worked out an informal agreement with the United States government, in which the A.F. of L. would coordinate with the government both to support the war

286:

The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the national officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, and the latter was

1018:

The A.F. of L.'s pessimistic attitude towards politics did not, on the other hand, prevent affiliated unions from pursuing their own agendas. Construction unions supported legislation that governed entry of contractors into the industry and protected workers' rights to pay, rail and mass production

812:

national organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally inaccessible. Unions often held meetings at night or in bars when women might find it difficult to attend

803:

In most ways, the A.F. of L.'s treatment of women workers paralleled its policy towards black workers. The A.F. of L. never adopted a strict policy of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of women's unionism. However, despite such rhetoric, it only half-heartedly supported women's

348:

Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a "per-capita tax" of its member organizations, set at the rate of one-half cent per member per month (i.e. six cents per year, equal to $ 2.03 today). Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate

319:

For its part, the Knights of Labor considered the demand for the parcelling of the labor movement into narrow craft-based fiefdoms to be anathema, a violation of the principle of solidarity of all workers across craft lines. Negotiations with the dissident craft unions were nipped in the bud by the

816:

Generally, the A.F. of L. viewed women workers as competition, strikebreakers, or an unskilled labor reserve that kept wages low. As such, it often opposed women's employment entirely. When it organized women workers, it most often did so to protect men's jobs and earning power, not to improve the

746:

The A.F. of L. retained close ties to the Democratic machines in big cities through the 1940s. Its membership surged during the war and it held on to most of its new members after wartime legal support for labor was removed. Despite its close connections to many in Congress, the A.F. of L. was not

634:

in the 1924 presidential election. He only carried his home state of Wisconsin. The campaign failed to establish a permanent independent party closely connected to the labor movement, however, and thereafter the Federation embraced ever more closely the Democratic Party, despite the fact that many

387:

This fundamentally conservative "pure and simple" approach limited the A.F. of L. to matters pertaining to working conditions and rates of pay, relegating political goals to its allies in the political sphere. The Federation favored pursuit of workers' immediate demands rather than challenging the

383:

In the face of the steady disintegration of its rival, the fledgling American Federation of Labor struggled to maintain itself, with the group showing very slow and incremental growth in its first years, only cracking the 250,000 member mark in 1892. The group from the outset concentrated upon the

357:

Although the founding convention of the A.F. of L. had authorized the establishment of a publication for the new organization, Gompers made use of the existing labor press to generate support for the position of the craft unions against the Knights of Labor. Powerful opinion-makers of the American

860:

claimed to represent certain printroom employees, and the Machinists and a fledgling union known as the "Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union" sought to organize the same employees even though neither union had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some cases, the

552:

The A.F. of L. and its affiliates were strong supporters of the war effort. The risk of disruptions to war production by labor radicals provided the A.F. of L. political leverage to gain recognition and mediation of labor disputes, often in favor of improvements for workers. The A.F. of L. unions

302:

on May 18. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing "malicious work" and causing "incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms and dissensions in the labor movement." The call was signed by Strasser and McGuire, along with representatives of the Granite Cutters, the Iron

282:

lasting four weeks ensued. Just when it appeared that the strike might be won, the New York District Assembly of the Knights of Labor leaped into the breach, offering to settle with the 19 factories at a lower wage scale than that proposed by the CMIU, so long as only the Progressive Cigarmakers'

594:

1919--the first year of peace--was one of turmoil in the labor movement. A.F. of L. membership soared to 2.4 million in 1917 and 4.1 million at the end of 1919. The A.F. of L. unions tried to make their gains permanent and called a series of major strikes in meat, steel and other industries. The

1026:

At the same time, the A.F. of L. took efforts on behalf of women in supporting protective legislation. It advocated fewer hours for women workers, and based its arguments on assumptions of female weakness. Like efforts to unionize, most support for protective legislation for women came out of a

553:

avoided strikes in favor of arbitration. Wages soared as near-full employment was reached at the height of the war. The A.F. of L. unions strongly encouraged young men to enlist in the military, and fiercely opposed efforts to reduce recruiting and slow war production by pacifists, the anti-war

787:

During its first years, the A.F. of L. admitted nearly anyone. Gompers opened the A.F. of L. to radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants joined in small numbers. By the 1890s, the Federation had begun to organize only

