Amplifier - Knowledge (XXG)

2250:. Bias is a technique by which active devices are set to operate in a particular region, or by which the DC component of the output signal is set to the midpoint between the maximum voltages available from the power supply. Most amplifiers use several devices at each stage; they are typically matched in specifications except for polarity. Matched inverted polarity devices are called complementary pairs. Class-A amplifiers generally use only one device, unless the power supply is set to provide both positive and negative voltages, in which case a dual device symmetrical design may be used. Class-C amplifiers, by definition, use a single polarity supply. 1068:

system. However, any unwanted signals introduced by the amplifier, such as distortion are also fed back. Since they are not part of the original input, they are added to the input in opposite phase, subtracting them from the input. In this way, negative feedback also reduces nonlinearity, distortion and other errors introduced by the amplifier. Large amounts of negative feedback can reduce errors to the point that the response of the amplifier itself becomes almost irrelevant as long as it has a large gain, and the output performance of the system (the "closed

2116: 1309:(RF) amplifier design typically optimizes impedances for power transfer, while audio and instrumentation amplifier designs normally optimize input and output impedance for least loading and highest signal integrity. An amplifier that is said to have a gain of 20 dB might have a voltage gain of 20 dB and an available power gain of much more than 20 dB (power ratio of 100)—yet actually deliver a much lower power gain if, for example, the input is from a 600 Ω microphone and the output connects to a 47 1282: 1564:

voltage between base and collector, and to take the output voltage between emitter and collector. This causes negative feedback, and the output voltage tends to follow the input voltage. This arrangement is also used as the input presents a high impedance and does not load the signal source, though the voltage amplification is less than one. The common-collector circuit is, therefore, better known as an emitter follower, source follower, or cathode follower.

342: 502:, for 40 years. Power control circuitry used magnetic amplifiers until the latter half of the twentieth century when power semiconductor devices became more economical, with higher operating speeds. The old Shreeve electroacoustic carbon repeaters were used in adjustable amplifiers in telephone subscriber sets for the hearing impaired until the transistor provided smaller and higher quality amplifiers in the 1950s. 1083:, distortion can typically be reduced to 0.001%. Noise, even crossover distortion, can be practically eliminated. Negative feedback also compensates for changing temperatures, and degrading or nonlinear components in the gain stage, but any change or nonlinearity in the components in the feedback loop will affect the output. Indeed, the ability of the feedback loop to define the output is used to make 2352: 635: 50: 38: 5147: 2184:. Also, the use of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched to the output transistors – if the output transistors turn on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy themselves, as the full current from the power supply is not limited at this stage. 1357: 1580:

amplifier. Bilateral amplifier input impedance depends on the load, and output impedance on the signal source impedance. All amplifiers are bilateral to some degree; however they may often be modeled as unilateral under operating conditions where feedback is small enough to neglect for most purposes,

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The common emitter (or common source, common cathode, etc.) is most often configured to provide amplification of a voltage applied between base and emitter, and the output signal taken between collector and emitter is inverted, relative to the input. The common collector arrangement applies the input

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input socket for a power amplifier. In general, the power amplifier is the last 'amplifier' or actual circuit in a signal chain (the output stage) and is the amplifier stage that requires attention to power efficiency. Efficiency considerations lead to the various classes of power amplifiers based on

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When assessing rated amplifier power output, it is useful to consider the applied load, the signal type (e.g., speech or music), required power output duration (i.e., short-time or continuous), and required dynamic range (e.g., recorded or live audio). In high-powered audio applications that require

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As soon as any connection within the circuit gets longer than perhaps 1% of the wavelength of the highest specified frequency (e.g., at 100 MHz the wavelength is 3 m, so the critical connection length is approx. 3 cm) design properties radically change. For example, a specified length

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By design these amplifiers cannot amplify DC signals as the capacitors block the DC component of the input signal. RC-coupled amplifiers were used very often in circuits with vacuum tubes or discrete transistors. In the days of the integrated circuit a few more transistors on a chip are much cheaper

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to separate individual single stage amplifiers, the outputs of which are summed by the same transmission line. The transmission line is a balanced type with the input at one end and on one side only of the balanced transmission line and the output at the opposite end is also the opposite side of the

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Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal amplifier. An important limitation of a real amplifier is that the output it generates is ultimately limited by the power available from the power supply. An amplifier saturates and clips the output if the input signal becomes too large for

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D1 and D2 provide a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so that crossover distortion is minimized. That is, the diodes push the output stage firmly into class-AB mode (assuming that the base-emitter drop of the output transistors is

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stage that provides further amplification of the signal and the DC bias for the output stages, Q4 and Q5. R6 provides the load for Q3 (a better design would probably use some form of active load here, such as a constant-current sink). So far, all of the amplifier is operating in class A. The output

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modern electronics developers are encouraged to use directly coupled amplifiers whenever possible. In FET and CMOS technologies direct coupling is dominant since gates of MOSFETs theoretically pass no current through themselves. Therefore, DC component of the input signals is automatically filtered.

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is a technique used in most modern amplifiers to increase bandwidth, reduce distortion, and control gain. In a negative feedback amplifier part of the output is fed back and added to the input in the opposite phase, subtracting from the input. The main effect is to reduce the overall gain of the

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The input port can be idealized as either being a voltage input, which takes no current, with the output proportional to the voltage across the port; or a current input, with no voltage across it, in which the output is proportional to the current through the port. The output port can be idealized

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Amplifiers often have multiple stages in cascade to increase gain. Each stage of these designs may be a different type of amp to suit the needs of that stage. For instance, the first stage might be a class-A stage, feeding a class-AB push–pull second stage, which then drives a class-G final output

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are based on the proportion of each input cycle (conduction angle) during which an amplifying device passes current. The image of the conduction angle derives from amplifying a sinusoidal signal. If the device is always on, the conducting angle is 360°. If it is on for only half of each cycle, the

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Negative Resistance Amplifier is a type of Regenerative Amplifier that can use the feedback between the transistor's source and gate to transform a capacitive impedance on the transistor's source to a negative resistance on its gate. Compared to other types of amplifiers, this "negative resistance

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are specialized linear-beam vacuum-devices, designed to provide high power, widely tunable amplification of millimetre and sub-millimetre waves. Klystrons are designed for large scale operations and despite having a narrower bandwidth than TWTAs, they have the advantage of coherently amplifying a

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Amplifiers are described according to the properties of their inputs, their outputs, and how they relate. All amplifiers have gain, a multiplication factor that relates the magnitude of some property of the output signal to a property of the input signal. The gain may be specified as the ratio of

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This class of amplifier was very uncommon in the vacuum tube days when the anode (output) voltage was at greater than several hundred volts and the grid (input) voltage at a few volts minus. So they were used only if the gain was specified down to DC (e.g., in an oscilloscope). In the context of

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An operational amplifier is an amplifier circuit which typically has very high open loop gain and differential inputs. Op amps have become very widely used as standardized "gain blocks" in circuits due to their versatility; their gain, bandwidth and other characteristics can be controlled by

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circuits require an amplifier's gain be controlled by the time-averaged amplitude so that the output amplitude varies little when weak stations are being received. The non-linearities are assumed arranged so the relatively small signal amplitude suffers from little distortion (cross-channel

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This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical design because it automatically stabilises its operating point, since feedback internally operates from DC up through the audio range and beyond. Further circuit elements would probably be found in a real design that would

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as the active device. While semiconductor amplifiers have largely displaced valve amplifiers for low-power applications, valve amplifiers can be much more cost effective in high power applications such as radar, countermeasures equipment, and communications equipment. Many

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Another way to classify amplifiers is by the phase relationship of the input signal to the output signal. An 'inverting' amplifier produces an output 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal (that is, a polarity inversion or mirror image of the input as seen on an

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balanced transmission line. The gain of each stage adds linearly to the output rather than multiplies one on the other as in a cascade configuration. This allows a higher bandwidth to be achieved than could otherwise be realised even with the same gain stage elements.