345:, in order to construct "an American federation of alliance of all national and international trade unions." Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various other local labor organizations responded to the call, agreeing to form themselves into an American Federation of Labor. 443:

took a more labor-friendly position. While not precluding its members from belonging to the Socialist Party or working with its members, the A.F. of L. traditionally refused to pursue the tactic of independent political action by the workers in the form of the existing Socialist Party or the

527:

was an issue on which the A.F. of L. found common ground with middle class reformers who otherwise kept their distance. The A.F. of L. joined campaigns at the state and national level to limit the employment of children under age 14. In 1904 a major national organization emerged, the

456:. The National Civic Federation was formed by several progressive employers who sought to avoid labor disputes by fostering collective bargaining and "responsible" unionism. Labor's participation in this federation, at first tentative, created internal division within the A.F. of L. 8881: 1612: 912:

The A.F. of L. also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies, known as central labor councils, in major metropolitan areas in which all of the affiliates could participate. Those local labor councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For example, the

415:

movement in 1903, designed to drive unions out of construction, mining, longshore and other industries. Membership in the A.F. of L.'s affiliated unions declined between 1904 and 1914 in the face of this concerted anti-union drive, which made effective use of legal

8901: 1807: 873: 1721: 849: 254:, a rival "Progressive Cigarmakers' Union", organized by members suspended or expelled by the CMIU. The two cigar unions competed with one another in signing contracts with various cigar manufacturers, who were at this same time combining themselves into 929:, not only dominated the local labor council but helped elect McCarthy mayor of San Francisco in 1909. In a very few cases early in the A.F. of L.'s history, state and local bodies defied A.F. of L. policy or chose to disaffiliate over policy disputes. 340:

Convinced that no accommodation with the leadership of the Knights of Labor was possible, the heads of the five labor organizations which issued the call for the April 1886 conference issued a new call for a convention to be held December 8, 1886, in

861:

A.F. of L. mediated the dispute, usually by favoring the larger or more influential union. The A.F. of L. often reversed its jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed.

273:

In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers' Association of New York City announced a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers' International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were

1496: 8995: 4473: 9010: 825:. Women organized independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name only three examples. Through the efforts of middle-class reformers and activists, often of the 3084: 353:

of the Cigar Makers' International Union was elected to the position. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year save one until his death nearly four decades later.

8794: 1030:

The A.F. of L. relaxed its rigid stand against legislation after the death of Gompers. Even so, it remained cautious. Its proposals for unemployment benefits (made in the late 1920s) were too modest to have practical value, as the

492:

The A.F. of L. vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.

498:

alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The A.F. of L. intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921

2277: 8784: 4801: 1403: 8849: 8985: 4445: 349:

allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. The founding convention voted to make the President of the new federation a full-time official at a salary of $ 1,000 per year (equal to $ 33,911 today), and

4829: 1582: 2934: 8891: 6057: 4045: 698: 287:

exonerated. The American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions.

820:

Attitudes gradually changed within the A.F. of L. by the pressure of organized female workers. Female-domination began to emerge in the first two decades of the 20th century, including particularly the

2004: 199:

basis to meet the challenge from the CIO. The A.F. of L. and the CIO competed bitterly in the late 1930s but then cooperated during World War II and afterward. In 1955, the two merged to create the

8859: 7869: 3671: 2128: 1552: 435:, Gompers argued that labor should "reward its friends and punish its enemies" in both major parties. However, in the 1900s (decade), the two parties began to realign, with the main faction of the 8906: 8749: 6238: 5600: 5282: 1919: 9035: 8824: 2096: 6943: 8789: 5657: 1779: 5744: 9062: 5252: 1430: 184:

was elected the full-time president at its founding convention and was re-elected every year except one until his death in 1924. He became the major spokesperson for the union movement.

5774: 3960: 3816: 591:

In 1920, the A.F. of L. petitioned Washington for the release of prisoners who had been convicted under Wartime Emergency Laws. Wilson did not act but President Warren Harding did so.

9216: 5713: 4884: 1951: 702: 516:

Prohibition gained strength as the German American community came under fire. The A.F. of L. was against prohibition as it was viewed as cultural right of the working class to drink.

3988: 3229: 6268: 5224: 468:

By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of A.F. of L. affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian

619:", which meant that a person did not have to be a union member to be hired. A.F. of L. unions lost membership steadily until 1933. In 1924, following the death of Samuel Gompers, 8990: 8980: 4154: 1524: 8876: 6147: 4390: 4186: 376:

Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies. Some assemblies of the K of L supported the Cigar Makers' position and departed the organization: in

239:

to withdraw from their International organizations and to affiliate with the K of L directly, an action which would have moved funds from the various unions to the K of L. The

864:

Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments" to help resolve these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice for member unions in given industries. The

5572: 3900: 3377: 8543: 9221: 722: 9206: 8931: 8926: 8869: 6614: 6357: 5403: 4218: 3054: 2457: 3555: 848:

From the beginning, unions affiliated with the A.F. of L. found themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over the same groups of workers: both the

2812: 2190: 669:

did not include a training component that would produce skilled workers who would compete with union members in a still glutted market. The major legislation was the

8886: 6599: 3583: 2337: 894: 706: 510: 304: 240: 58: 8699: 424:, court rulings given force when backed with the armed might of the state. At its November 1907 Convention in Norfolk, Virginia, the A.F. of L. founded the future 9005: 8618: 5375: 3433: 3321: 3169: 2521: 1889: 822: 8548: 7862:"American Federation Of Labor < Labor In America-The Trade Unions' Role < Economy 1991 < American History From Revolution To Reconstruction and beyond" 4334: 2906: 1338: 893:

The A.F. of L. made efforts in its early years to assist its affiliates in organizing: it advanced funds or provided organizers or, in some cases, such as the

657:

were hard times for the unions, and membership fell sharply across the country. As the national economy began to recover in 1933, so did union membership. The

9231: 9040: 8965: 8960: 8911: 8744: 8594: 7945: 6926: 3843: 3493: 2581: 2365: 513:

rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.

8943: 8896: 8734: 8659: 5431: 3785: 3643: 2842: 8680: 7861: 8921: 8916: 8854: 8759: 8026: 5685: 4589: 3727: 2427: 4274: 2697: 231:

The American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) was organized as an association of trade unions in 1886. The organization emerged from a dispute with the

9236: 8819: 8707: 8528: 6413: 4683: 4653: 4246: 1248: 688:(president, 1924–1952) experimented with an industrial approach to organizing in the automobile and steel industries. The A.F. of L. made forays into 648: 425: 373:

granted Gompers space in their pages, in which he made the case for the unions against the attacks of employers, "all too often aided by the K of L."

562: 8948: 8864: 6951: 6718:

In addition to noting authorship, in his posthumously-published memoirs Samuel Gompers provides the complete text of the call. See: Gompers, Samuel

6087: 3197: 2395: 2036: 1751: 1640: 1369: 8533: 7273:

Eric Arnesen, "Specter of the Black Strikebreaker: Race, Employment, and Labor Activism in the Industrial Era." Labor History 44.3 (2003): 319-335

8955: 8804: 3465: 1052: 718: 710:

internationals. In 1935 the FLUs representing autoworkers and rubber workers both held conventions independent of the craft union internationals.

3405: 3259: 1278: 7639: 8829: 8774: 7277: 7179: 6029: 5802: 3289: 3140: 2757: 7717:. American Federation of Labor printed as Senate document 137 (1902); reprinted with intro. and appendices by Asiatic Exclusion League, 1908. 7587: 9196: 8579: 7682: 5858: 4621: 953: 792: 654: 8538: 865: 9201: 9170: 3525: 2874: 1002: 469: 188: 8553: 2669: 2068: 247: 9118: 8936: 7980: 6210: 401: 565:

in 1918, which forced management to negotiate with existing unions. Wilson also appointed A.F. of L. president Gompers to the powerful

9030: 9015: 8975: 8584: 7347: 6594: 984:

laws that were being used to criminalize labor organizing, the courts reversed what few legislative successes the labor movement won.

9226: 8809: 8799: 8717: 8712: 8451: 7374: 7192: 7064: 6619: 6332: 6117: 4971: 2641: 857: 726: 694: 165: 6644:

History of the Labor Movement in the United States: Volume 2: From the Founding of the AFL to the Emergence of American Imperialism

324:

refusing to enter into serious discussions on the matter. The actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld.