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techniques to hold the gain at the desired value and reduce distortion. Negative loop feedback has the intended effect of lowering the output impedance and thereby increasing electrical damping of loudspeaker motion at and near the resonance frequency of the speaker.

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Video amplifiers are designed to process video signals and have varying bandwidths depending on whether the video signal is for SDTV, EDTV, HDTV 720p or 1080i/p etc.. The specification of the bandwidth itself depends on what kind of filter is used—and at which point

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amplifiers (or solid state amplifiers) are the most common type of amplifier in use today. A transistor is used as the active element. The gain of the amplifier is determined by the properties of the transistor itself as well as the circuit it is contained within.

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is a type of non-inverting amplifier, indicating that the signal at the emitter of a transistor is following (that is, matching with unity gain but perhaps an offset) the input signal. Voltage follower is also non-inverting type of amplifier having unity gain.

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may precede other signal processing stages, for example, while a power amplifier is usually used after other amplifier stages to provide enough output power for the final use of the signal. The first practical electrical device which could amplify was the

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A common solution to help stabilise the output devices is to include some emitter resistors, typically one ohm or so. Calculating the values of the circuit's resistors and capacitors is done based on the components employed and the intended use of the amp.

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were used. The core circuit was a diode whose capacitance was changed by an RF signal created locally. Under certain conditions, this RF signal provided energy that was modulated by the extremely weak satellite signal received at the earth station.

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of voltage to current. Many real RF amplifiers come close to this ideal. Although, for a given appropriate source and load impedance, RF amplifiers can be characterized as amplifying voltage or current, they fundamentally are amplifying power.

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and electrodynamic receiver pairs. The Shreeve repeater was first tested on a line between Boston and Amesbury, MA, and more refined devices remained in service for some time. After the turn of the century it was found that negative resistance

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pair are arranged in class-AB push–pull, also called a complementary pair. They provide the majority of the current amplification (while consuming low quiescent current) and directly drive the load, connected via DC-blocking capacitor C2. The

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of real amplifiers by adding impedances (resistance, capacitance and inductance) to the input and output. For any particular circuit, a small-signal analysis is often used to find the actual impedance. A small-signal AC test current

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are a range of audio power amplifiers used to increase the sound level of musical instruments, for example guitars, during performances. Amplifiers' tone mainly come from the order and amount in which it applies EQ and distortion

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An amplifier whose output exhibits no feedback to its input side is described as 'unilateral'. The input impedance of a unilateral amplifier is independent of load, and output impedance is independent of signal source impedance.

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trace can be used as a selective or impedance-matching entity. Above a few hundred MHz, it gets difficult to use discrete elements, especially inductors. In most cases, PCB traces of very closely defined shapes are used instead

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range between 20 kHz and 300 GHz, and servo amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers may work with very low frequencies down to direct current. Amplifiers can also be categorized by their physical placement in the

886:, do not fit into this classification approach. Rather than dealing with voltage or current individually, they ideally couple with an input or output impedance matched to the transmission line impedance, that is, match 2197:

the amplifier to reproduce or exceeds operational limits for the device. The power supply may influence the output, so must be considered in the design. The power output from an amplifier cannot exceed its input power.

658:, with infinite source resistance and the output current dependent on the input. Combinations of these choices lead to four types of ideal amplifiers. In idealized form they are represented by each of the four types of 268:

contained within another device. Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are widely used in almost all electronic equipment. Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways. One is by the

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Frequency ranges down to DC are used only when this property is needed. Amplifiers for direct current signals are vulnerable to minor variations in the properties of components with time. Special methods, such as

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The practical amplifier circuit shown above could be the basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier. It features a typical (though substantially simplified) design as found in modern amplifiers, with a class-AB

1512:/SiC are emerging in HEMT transistors and applications where improved efficiency, wide bandwidth, operation roughly from few to few tens of GHz with output power of few Watts to few hundred of Watts are needed. 1515:

Depending on the amplifier specifications and size requirements microwave amplifiers can be realised as monolithically integrated, integrated as modules or based on discrete parts or any combination of those.

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amplifiers (TWTAs) are used for high power amplification at low microwave frequencies. They typically can amplify across a broad spectrum of frequencies; however, they are usually not as tunable as klystrons.

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since the late 20th century provided new alternatives to the conventional linear-gain amplifiers by using digital switching to vary the pulse-shape of fixed amplitude signals, resulting in devices such as the

999:), or some combination of current, voltage, and power. In many cases the property of the output that varies is dependent on the same property of the input, making the gain unitless (though often expressed in 1232:, and these microwave valves provide much greater single-device power output at microwave frequencies than solid-state devices. Vacuum tubes remain in use in some high end audio equipment, as well as in 1614:

Other amplifiers may be classified by their function or output characteristics. These functional descriptions usually apply to complete amplifier systems or sub-systems and rarely to individual stages.

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through an external circuit. Though the term today commonly applies to integrated circuits, the original operational amplifier design used valves, and later designs used discrete transistor circuits.

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The negative feedback into the difference amplifier allows the amplifier to compare the input to the actual output. The amplified signal from Q1 is directly fed to the second stage, Q3, which is a

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The replacement of bulky electron tubes with transistors during the 1960s and 1970s created a revolution in electronics, making possible a large class of portable electronic devices, such as the

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Depending on the frequency range specified different design principles must be used. Up to the MHz range only "discrete" properties need be considered; e.g., a terminal has an input impedance.

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Most amplifiers are designed to be linear. That is, they provide constant gain for any normal input level and output signal. If an amplifier's gain is not linear, the output signal can become

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indicates use at frequencies down to DC levels, where the rapid fluctuations of an audio or RF signal do not occur. These are often used in mechanical actuators, or devices such as

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or forced air cooling. Heat can damage or reduce electronic component service life. Designers and installers must also consider heating effects on adjacent equipment.

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Beginning in the 1970s, more and more transistors were connected on a single chip thereby creating higher scales of integration (such as small-scale, medium-scale and

135: 94: 357:, first patented in 1876, created the need to increase the amplitude of electrical signals to extend the transmission of signals over increasingly long distances. In 3395: 369:

for telegraphic transmission. Duplex transmission was essential for telephony and the problem was not satisfactorily solved until 1904, when H. E. Shreeve of the

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input for a device (perhaps another amplifier, or perhaps an energy-hungry load such as lights) that would otherwise draw too much current from the source.