6944:"A Brief History of Organized Labor and the Democratic Party, Part Two | Prairie Fire – The Progressive Voice of the Great Plains" 921:

and steel workers during and immediately after World War I. Local building trades councils also became powerful in some areas. In

9067: 8814: 8739: 8722: 8419: 5515: 4101: 2160: 1040: 902: 730: 524: 440: 436: 7746: 9175: 8844: 8754: 6604: 6561: 5999: 5054: 3026: 1668: 1181: 1125: 906: 877: 574: 554: 9139: 9072: 8649: 8589: 8574: 7718: 7305: 5001: 4017: 678: 529: 405: 841:

The A.F. of L. arbitrated disputes between member unions and enforced its decisions by rescinding charters, when necessary.

713:

By the 1935 A.F. of L. convention, Green and the advocates of traditional craft unionism faced increasing dissension led by

8764: 8729: 8628: 7478: 5113: 5086: 826: 8180:

Currarino, Rosanne. "The Politics of 'More': The Labor Question and the Idea of Economic Liberty in Industrial America."

909:", local unions not affiliated with any international union, in those fields in which no affiliate claimed jurisdiction. 488:. The caption reads: The Union Man's Burden; Every organized worker carries an unorganized worker "strapped to his back". 444:

establishment of a new labor party. After 1908, the organization's tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong.

8837: 8569: 7184: 6624: 1087: 1044: 685: 670: 624: 585: 558: 144: 7118:

Roger W. Walker, "The AFL and child-labor legislation: An exercise in frustration." Labor History 11.3 (1970): 323-340.

8499: 7129:

Labor's great war: the struggle for industrial democracy and the origins of modern American labor relations, 1912-1921

5141: 3756:

Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and Marble Setters' Helpers, International Association of

1075: 1007: 914: 666: 566: 140: 7609: 8288:

Labor's Great War: The Struggle for Industrial Democracy and the Origins of Modern American Labor Relations, 1912–21

880:

dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them.

615:

In the pro-business environment of the 1920s, business launched a large-scale offensive on behalf of the so-called "

8769: 8409: 8061:

Some Reasons for Chinese Exclusion. Meat vs. Rice. American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism. Which Shall Survive?

7742:

Some reasons for Chinese exclusion: Meat vs. rice; American manhood against Asiatic coolieism. Which shall survive?

7297:"Without Blare of Trumpets": Walter Drew, The National Erectors' Association, and the Open Shop Movement, 1903–1957 957: 607:

American Federation of Labor head Samuel Gompers (right) endorsed the pro-labor independent Presidential candidate

578: 9149: 9112: 7934: 7567: 7234:

Kennedy, Kathleen (January 2000). "In the Shadow of Gompers: Lucy Robins and the Politics of Amnesty, 1918–1922".

7148: 6923: 203:, which has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States to this day. 9143: 8779: 5830: 805: 453: 9134: 9129: 6556: 573:

effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups" that opposed the war effort, especially the

6981: 5941: 8017: 4561:

Post Office and Postal Transportation Service Mail Handlers, Watchmen and Messengers, National Association of

4303:

Pavers, Rammermen, Flag Layers, Bridge and Stone Curb Setters and Sheet Asphalt Pavers, International Union of

1020: 298:

of the Carpenters, addressed to all national trade unions and calling for their attendance of a conference in

9091: 8644: 6581: 503: 7107:

Crusade for the children: A history of the National Child Labor Committee and child labor reform in America

948: 439:

coming to identify with the interests of banks and manufacturers, while a substantial portion of the rival

8970: 8685: 8654: 8423: 1113: 813:

and where they might feel uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to speak at meetings.

191:(CIO) by unions that were expelled by the A.F. of L. in 1935. The A.F. of L. was founded and dominated by 8444: 1193: 993: 918: 752: 662: 631: 608: 9211: 8095:. Currently published in 11 volumes, coverage to 1921. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991–2009. 992:, boycotts and strikes. The A.F. of L. thought that it had achieved the latter with the passage of the 748: 548:

cartoon portraying "reds" and IWW members as a violent mob held back by threat of a US Army machine gun

8308: 8210:

Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism

195:, especially in the building trades. In the late 1930s, craft affiliates expanded by organizing on an 7635: 4446:

Plasterers and Cement Finishers' International Association of the United States and Canada, Operative

472:

with money and organizers, and by 1902, the A.F. of L. came to dominate the Canadian union movement.

9102: 9097: 8365:. 1881–1967. 45.44 cubic feet (including 2 microfilm reels, 1 package, and 1 vertical file). At the 7274: 980:", to limit the courts' power to impose "government by injunction" and to obtain exemption from the 9057: 9047: 9025: 7583: 1462: 1162: 977: 689: 499: 494: 321: 196: 9124: 8302:

Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875–1920

7043:

Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875–1920

9020: 7843: 4501: 1019:

industries sought workplace safety legislation, and unions generally agitated for the passage of

869: 320:

governing General Assembly of the K of L, however, with the organization's Grand Master Workman,

316:

involved and that K of L organizers violating this provision should suffer immediate suspension.

275: 176:, in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions eager to provide mutual support and disappointed in the 9107: 7824: 603: 235:(K of L) organization, in which the leadership of that organization solicited locals of various 8623: 8493: 7678: 7370: 7364: 7343: 7337: 7301: 7295: 7188: 7060: 1150: 1144: 255: 7971: 17: 8437: 8244:

Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881–1917

7243: 6609: 1107: 1032: 969: 942: 232: 224: 220: 177: 868:

engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in shipbuilding, where unions such as the

808:, only in 1892, released her after five months, and it did not replace her or hire another 701:

pushed for craft union internationals to have jurisdictional supremacy over the FLU's; the

8664: 8392: 8382: 8372: 8362: 7767: 7571: 7281: 7152: 6930: 6909: 1156: 1119: 1012: 876:

joined through local metal workers' councils to represent a diverse group of workers. The

665:, a Democrat, strongly favored labor unions. He made sure that relief operations like the 545: 291: 8059: 7028:

A. T. Lane, "American Trade Unions, Mass Immigration and the Literacy Test: 1900–1917,"

3170:

Hotel and Restaurant Employees' International Alliance and Bartenders' League of America

8505: 8330: 8261: 7708: 1081: 1069: 973: 926: 636: 540: 350: 342: 236: 192: 181: 173: 136: 8415: 7209:

The Struggle for Labor Loyalty: Gompers, the A. F. of L., and the Pacifists, 1917–1920

5253:

Roofers, United Slate, Tile and Composition + Damp and Waterproof Workers' Association

1047:

in 1935. The A.F. of L. refused to sanction or participate in the mass strikes led by

216: 9190: 8834: 8599: 8487: 8396: 8386: 8376: 8366: 8281: 7740: 7081:

Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890-1914

6058:

Technical Engineers', Architects' and Draftsmen's Unions, International Federation of

4771:

Printers and Color Mixers of the United States, International Association of Machine

1048: 1035:

soon showed. The impetus for the major federal labor laws of the 1930s came from the

922: 714: 421: 312: 295: 279: 8397:

Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections

8387:

Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections

8377:

Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections

8367:

Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections

8348:

Walker, Roger W. "The AFL and child-labor legislation: An exercise in frustration."

5573:

Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada

3871:

Mechanics and Foremen of Naval Shore Establishments, National Association of Master

837: 779: 8481: 7785:

Women and the American Labor Movement from Colonial Times to the Eve of World War I

1187: 1093: 763: 734: 299: 148: 7712: 6589: 8422:(designated as official repository by the AFL–CIO in 2013, succeeding the closed 8237:

The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement, 1935–1941

8214:

Vol. 3: The Policies and Practices of the American Federation of Labor, 1900–1909

8160: 4187:

Oil Field, Gas Well and Refinery Workers of America, International Association of

557:(IWW) and the radical faction of Socialists. To keep factories running smoothly, 7004:

Gompers in Canada: A Study in American Continentalism before the First World War

4502:

Plumbers and Steamfitters of the United States and Canada, United Association of

997: 480: 8340: 8317: 8077: 8068: 7714:

Meat vs. rice; American manhhod against Asiatic coolieism, which shall survive?