471:), which could increase gain but also make the amplifier unstable and prone to oscillation. Much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was developed at 5065: 3134:

Peatman, W.C.B.; Daniel, E. S. (2009). "Introduction to the Special Section on the IEEE Compound Semiconductor Integrated Circuit Symposium (CSICS 2008)".

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To prevent instability or overheating requires care to ensure solid state amplifiers are adequately loaded. Most have a rated minimum load impedance.

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Amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling method of the signal at the input, output, or between stages. Different types of these include:

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amplifier has a precise amplification factor over a wide frequency range, and is often used to boost signals for relay in communications systems. A

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Each type of amplifier in its ideal form has an ideal input and output resistance that is the same as that of the corresponding dependent source:

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One set of classifications for amplifiers is based on which device terminal is common to both the input and the output circuit. In the case of

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These nonlinear amplifiers have much higher efficiencies than linear amps, and are used where the power saving justifies the extra complexity.

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stage, and uses some overall negative feedback. Bipolar transistors are shown, but this design would also be realizable with FETs or valves.

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which began around 1902, provided an entirely electronic method of amplifying signals. The first practical version of such devices was the

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long cables to the load (e.g., cinemas and shopping centres) it may be more efficient to connect to the load at line output voltage, with

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amplifiers imply two channels of output (left and right), though the term simply means "solid" sound (referring to three-dimensional)—so

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for example) the bandwidth is measured. Certain requirements for step response and overshoot are necessary for an acceptable TV image.

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amplifier generates significant distortion and so changes the harmonic content; there are situations where this is useful. Amplifier

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All amplifiers include some form of active device: this is the device that does the actual amplification. The active device can be a

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Transistor-based amplification can be realized using various configurations: for example a bipolar junction transistor can realize

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amplifier" will require only a tiny amount of power to achieve very high gain, maintaining a good noise figure at the same time.

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that produces a signal at the output port that is a replica of the signal applied to the input port, but increased in magnitude.

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Quite often LC-coupled and transformer-coupled amplifiers cannot be distinguished as a transformer is some kind of inductor.

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where one winding is used to control the saturation of a magnetic core and hence alter the impedance of the other winding.

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is applied to the input or output node, all external sources are set to AC zero, and the corresponding alternating voltage

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amplifier may be chosen because it can be very efficient—but is non-linear. Following such an amplifier with a so-called

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In real amplifiers the ideal impedances are not possible to achieve, but these ideal elements can be used to construct

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Lie, D.Y.C.; Mayeda, J. C.; Lopez, J. (2017). "Highly efficient 5G linear power amplifiers (PA) design challenges".

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frequencies. This category subdivides into small signal amplification, and power amps that are optimised to driving

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replaced them. Today, most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications.

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stereo audio amplifier with output power of 50 watts per channel used in home component audio systems in the 1970s.

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stabilized amplifiers are used to prevent objectionable drift in the amplifier's properties for DC. "DC-blocking"

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The amplifying vacuum tube revolutionized electrical technology. It made possible long-distance telephone lines,

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Depending on the frequency range and other properties amplifiers are designed according to different principles.

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to precisely define gain, bandwidth, and other parameters entirely based on the components in the feedback loop.

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during the 1920s to 1940s. Distortion levels in early amplifiers were high, usually around 5%, until 1934, when

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is similar to the operational amplifier, but also has differential outputs. These are usually constructed using

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greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its

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of an ideal linear amplifier with an arbitrary signal applied as input. In this example the amplifier has a

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They have largely fallen out of use due to development in semiconductor amplifiers but are still useful in

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The vacuum tube was virtually the only amplifying device, other than specialized power devices such as the

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Some feedback, positive or negative, is unavoidable and often undesirable—introduced, for example, by

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The amplifier circuit has an "open loop" performance. This is described by various parameters (gain,

1986: 1961: 1786: 1761: 1348:: amplifies a control voltage to adjust the speed of a motor, or the position of a motorized system. 1302: 1233: 1041: 610: 476: 468: 2661:

Dawn of the Electronic Age: Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the Modern World, 1914 to 1945

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All amplifiers generate heat through electrical losses. The amplifier must dissipate this heat via

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between a lower and an upper frequency (e.g. "20 Hz to 20 kHz plus or minus 1 dB").

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developed in 1954. Today, use of vacuum tubes is limited to some high power applications, such as

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such as silicon short channel MOSFETs like double-diffused metal–oxide–semiconductor (DMOS) FETs,

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For special purposes, other active elements have been used. For example, in the early days of the

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Bode, H. W. (July 1940). "Relations Between Attenuation and Phase in Feedback Amplifier Design".

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This description can apply to a single stage of an amplifier, or to a complete amplifier system.

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and access points where size and efficiency are the drivers. New materials like gallium nitride (

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linearity (even the most linear amplifier has some nonlinearities, since the amplifying devices—

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coupled amplifier, using a transformer to match impedances or to decouple parts of the circuits

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Non-feedback amplifiers can achieve only about 1% distortion for audio-frequency signals. With

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are a type of buffer that feeds long or interference-prone interconnect cables, possibly with

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reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency and phase.

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amp amplifies a specific narrow range of frequencies, to the exclusion of other frequencies.

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control, and in nuclear power control circuitry due to not being affected by radioactivity.

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of active devices against minor changes in power-supply voltage or device characteristics.

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stage, taking advantage of the strengths of each type, while minimizing their weaknesses.

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amplifier responds to different frequency components independently, and does not generate

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A power amplifier is an amplifier designed primarily to increase the power available to a

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Applications are numerous, some common examples are audio amplifiers in a home stereo or

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Amplifiers are usually designed to function well in a specific application, for example:

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Inductive-capacitive (LC) coupled amplifier, using a network of inductors and capacitors

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Resistive-capacitive (RC) coupled amplifier, using a network of resistors and capacitors

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for example can provide a special transfer function, such as logarithmic or square-law.

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An amplifier that uses feedback to connect part of the output back to the input is a

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The four types of dependent source—control variable on left, output variable on right

484: 401: 331: 303: 2573:, Nos. 1665 and 1666, November 30, 1907 and December 7, 1907, p.348-350 and 354-356. 4875: 4835: 4777: 4670: 4640: 4597: 4519: 4291: 4279: 4167: 4134: 3963: 3948: 3531: 3515: 2877: 1973: 1937: 1909: 1885: 1741: 1669: 1595: 1497: 1264: 1198: 1014:

is useful. Certain signal processing applications use exponential gain amplifiers.

992: 537: 383: 366: 291: 287: 242: 3178: 654:, with zero source resistance and its output voltage dependent on the input; or a 602:. Many amplifiers commercially available today are based on integrated circuits. 281:(sound) range of less than 20 kHz, RF amplifiers amplify frequencies in the 5116: 5111: 5070: 5055: 4979: 4964: 4923: 4880: 4696: 4333: 4075: 4024: 3930: 3915: 3698: 3660: 2557: 2181: 2147:

R1 and R2 so that any preceding circuit is not affected by it. Q1 and Q2 form a

2008: 2005:

This kind of amplifier is most often used in selective radio-frequency circuits.

1965: 1940:

stereo was used for amplifiers with four channels. 5.1 and 7.1 systems refer to

1919: 1879: 1864: 1621: 1582: 1557: 1501: 1345: 1341: 1329: 1247: 1208: 1190: 1178: 1134: 1101:

Negative feedback can be applied at each stage of an amplifier to stabilize the

1049: 1025: 634: 565: 390: 335: 327: 299: 3005: 2351: 1552:, the three classes are common emitter, common base, and common collector. For 5106: 5096: 4913: 4701: 4665: 4534: 4529: 4405: 4395: 4328: 4202: 4172: 4139: 4114: 4109: 4086: 3958: 3938: 3816: 3678: 3655: 3541: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3331: 3281: 3256: 3210: 3155: 2347: 2240: 2209: 2094:

Power amplifier circuits (output stages) are classified as A, B, AB and C for

1889: 1733: 1699: 1676:

such as square-laws and rely on circuitry techniques to reduce those effects).

1673: 1665: 1290: 1237: 1152: 1138: 1117: 1053: 1022: 1007: 996: 588: 529: 456: 358: 307: 258: 37: 3110: 2072:

down when the frequency reaches the specified bandwidth), or by specifying a

1740:

can reduce unwanted harmonics (distortion) sufficiently to make it useful in

864:

across the test current source determines the impedance seen at that node as

4726: 4368: 4212: 4207: 4197: 4124: 4004: 3838: 3833: 3758: 3683: 2201: 2132: 2058: 2042: 1945: 1897: 1776: 1753: 1710:

a load such as a lamp based on a threshold in a continuously variable input.

1036:("hi-fi") stereo equipment, microcomputers and other digital equipment, and 955: 949: 545: 499: 354: 270: 246: 57: 49: 3171:

2017 International Symposium on VLSI Design, Automation and Test (VLSI-DAT)

2064:

The frequency range handled by an amplifier might be specified in terms of

2045:

can be added to remove DC and sub-sonic frequencies from audio amplifiers.

306:, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912. Today most amplifiers use 3087:"What is a video amplifier, video booster amplifiers - Future Electronics" 17: 4918: 4895: 4885: 4825: 4612: 4390: 4338: 4318: 4296: 4182: 4177: 4065: 4054: 3983: 3753: 2173: 2144: 1745: 1634: 1474: 1379: 1221: 1217: 460: 374: 3373: 3352: – contains an explanation of different amplifier classes 5014: 4759: 4250: 4187: 4009: 3994: 3848: 3805: 3453: 3215: 3006:"Magnetic Amplifier Control for Simple, Low-Cost, Secondary Regulation" 2077: 2069: 1315: 1000: 988: 927:, the ratio between the power of the output and total power consumption 230: 386:

could amplify, and were also tried in repeaters, with little success.

4323: 4014: 3978: 3943: 3503: 3475: 3448: 3423: 2990: 2977:

Robert S. Symons (1998). "Tubes: Still vital after all these years".

2103:

angle is 180°. The angle of flow is closely related to the amplifier

1933: 1638: 1276: 1037: 515: 397: 394: 346: 324: 296: 2541: 2233:

at source and loads. This avoids long runs of heavy speaker cables.

4423: 2860:"Timeline | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum" 1356: 1301:. In practice, amplifier power gain depends on the source and load 27:

Electronic device/component that increases the strength of a signal

5080: 5050: 4400: 4311: 4070: 3843: 3636: 3498: 3493: 2873: 2164: 1520: 1355: 1280: 1018: 452: 405: 362: 340: 278: 48: 36: 2246:

Different power supply types result in many different methods of

1201:

amplification. Each configuration has different characteristics.

353:

The development of audio communication technology in form of the

30:

This article is about electronic amplifiers. For other uses, see

4850: 4343: 3726: 3672: 3573: 3526: 3464: 1493: 1254: 946:, the ratio of the largest and the smallest useful output levels 323:

The first practical prominent device that could amplify was the

4427: 3377: 2848:

Telephone Sets for Subscribers with Impaired Hearing — 334 Type

264:

An amplifier can be either a separate piece of equipment or an

4617: 3211:"Tested: Where Does the Tone Come from in a Guitar Amplifier?" 2180:

above the needed range to prevent the possibility of unwanted

1505: 1310: 1090:

Another advantage of negative feedback is that it extends the

719: 912:, the ratio between the magnitude of output and input signals 225:

is an electronic device that can increase the magnitude of a

905:

Amplifier properties are given by parameters that include:

4959: 2475:

Patronis, Gene (1987). "Amplifiers". In Glen Ballou (ed.).

1629:

to actively control the output at some desired level. A DC

2135:

C1 to the base of transistor Q1. The capacitor allows the

1207:(also known as tube amplifiers or valve amplifiers) use a 556:(BJT) in 1948. They were followed by the invention of the 662:

used in linear analysis, as shown in the figure, namely:

1094:

of the amplifier. The concept of feedback is used in

412:

systems, the amplifying vacuum tube was first called an

2876:; in particular, it encompasses all possibilities. See 1159:

Common active devices in transistor amplifiers include

273:

of the electronic signal being amplified. For example,

2477:

Handbook for Sound Engineers: The New Audio Cyclopedia

1829:

Operational amplifier comparator and detector circuits

1305:, as well as the inherent voltage and current gain. A 2891:"Small signal analysis of Complex amplifier circuits" 2503:, Transactions of the AIEE 38(11), 1 Oct 1919, p.1298 2419:

Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits

2098:

designs—and class D and E for switching designs. The

1859:, and is often used to increase the sensitivity of a 1216:

are specially designed valve amplifiers, such as the

154: 107: 66: 2542:"The Audion; A New Receiver for Wireless Telegraphy" 1428:

are the main example of this type of amplification.

939:, a measure of undesired noise mixed into the output 5089: 5023: 4947: 4894: 4816: 4758: 4735: 4689: 4631: 4573: 4489: 4461: 4359: 4259: 4226: 4158: 4095: 4023: 3929: 3861: 3707: 3635: 3540: 3422: 3411: 2748:. The Encyclopedia Americana Co. 1920. p. 349. 1137:, discrete solid state component, such as a single 345:De Forest's prototype audio amplifier of 1914. The 241:electronic circuit that uses electric power from a 3232:"Microwaves101 | Active Directivity of Amplifiers" 2953:Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 7th Edition 1165:metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors 202: 129: 88: 2846:AT&T, Bell System Practices Section C65.114, 2020:, using no impedance and bias matching components 1789:detector circuits that use amplification such as 1560:, common cathode, common grid, and common plate. 558:metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor 2764:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion 2516:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion 1813:, rely on changes in amplification based on the 3255:Roy, Apratim; Rashid, S. M. S. (5 June 2012). 1539:Classification of amplifier stages and systems 4439: 3389: 3305:"Understanding Amplifier Operating "Classes"" 2569:The link is to a reprint of the paper in the 2068:(normally implying a response that is 3 373:improved existing attempts at constructing a 8: 1944:with 5 or 7 normal spatial channels, plus a 1319: 642:In principle, an amplifier is an electrical 5066:Professional Lighting and Sound Association 2446:Introduction to Circuit Analysis and Design 4656:Comparison of analog and digital recording 4446: 4432: 4424: 3419: 3396: 3382: 3374: 2664:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 9–10, 15. 2653: 2651: 2591:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 28. 2470: 2468: 2466: 952:, the maximum rate of change of the output 3280: 2788: 2786: 1523:is a non-electronic microwave amplifier. 1213: 199: 184: 159: 153: 112: 106: 71: 65: 2691:. Murray Hill Books. pp. 165, 180. 2625:Newnes Dictionary of Electronics, 4th Ed 2479:. Howard W. Sams & Co. p. 493. 2114: 1318:of the output transistors or tubes: see 1044:. Every amplifier includes at least one 770: 754:Voltage controlled voltage source, VCVS 732:Voltage controlled current source, VCCS 710:Current controlled voltage source, CCVS 691:Current controlled current source, CCCS 664: 633: 371:American Telephone and Telegraph Company 3261:Central European Journal of Engineering 2589:Historical Dictionary of American Radio 2449:. Springer Science and Business Media. 2389:Crecraft, David; Gorham, David (2003). 2369: 1904:equalisation filters. They may include 1817:'s instantaneous amplitude to derive a 1637:that must maintain a constant speed or 1263:can be used as amplifiers, such as the 2416:Agarwal, Anant; Lang, Jeffrey (2005). 5127:New Interfaces for Musical Expression 1779:by the relatively large gain-control 1702:may be employed to turn either fully 1687:intentionally providing a non-linear 1660:distortion. No amplifier can provide 7: 3828:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 3136:IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 2922:Vsats: Very Small Aperture Terminals 2712:McNicol, Donald (November 1, 1917). 2220:, etc.). Many modern amplifiers use 2131:The input signal is coupled through 1645:amp. can do this for some AC motors. 1336:and deliver equal power to each. An 1189:amplification; a MOSFET can realize 919: 203:{\displaystyle v_{o}(t)=3v_{i}(t)\,} 3609:Programmable unijunction transistor 3048:"Tunnel-Diode Microwave Amplifiers" 2076:that is within a certain number of 1851:amplifier amplifies signals in the 878:Amplifiers designed to attach to a 3510:Multi-gate field-effect transistor 2956:. Prentice Hall College Division. 2834:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1940.tb00839.x 1490:heterojunction bipolar transistors 1246:are devices somewhat similar to a 1010:. There are, however, cases where 25: 5182:Audiovisual introductions in 1906 4676:Reel-to-reel audio tape recording 3488:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 3357:"Reinventing the power amplifier" 3111:"Travelling Wave Tube Amplifiers" 1752:of the tuned circuit to a higher 5145: 3732:Heterostructure barrier varactor 3459:Chemical field-effect transistor 2422:. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 331. 2377:HiFi-Wiki webpage with facsimile 2350: 1352:Operational amplifiers (op-amps) 995:), output power to input power ( 882:at input and output, especially 4661:Experimental musical instrument 3780:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 2745:Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 26 2540:De Forest, Lee (January 1906). 2139:signal to pass, but blocks the 1888:(preamp.), which may include a 1748:may be selected by setting the 3332:AES guide to amplifier classes 3046:Munsterman, G.T. (June 1965). 2571:Scientific American Supplement 2168:reduced by heat dissipation). 1581:simplifying analysis (see the 1116:and turn an amplifier into an 196: 190: 171: 165: 124: 118: 83: 77: 1: 4846:Electronic musical instrument 3179:10.1109/VLSI-DAT.2017.7939653 3023:"Negative Resistance Revived" 2119:A practical amplifier circuit 1999:and smaller than a capacitor. 1713:a non-linear amplifier in an 1527:Musical instrument amplifiers 1432:Negative resistance amplifier 1234:musical instrument amplifiers 568:at Bell Labs in 1959. Due to 148:of 3; that is at any instant 5152:Record production portal 5041:Institute of Broadcast Sound 3811:Silicon controlled rectifier 3673:Organic light-emitting diode 3563:Diffused junction transistor 3338:"Amplifier Anatomy - Part 1" 2300:Intermediate power amplifier 2143:bias voltage established by 1799:infinite impedance detectors 1696:silicon controlled rectifier 1550:bipolar junction transistors 1387:fully differential amplifier 1328:are typically used to drive 1161:bipolar junction transistors 5061:Musical Electronics Library 3615:Static induction transistor 3552:Bipolar junction transistor 3504:MOS field-effect transistor 3476:Fin field-effect transistor 2822:Bell Labs Technical Journal 2799:Online Etymology Dictionary 2718:Telegraph and Telephone Age 2583:Godfrey, Donald G. (1998). 2558:10.1109/t-aiee.1906.4764762 2443:Glisson, Tildon H. (2011). 2320:Programmable-gain amplifier 2310:Negative feedback amplifier 1700:transistor used as a switch 1236:, due to a preference for " 554:bipolar junction transistor 473:Bell Telephone Laboratories 377:consisting of back-to-back 5198: 4808:Sound reinforcement system 4717:Sound reinforcement system 3822:Static induction thyristor 2658:Nebeker, Frederik (2009). 2519:. MIT Press. p. 165. 2499:Gherardi B., Jewett F.B., 2395:. CRC Press. p. 168. 2087: 1984: 1981:Interstage coupling method 1589:Inverting or non-inverting 1508:) or GaN on silicon or on 1404: 1366: 1277:Switch § Power switch 1274: 918:, the width of the useful 901:Amplifier figures of merit 898: 509: 379:carbon-granule transmitter 32:Amplifier (disambiguation) 29: 5141: 5031:Audio Engineering Society 4929:Software effect processor 4909:Digital audio workstation 4750:Digital signal processing 4514:Digital audio workstation 3991:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode) 3743:Hybrid integrated circuit 3586:Light-emitting transistor 3282:10.2478/s13531-012-0009-1 3156:10.1109/JSSC.2009.2029709 3091:www.futureelectronics.com 2688:Radio's Conquest of Space 2265:Charge transfer amplifier 2111:Example amplifier circuit 1928:public address amplifiers 1863:or the output power of a 1585:article for an example). 1373:Instrumentation amplifier 1360:An LM741 general purpose 512:History of the transistor 424:, derived from the Latin 5122:Professional audio store 5024:People and organizations 5010:Sound recording engineer 4038:Backward-wave oscillator 3748:Light emitting capacitor 3604:Point-contact transistor 3574:Junction Gate FET (JFET) 2793:Harper, Douglas (2001). 2685:McNicol, Donald (1946). 2018:Direct coupled amplifier 1857:electromagnetic spectrum 1625:indicates an integrated 1554:field-effect transistors 1420:Switched mode amplifiers 656:dependent current source 652:dependent voltage source 534:point-contact transistor 130:{\displaystyle v_{o}(t)} 89:{\displaystyle v_{i}(t)} 4540:Microphone preamplifier 4049:Crossed-field amplifier 3568:Field-effect transistor 2627:. Newnes. p. 331. 2275:Current sense amplifier 2192:Notes on implementation 2100:power amplifier classes 2090:Power amplifier classes 2084:Power amplifier classes 1807:cat's-whisker detectors 1568:Unilateral or bilateral 1332:. They will often have 1320:power amplifier classes 1230:crossed-field amplifier 979:, the ability to avoid 607:satellite communication 596:large-scale integration 445:talking motion pictures 277:amplify signals in the 4481:Electronic and digital 4218:Voltage-regulator tube 3785:MOS integrated circuit 3650:Constant-current diode 3626:Unijunction transistor 3061:: 2–10. Archived from 2759:Hong, Sungook (2001). 2513:Sungook, Hong (2001). 2343:Power added efficiency 2290:Double-tuned amplifier 2149:differential amplifier 2120: 1811:peak detector circuits 1768:Automatic gain control 1401:Distributed amplifiers 1364: 1346:Servo motor controller 1326:Audio power amplifiers 1294: 1205:Vacuum-tube amplifiers 1096:operational amplifiers 1085:active filter circuits 1074:operational amplifiers 970:that characterize the 639: 437:public address systems 400:, invented in 1906 by 350: 330:, invented in 1906 by 302:, invented in 1906 by 210: 204: 131: 90: 56:means increasing the 46: 5172:Electronic amplifiers 4287:Electrolytic detector 4060:Inductive output tube 3876:Low-dropout regulator 3791:Organic semiconductor 3722:Printed circuit board 3558:Darlington transistor 3405:Electronic components 3236:www.microwaves101.com 3004:Mammano, Bob (2001). 2946:Robert Boylestad and 2919:John Everett (1992). 2280:Distributed amplifier 2231:matching transformers 2218:signal-to-noise ratio 2118: 1758:fundamental frequency 1532:Instrument amplifiers 1407:Distributed amplifier 1369:Operational amplifier 1359: 1284: 1172:public address system 1114:parasitic oscillation 1042:instrument amplifiers 637: 611:parametric amplifiers 520:Audio power amplifier 510:Further information: 344: 205: 132: 91: 52: 40: 4939:Software synthesizer 4904:Digital audio editor 4690:Playback transducers 4550:Multitrack recording 4105:Beam deflection tube 3774:Metal oxide varistor 3667:Light-emitting diode 3521:Thin-film transistor 3482:Floating-gate MOSFET 3309:electronicdesign.com 3055:APL Technical Digest 3011:. Texas Instruments. 2619:Amos, S. W. (2002). 1987:Multistage amplifier 1956:, which may include 1942:Home theatre systems 1924:headphone amplifiers 1795:precision rectifiers 1791:anode-bend detectors 1762:frequency multiplier 1463:Microwave amplifiers 1261:Negative resistances 1214:microwave amplifiers 430:to enlarge or expand 219:electronic amplifier 152: 105: 64: 5177:Electronic circuits 4081:Traveling-wave tube 3881:Switching regulator 3717:Printed electronics 3694:Step recovery diode 3471:Depletion-load NMOS 3273:2012CEJE....2..383R 3148:2009IJSSC..44.2627P 2501:Telephone Repeaters 2392:Electronics, 2nd Ed 2305:Low-noise amplifier 1823:alternating current 1654:harmonic distortion 1482:Solid-state devices 1468:Traveling wave tube 1411:These use balanced 1334:two output channels 1285:Power amplifier by 1244:Magnetic amplifiers 1226:traveling wave tube 847:equivalent circuits 619:digital electronics 600:integrated circuits 552:later invented the 389:The development of 101:and output voltage 4990:Re-recording mixer 4793:Keyboard amplifier 4509:Binaural recording 4386:Crystal oscillator 4246:Variable capacitor 3921:Switched capacitor 3863:Voltage regulators 3737:Integrated circuit 3621:Tetrode transistor 3599:Pentode transistor 3592:Organic LET (OLET) 3579:Organic FET (OFET) 2714:"The Audion Tribe" 2358:Electronics portal 2295:Faithful amplifier 2178:frequency response 2121: 2074:frequency response 1805:detectors such as 1750:resonant frequency 1744:, or some desired 1719:true RMS converter 1672:—follow nonlinear 1426:Class-D amplifiers 1413:transmission lines 1365: 1340:is found in radio 1338:RF power amplifier 1295: 1287:Skyworks Solutions 1143:integrated circuit 1110:parasitic elements 991:to input voltage ( 757:Voltage amplifier 694:Current amplifier 650:as being either a 640: 585:musical instrument 583:, as well as some 581:radio transmitters 528:The first working 524:RF power amplifier 496:magnetic amplifier 441:radio broadcasting 375:telephone repeater 351: 266:electrical circuit 261:greater than one. 211: 200: 127: 86: 47: 5159: 5158: 4965:Guitar technician 4861:Music workstation 4745:Digital recording 4722:Speaker enclosure 4641:8-track cartridge 4583:Phonograph record 4421: 4420: 4381:Ceramic resonator 4193:Mercury-arc valve 4145:Video camera tube 4097:Cathode-ray tubes 3857: 3856: 3465:Complementary MOS 3188:978-1-5090-3969-2 3142:(10): 2627–2628. 2963:978-0-13-375734-7 2932:978-0-86341-200-4 2486:978-0-672-21983-2 2315:Optical amplifier 2285:Doherty amplifier 2222:negative feedback 1960:, provide a high 1958:emitter followers 1954:Buffer amplifiers 1918:(normally drives 1894:RIAA equalization 1689:transfer function 1081:negative feedback 1065:Negative feedback 1060:Negative feedback 880:transmission line 843: 842: 816:Transconductance 783:Output impedance 777:Dependent source 766: 765: 674:Dependent source 624:Class-D amplifier 562:Mohamed M. Atalla 489:Hendrik Wade Bode 481:negative feedback 465:positive feedback 391:thermionic valves 16:(Redirected from 5189: 5150: 5149: 5148: 5036:Goji Electronics 4975:Monitor engineer 4934:Software sampler 4841:Electronic drums 4818:Electronic music 4788:Guitar amplifier 4633:Analog recording 4593:Compact cassette 4555:Music production 4463:Music technology 4455:Music technology 4448: 4441: 4434: 4425: 4275:electrical power 4160:Gas-filled tubes 4044:Cavity magnetron 3871:Linear regulator 3420: 3398: 3391: 3384: 3375: 3370: 3368: 3362:. Archived from 3361: 3351: 3349: 3343:. Archived from 3342: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3316: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3284: 3252: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3242: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3173:. pp. 1–3. 3166: 3160: 3159: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3121: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3098: 3097: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3073: 3067: 3052: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3034: 3033: 3027:users.tpg.com.au 3019: 3013: 3012: 3010: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2991:10.1109/6.666962 2974: 2968: 2967: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2907: 2906: 2897:. Archived from 2895:www.eeherald.com 2887: 2881: 2872:This table is a 2870: 2864: 2863: 2856: 2850: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2817: 2811: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2801:. Etymonline.com 2790: 2781: 2780: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2655: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2510: 2504: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2472: 2461: 2460: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2413: 2407: 2406: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2360: 2355: 2354: 2153:long-tailed pair 2126:push–pull output 2105:power efficiency 1972:outputs through 1771:interference or 1694:a device like a 1600:emitter follower 1488:, SiGe and GaAs 1458: 1454: 1446:Video amplifiers 1344:final stages. A 1271:Power amplifiers 1183:common collector 1141:, or part of an 1070:loop performance 981:self-oscillation 802:Transresistance 780:Input impedance 771: 736:Transconductance 665: 660:dependent source 644:two-port network 577:transistor radio 550:William Shockley 459:, and the first 275:audio amplifiers 245:to increase the 229:(a time-varying 221:or (informally) 209: 207: 206: 201: 189: 188: 164: 163: 140: 136: 134: 133: 128: 117: 116: 99: 95: 93: 92: 87: 76: 75: 21: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5188: 5187: 5186: 5162: 5161: 5160: 5155: 5146: 5144: 5137: 5085: 5019: 4985:Record producer 4970:Mixing engineer 4943: 4890: 4856:MIDI controller 4831:Circuit bending 4812: 4754: 4731: 4707:Monitor speaker 4685: 4627: 4575:Recording media 4569: 4560:Music sequencer 4545:Monitor speaker 4491:Sound recording 4485: 4457: 4452: 4422: 4417: 4355: 4270:audio and video 4255: 4222: 4154: 4091: 4019: 4000:Photomultiplier 3925: 3853: 3801:Quantum circuit 3709: 3703: 3645:Avalanche diode 3631: 3543: 3536: 3425: 3414: 3407: 3402: 3366: 3359: 3355: 3347: 3340: 3336: 3328: 3323: 3314: 3312: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3240: 3238: 3230:Administrator. 3229: 3228: 3224: 3209: 3208: 3204: 3189: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3119: 3117: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3050: 3045: 3044: 3040: 3031: 3029: 3021: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3003: 3002: 2998: 2976: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2948:Louis Nashelsky 2945: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2904: 2902: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2871: 2867: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2845: 2841: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2804: 2802: 2792: 2791: 2784: 2777: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2727: 2725: 2711: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2657: 2656: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2618: 2617: 2613: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2582: 2581: 2577: 2562: 2560: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2527: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2474: 2473: 2464: 2457: 2442: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2403: 2388: 2387: 2383: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2356: 2349: 2339: 2334: 2330:Valve amplifier 2325:Tuned amplifier 2270:CMOS amplifiers 2260: 2194: 2113: 2092: 2086: 2052:and width of a 2031: 2029:Frequency range 1989: 1983: 1916:Power amplifier 1872:audio amplifier 1853:radio frequency 1775:) yet is still 1773:intermodulation 1715:analog computer 1658:intermodulation 1622:servo amplifier 1612: 1591: 1570: 1546: 1544:Common terminal 1541: 1529: 1510:silicon carbide 1465: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1443: 1434: 1422: 1409: 1403: 1375: 1367:Main articles: 1354: 1307:radio frequency 1279: 1273: 1131: 1126: 1103:operating point 1062: 920:frequency range 903: 897: 873: 869: 862: 855: 774:Amplifier type 714:Transresistance 677:Amplifier type 632: 542:Walter Brattain 526: 508: 449:audio recording 321: 316: 283:radio frequency 180: 155: 150: 149: 138: 108: 103: 102: 97: 67: 62: 61: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5195: 5193: 5185: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5164: 5163: 5157: 5156: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5093: 5091: 5090:Related topics 5087: 5086: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5046:Lejaren Hiller 5043: 5038: 5033: 5027: 5025: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5005:Sound operator 5002: 5000:Sound follower 4997: 4995:Sound designer 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4955:Audio engineer 4951: 4949: 4945: 4944: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4900: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4822: 4820: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4773:Bass amplifier 4770: 4768:Mixing console 4764: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4752: 4747: 4741: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4693: 4691: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4637: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4579: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4511: 4506: 4504:Mixing console 4501: 4495: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4467: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4443: 4436: 4428: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4377: 4376: 4365: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4353: 4352: 4351: 4349:Wollaston wire 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4309: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4283: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4164: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4130:Selectron tube 4127: 4122: 4120:Magic eye tube 4117: 4112: 4107: 4101: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4089: 4084: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4057: 4052: 4046: 4041: 4034: 4032: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3935: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3867: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3825: 3819: 3814: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3782: 3777: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3713: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3689:Schottky diode 3686: 3681: 3676: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3629: 3623: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3595: 3594: 3583: 3582: 3581: 3576: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3548: 3546: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3518: 3513: 3507: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3430: 3428: 3417: 3409: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3393: 3386: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3369:on 2013-04-03. 3353: 3350:on 2004-06-10. 3334: 3327: 3326:External links 3324: 3322: 3321: 3296: 3267:(3): 383–391. 3247: 3222: 3202: 3187: 3161: 3126: 3115:www.r-type.org 3102: 3078: 3038: 3014: 2996: 2969: 2962: 2938: 2931: 2911: 2882: 2865: 2851: 2839: 2828:(3): 421–454. 2812: 2782: 2775: 2751: 2735: 2704: 2697: 2677: 2671:978-0470409749 2670: 2647: 2633: 2611: 2597: 2575: 2532: 2526:978-0262082983 2525: 2505: 2492: 2485: 2462: 2456:978-9048194438 2455: 2435: 2429:978-0080506814 2428: 2408: 2402:978-0748770366 2401: 2381: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2361: 2346: 2345: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2193: 2190: 2160:common emitter 2112: 2109: 2088:Main article: 2085: 2082: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2021: 2015: 2012: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1951: 1950: 1949: 1931: 1913: 1868: 1845: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1826: 1819:direct current 1809:), as well as 1801:(so excluding 1784: 1765: 1722: 1711: 1677: 1646: 1611: 1608: 1590: 1587: 1569: 1566: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1528: 1525: 1464: 1461: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1433: 1430: 1421: 1418: 1405:Main article: 1402: 1399: 1353: 1350: 1272: 1269: 1187:common emitter 1130: 1129:Active devices 1127: 1125: 1122: 1061: 1058: 984: 983: 974: 953: 947: 940: 934: 928: 922: 913: 899:Main article: 896: 893: 871: 867: 860: 853: 841: 840: 837: 834: 831: 827: 826: 823: 820: 817: 813: 812: 809: 806: 803: 799: 798: 795: 792: 789: 785: 784: 781: 778: 775: 764: 763: 758: 755: 752: 749: 745: 744: 739: 733: 730: 727: 723: 722: 717: 711: 708: 705: 701: 700: 695: 692: 689: 686: 682: 681: 678: 675: 672: 669: 631: 628: 570:MOSFET scaling 507: 504: 414:electron relay 320: 317: 315: 312: 251:proportionally 198: 195: 192: 187: 183: 179: 176: 173: 170: 167: 162: 158: 126: 123: 120: 115: 111: 85: 82: 79: 74: 70: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5194: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5154: 5153: 5140: 5134: 5133:Vehicle audio 5131: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5102:High fidelity 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5026: 5022: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4737:Digital audio 4734: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4681:Tape recorder 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4651:Cassette deck 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4588:Magnetic tape 4586: 4584: 4581: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4572: 4566: 4565:Outboard gear 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4499:Audio channel 4497: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4449: 4444: 4442: 4437: 4435: 4430: 4429: 4426: 4412: 4411:mercury relay 4409: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4350: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4304: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4240: 4237: 4236: 4235: 4234:Potentiometer 4232: 4231: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4151: 4150:Williams tube 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4088: 4085: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3969:Fleming valve 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3796:Photodetector 3794: 3792: 3789: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3764:Memtransistor 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3674: 3671: 3668: 3665: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3616: 3613: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413:Semiconductor 3410: 3406: 3399: 3394: 3392: 3387: 3385: 3380: 3379: 3376: 3365: 3358: 3354: 3346: 3339: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3310: 3306: 3300: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3248: 3237: 3233: 3226: 3223: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3206: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3127: 3116: 3112: 3106: 3103: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3068:on 2016-10-09 3064: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3042: 3039: 3028: 3024: 3018: 3015: 3007: 3000: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2979:IEEE Spectrum 2973: 2970: 2965: 2959: 2955: 2954: 2949: 2942: 2939: 2934: 2928: 2924: 2923: 2915: 2912: 2901:on 2016-10-09 2900: 2896: 2892: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2861: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2816: 2813: 2800: 2796: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2776:9780262082983 2772: 2769:. MIT Press. 2768: 2767: 2763: 2755: 2752: 2747: 2746: 2739: 2736: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2708: 2705: 2700: 2698:9780405060526 2694: 2690: 2689: 2681: 2678: 2673: 2667: 2663: 2662: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2636: 2634:9780080524054 2630: 2626: 2622: 2615: 2612: 2600: 2598:9780313296369 2594: 2590: 2586: 2579: 2576: 2572: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2533: 2528: 2522: 2518: 2517: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2493: 2488: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2452: 2448: 2447: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2425: 2421: 2420: 2412: 2409: 2404: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2385: 2382: 2379:of data sheet 2378: 2373: 2370: 2364: 2359: 2353: 2348: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2258:Special types 2257: 2255: 2251: 2249: 2244: 2242: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2226: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2198: 2191: 2189: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2169: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2127: 2117: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2061:techniques). 2060: 2055: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1997: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1900:preamps with 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1855:range of the 1854: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1738:tuned circuit 1736: 1735: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1627:feedback loop 1624: 1623: 1618: 1617: 1616: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1517: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1498:IMPATT diodes 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1469: 1462: 1460: 1445: 1440: 1438: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1408: 1400: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1381: 1374: 1370: 1363: 1358: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1256: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1195:common source 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1173: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1128: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1066: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1046:active device 1043: 1039: 1035: 1034:high-fidelity 1031: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1012:variable gain 1009: 1004: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 982: 978: 975: 973: 972:step response 969: 965: 961: 960:settling time 957: 954: 951: 948: 945: 944:dynamic range 941: 938: 935: 932: 929: 926: 923: 921: 917: 914: 911: 908: 907: 906: 902: 894: 892: 889: 885: 884:RF amplifiers 881: 876: 874: 863: 856: 848: 838: 835: 832: 829: 828: 824: 821: 818: 815: 814: 810: 807: 804: 801: 800: 796: 793: 790: 787: 786: 782: 779: 776: 773: 772: 769: 762: 759: 756: 753: 750: 747: 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 724: 721: 718: 715: 712: 709: 706: 703: 702: 699: 696: 693: 690: 687: 684: 683: 679: 676: 673: 670: 667: 666: 663: 661: 657: 653: 647: 645: 636: 629: 627: 625: 620: 615: 612: 608: 603: 601: 597: 592: 590: 587:and high-end 586: 582: 578: 573: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 525: 521: 517: 513: 505: 503: 501: 497: 492: 490: 486: 485:Harry Nyquist 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 433: 431: 427: 423: 422:amplification 419: 416:. The terms 415: 411: 407: 403: 402:Lee De Forest 399: 396: 392: 387: 385: 384:mercury lamps 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 348: 343: 339: 337: 333: 332:Lee De Forest 329: 326: 318: 313: 311: 309: 305: 304:Lee De Forest 301: 298: 293: 289: 284: 280: 276: 272: 267: 262: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 193: 185: 181: 177: 174: 168: 160: 156: 147: 146: 141: 121: 113: 109: 100: 80: 72: 68: 59: 55: 54:Amplification 51: 44: 39: 33: 19: 5143: 4876:Sound module 4836:Drum machine 4778:Effects unit 4671:Player piano 4645: 4598:Compact disc 4520:Effects unit 4168:Cold cathode 4135:Storage tube 4025:Vacuum tubes 3974:Neutron tube 3949:Beam tetrode 3931:Vacuum tubes 3516:Power MOSFET 3364:the original 3345:the original 3313:. Retrieved 3311:. 2012-03-21 3308: 3299: 3264: 3260: 3250: 3239:. Retrieved 3235: 3225: 3214: 3205: 3170: 3164: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3118:. Retrieved 3114: 3105: 3094:. Retrieved 3090: 3081: 3070:. Retrieved 3063:the original 3058: 3054: 3041: 3030:. Retrieved 3026: 3017: 2999: 2985:(4): 52–63. 2982: 2978: 2972: 2952: 2941: 2921: 2914: 2903:. Retrieved 2899:the original 2894: 2885: 2878:Fritz Zwicky 2874:"Zwicky box" 2868: 2854: 2847: 2842: 2825: 2821: 2815: 2803:. Retrieved 2798: 2765: 2761: 2754: 2744: 2738: 2726:. Retrieved 2721: 2717: 2707: 2687: 2680: 2660: 2638:. Retrieved 2624: 2614: 2602:. Retrieved 2588: 2578: 2570: 2561:. Retrieved 2549: 2545: 2535: 2515: 2508: 2500: 2495: 2476: 2445: 2438: 2418: 2411: 2391: 2384: 2372: 2252: 2245: 2238: 2235: 2227: 2199: 2195: 2186: 2170: 2157: 2130: 2122: 2093: 2073: 2063: 2050: 2047: 2035: 2032: 1990: 1974:twisted pair 1970:differential 1966:Line drivers 1938:quadraphonic 1920:loudspeakers 1910:tone control 1892:preamp with 1886:Preamplifier 1871: 1848: 1841: 1837: 1802: 1756:rather than 1742:transmitters 1732: 1707: 1703: 1680: 1670:vacuum tubes 1661: 1649: 1642: 1620: 1613: 1605: 1596:oscilloscope 1592: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1562: 1558:vacuum tubes 1547: 1530: 1518: 1514: 1480: 1473: 1466: 1449: 1441:Applications 1435: 1423: 1410: 1384: 1376: 1330:loudspeakers 1324: 1296: 1265:tunnel diode 1259: 1252: 1242: 1203: 1199:common drain 1176: 1169: 1158: 1151: 1132: 1107: 1100: 1089: 1078: 1063: 1048:, such as a 1026:transmitters 1016: 1005: 993:voltage gain 985: 904: 887: 877: 865: 858: 851: 844: 767: 648: 641: 617:Advances in 616: 604: 593: 591:amplifiers. 574: 560:(MOSFET) by 538:John Bardeen 536:invented by 527: 493: 477:Harold Black 469:regeneration 447:, practical 434: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 388: 367:C. F. Varley 352: 322: 319:Vacuum tubes 292:preamplifier 288:signal chain 263: 243:power supply 237:). It is a 222: 218: 214: 212: 145:voltage gain 143: 137: 96: 53: 5117:Music store 5112:Home cinema 5071:Robert Moog 5056:Max Mathews 4980:Piano tuner 4948:Professions 4924:Scorewriter 4881:Synthesizer 4697:Loudspeaker 4334:Transformer 4076:Sutton tube 3916:Charge pump 3769:Memory cell 3699:Zener diode 3661:Laser diode 3544:transistors 3426:transistors 2762:Hong 2001, 2552:: 735–763. 2546:Trans. 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