396: 9052: 8511: 8148:

Brooks, George W.; Derber, Milton; McCabe, David A.; and Taft, Philip (eds.),

8116: 7474: 6571: 965: 681:, which used its powers to rule in favor of unions and against the companies. 674: 457: 432: 417: 263: 251: 187:

The A.F. of L. was the largest union grouping, even after the creation of the

6722:. In two volumes. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1925; vol. 1, pp. 236–257. 4418:

Piano, Organ and Musical Instrument Workers' Union of America, International

9000: 7247: 5831:

Street and Electric Railway Employees of America, Amalgamated Association of

1808:

Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers, International Association of

989: 981: 938: 898: 853: 616: 412: 377: 267: 7904: 8157:

What's what in the Labor Movement: A Dictionary of Labor Affairs and Labor

7613: 6030:

Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Stablemen and Helpers, International Brotherhood of

3085:

Horseshoers of United States and Canada, International Union of Journeymen

332: 227:, whose refusal to negotiate with craft unions led to formation of the AFL 6385:

Varnishers' International Union of America, Hardwood Furniture and Piano

1039:. The enormous growth in union membership came after Congress passed the 1036: 658: 411:

The A.F. of L. faced its first major reversal when employers launched an

8271: 8258:

Labor's home front: the American Federation of Labor during World War II

8199: 8126: 7905:"AFL-CIO | History, Meaning, Purpose, Leaders, & Facts | Britannica" 7675:

Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II,

7559:

Irving Bernstein, "John L. Lewis and the Voting Behavior of the C.I.O."

6575: 8460: 8143: 8133:

Major Problems In The History Of American Workers: Documents and Essays

8110: 7564: 7145: 4802:

Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union of North America, International

4474:

Plate Printers' and Die Stampers' Union of North America, International

2278:

Distillery, Rectifying and Wine Workers' International Union of America

759: 336:

Samuel Gompers in the office of the American Federation of Labor, 1887.

259: 200: 169: 68: 8159:(1921) 577pp; encyclopedia of labor terms, organizations and history. 1404:

Asbestos Workers, International Union of Heat and Frost Insulators and

452:

Some unions within the A.F. of L. helped form and participated in the

311:

at below going union rates and with making use of individuals who had

39: 856:

claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the Machinists and the

243:

also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor.

8222:

Vol. 6: On the Eve of America's Entrance into World War I, 1915–1916

8005:

American Federation of Labor: History, Encyclopedia, Reference Book,

6973: 6896:

American Federation of Labor: History, Encyclopedia, Reference Book,

783:"The American Gulliver and Chinese Lilliputians", from 1901 pamphlet 8319:

American Federation of Labor: History, Encyclopedia, Reference Book

8140:

In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker

6883:

American Federation of Labor: History, Encyclopedia, Reference Book

4830:

Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers, International Brotherhood of

1861:

Building Laborers' International Protective Union of North America

1780:

Bricklayers', Masons and Plasterers' International Union of America

1583:

Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers and Helpers, International Brotherhood of

1497:

Bakery and Confectionery Workers of America, International Union of

509:

Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the A.F. of L. and the

947: 836: 809: 602: 584:

Gompers chaired the wartime Labor Advisory Board. He attended the

539: 479: 395: 331: 215: 7892:

Out to Work: A History of Wage Earning Women in the United States

7366:

Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928

2935:

Handbag, Luggage, Belt, and Novelty Workers' Union, International

2582:

Fur Workers' Union of the United States and Canada, International

2218:

Cutting Die and Cutter Makers of America, International Union of

791:

In 1901, the A.F. of L. lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882

8208:. In 10 volumes. New York: International Publishers, 1947–1994; 7339:

The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History

4219:

Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, Brotherhood of

3055:

Hod Carriers, Building and Common Laborers' Union, International

1613:

Boilermakers and Iron Shipbuilders, International Brotherhood of

925:, the local Building Trades Council, led by Carpenters official 620: 8433: 7796:

Alice Kessler-Harris, "Where Are the Organized Women Workers?"

7388: 7386: 7094:

Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 1897-1916

246:

One of the organizations embroiled in this controversy was the

8310:

The Armies of Labor: A Chronicle of the Organized Wage-Earners

5916:

Tack Makers' Protective Union of the United States and Canada

1553:

Bill Posters and Billers of America, International Alliance of

8191:(9th ed. 2017), textbook; originally written by Foster Dulles 7451: 7449: 7015:

Collomp, Catherine "Unions, Civics, and National Identity,"

6885:. Washington, DC: American Federation of Labor, 1919; pg. 63. 6870: