183:(BI) systems on the anchoring effect. Business intelligence denotes an array of software and services used by businesses to gather valuable insights into an organisation's performance. The extent to which cognitive bias is mitigated by using these systems was the overarching question in this study. While the independent variable was the use of the BI system, the dependent variable was the outcome of the decision-making process. The subjects were presented with a 'plausible' anchor and a 'spurious' anchor in a forecasting decision. It was found that, while the BI system mitigated the negative effects of the spurious anchor, it had no influence on the effects of the plausible anchor. This is important in a business context, because it shows that humans are still susceptible to cognitive biases, even when using sophisticated technological systems. One of the subsequent recommendations from the experimenters was to implement a forewarning into BI systems as to the anchoring effect.
85:. Because participants did not have enough time to calculate the full answer, they had to make an estimate after their first few multiplications. When these first multiplications gave a small answer – because the sequence started with small numbers – the median estimate was 512; when the sequence started with the larger numbers, the median estimate was 2,250. (The correct answer is 40,320.) In another study by Tversky and Kahneman, participants were asked to estimate the percentage of African countries in the United Nations. Before estimating, the participants first observed a roulette wheel that was predetermined to stop on either 10 or 65. Participants whose wheel stopped on 10 guessed lower values (25% on average) than participants whose wheel stopped at 65 (45% on average). The pattern has held in other experiments for a wide variety of different subjects of estimation.
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answer. Assuming it is not, the judge moves on to another guess, but not before accessing all the relevant attributes of the anchor itself. Then, when evaluating the new answer, the judge looks for ways in which it is similar to the anchor, resulting in the anchoring effect. Various studies have found empirical support for this hypothesis. This explanation assumes that the judge considers the anchor to be a plausible value so that it is not immediately rejected, which would preclude considering its relevant attributes. For example, an online-experiment showed that ratings of previous members of the crowd could act as an anchor. When displaying the results of previous ratings in the context of business model idea evaluation, people incorporate the displayed anchor into their own decision-making process, leading to a decreasing variance of ratings.
92:, an audience is first asked to write the last two digits of their social security number and consider whether they would pay this number of dollars for items whose value they did not know, such as wine, chocolate and computer equipment. They were then asked to bid for these items, with the result that the audience members with higher two-digit numbers would submit bids that were between 60 percent and 120 percent higher than those with the lower social security numbers, which had become their anchor. When asked if they believed the number was informative of the value of the item, quite a few said yes. Trying to avoid this confusion, a small number of studies used procedures that were clearly random, such as Excel random generator button and die roll, and failed to replicate anchoring effects.
284:. The personality traits are as follows. Conscientiousness, a character that is orderly and responsible. Neuroticism, an individual that has an uneasy nature and is unstable. Extraversion which is where a person is sociable and outgoing in nature. Openness to experience which is an intelligent and creative personality trait. Agreeableness, where someone is polite and trusting. People high in agreeableness and conscientiousness and neuroticism are more likely to be affected by anchoring, while those high in extraversion and openness to experience are less likely to be affected. Studies have shown that those high in Openness to New Experiences and Agreeableness are more susceptible to anchoring.
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like personal cognitive attributes such as knowledge and decision-making ability, decreasing the probability to pursue external sources of confirmation. This factor has also been shown to arise with tasks with greater difficulty. Even within subject matter experts, they were also prey to such behaviour of overconfidence and should more so, actively reduce such behaviour. Following the study of estimations under uncertain, despite several attempts to curb overconfidence proving unsuccessful, Tversky and
Kahneman (1971) suggest an effective solution to overconfidence is for subjects to explicitly establish anchors to help reduce overconfidence in their estimates.
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Since then, however, numerous studies have demonstrated that while experience can sometimes reduce the effect, even experts are susceptible to anchoring. In a study concerning the effects of anchoring on judicial decisions, researchers found that even experienced legal professionals were affected by anchoring. This remained true even when the anchors provided were arbitrary and unrelated to the case in question. Also, this relates to goal setting, where more experienced individuals will set goals based on their past experiences which consequently affects end results in negotiations.
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of three experiments were conducted to test the longevity of anchoring effects. It was observed that despite a delay of one week being introduced for half the sample population of each experiment, similar results of immediate judgement and delayed judgement of the target were achieved. The experiments concluded that external information experienced within the delayed judgement period shows little influence relative to self-generated anchors even with commonly encountered targets (temperature) used in one of the experiments, showing that anchoring effects may precede
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would "contaminate" their responses, and that they should do their best to correct for that. A control group received no anchor and no explanation. Regardless of how they were informed and whether they were informed correctly, all of the experimental groups reported higher estimates than the control group. Thus, despite being expressly aware of the anchoring effect, most participants were still unable to avoid it. A later study found that even when offered monetary incentives, most people are unable to effectively adjust from an anchor.
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respective anchors to attain a decision in the direction of the anchor placed. However, a distinction between individual and group-based anchor biases does exist, with groups tending to ignore or disregard external information due to the confidence in the joint decision-making process. The presence of pre-anchor preferences also impeded the extent to which external anchors affected the group decision, as groups tend to allocate more weight to self-generated anchors, according to the 'competing anchor hypothesis'.
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subsequent arguments, estimates, etc. made by an individual may change from what they would have otherwise been without the anchor. For example, an individual may be more likely to purchase a car if it is placed alongside a more expensive model (the anchor). Prices discussed in negotiations that are lower than the anchor may seem reasonable, perhaps even cheap to the buyer, even if said prices are still relatively higher than the actual market value of the car. Another example may be when estimating the
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than it would be otherwise. Other researchers also found evidence supporting the anchoring-and-adjusting explanation. Factors that influence the capacity for judgmental correction, like alcohol intoxication and performing a taxing cognitive load (rehearsing a long string of digits in working memory) tend to increase anchoring effects. If people know the direction in which they should adjust, incentivizing accuracy also appears to reduce anchoring effects.
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perform better than an individual member, they are found to be just as biased or even more biased relative to their individual counterparts. A possible cause would be the discriminatory fashion in which information is communicated, processed and aggregated based on each individual's anchored knowledge and belief. This results in a diminished quality in the decision-making process and consequently, amplifies the pre-existing anchored biases.
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their own interests. Generally negotiators who set the first anchor also tend to be less satisfied with the negotiation outcome, than negotiators who set the counter-anchor. This may be due to the regret or sense that they did not achieve or rather maximise the full potential of the negotiations. However, studies suggest that negotiators who set the first offer frequently achieve economically more advantageous results.
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individual decisions. Results found that there was a negative correlation between intelligence and anchoring in a group of more reflective subjects, indicating that individual differences in cognitive processing has important effects on the emergence of the anchoring effect. The experiment took 236 participants and graded cognitive attributes like intelligence, cognitive reflection and personality traits.
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they tend to focus on only one aspect. In this way, a deliberate starting point can strongly affect the range of possible counteroffers. The process of offer and counteroffer results in a mutually beneficial arrangement. However, multiple studies have shown that initial offers have a stronger influence on the outcome of negotiations than subsequent counteroffers.
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336:(e.g., $ 800,000) or a more precise and specific anchor (e.g., $ 799,800). Participants with a general anchor adjusted their estimate more than those given a precise anchor ($ 751,867 vs $ 784,671). The authors propose that this effect comes from difference in scale; in other words, the anchor affects not only the starting
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estimates, it was found that expertise decreases behavioural bias significantly. It was found that other factors like cognitive ability and experience where there is no susceptibility to anchoring or a susceptibility as it increases, tend to become factors that decrease the effects of anchoring when they are an expert.
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anchoring. In a poker-like experiment that included people of differing academic achievement and psychometric reasoning scoring, it has been found that anchoring is not related to education level. It also found that numerical reasoning and reflection scores had a negative association with anchoring susceptibility.
344:. When given a general anchor of $ 20, people will adjust in large increments ($ 19, $ 21, etc.), but when given a more specific anchor like $ 19.85, people will adjust on a lower scale ($ 19.75, $ 19.95, etc.). Thus, a more specific initial price will tend to result in a final price closer to the initial one.
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According to the theory, consumers’ shopping experiences are influenced by factors such as time restriction and specific environment. Enterprises design would set anchor values for consumers in order to get them to buy the products. When persuading consumers to purchase a particular product, sellers
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In addition to the initial research conducted by
Tversky and Kahneman, multiple other studies have shown that anchoring can greatly influence the estimated value of an object. For instance, although negotiators can generally appraise an offer based on multiple characteristics, studies have shown that
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A wide range of research has linked sad or depressed moods with more extensive and accurate evaluation of problems. As a result of this, earlier studies hypothesized that people with more depressed moods would tend to use anchoring less than those with happier moods. However, more recent studies have
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In their original study, Tversky and
Kahneman put forth a view later termed anchoring-as-adjustment. According to this theory, once an anchor is set, people adjust away from it to get to their final answer; however, they adjust insufficiently, resulting in their final guess being closer to the anchor
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Anchoring effects are also shown to remain adequately present given the accessibility of knowledge pertaining to the target. This, in turn, suggests that despite a delay in judgement towards a target, the extent of anchoring effects have seen to remain unmitigated within a given time period. A series
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Other studies have tried to eliminate anchoring much more directly. In a study exploring the causes and properties of anchoring, participants were exposed to an anchor and asked to guess how many physicians were listed in the local phone book. In addition, they were explicitly informed that anchoring
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Incidental price is defined as the prices offered or showed by a seller for products which the consumers are not interested in. According to the theory, the incidental price serves as an anchor which increases consumers’ willingness to pay. This effect has been widely used in areas such as auctions,
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An alternate explanation regarding selective accessibility is derived from a theory called "confirmatory hypothesis testing". In short, selective accessibility proposes that when given an anchor, a judge (i.e. a person making some judgment) will evaluate the hypothesis that the anchor is a suitable
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is defined as a situation where people tend to have a change in preference between two choices when they are showed with a third choice. The third choice is called a decoy which is designed to induce consumers to change their preferences. The decoy is usually considered as inferior. For example, it
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This model is not without its critiques. Proponents of alternative theories have criticized this model, claiming it is only applicable when the initial anchor is outside the range of acceptable answers. To use an earlier example, since
Mahatma Gandhi obviously did not die at age 9, then people will
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in relation to stock purchase behavior. The study found that when using an app-based stock brokerage, an investor’s first stock purchase price serves as an anchor for future stock purchases. The findings indicate that when investors start by making only a small stock purchase, they end up with less
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Sellers usually sort the prices of products from high to low and this method is common seen on the menus of restaurants. The high prices at the top of the menu act as anchor values in this situation. Consumers will have an expectation that the products are all expensive when knowing the relatively
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As for the question of setting the first or second anchor, the party setting the second anchor has the advantage in that the counter-anchor determines the point midway between both anchors. Due to a possible lack of knowledge the party setting the first anchor can also set it too low, i.e. against
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Although overconfidence emanates from the heuristic and refers more specifically to a behavioural tendency to take their initial assessment and put more emphasis on it during making their initial assessment leading to cognitive conceit. Cognitive conceit or overconfidence arises from other factors
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Early research found that experts (those with high knowledge, experience, or expertise in some field) were more resistant to the anchoring effect. However, anchoring happens unconsciously which means that unless someone who is knowledgeable is warned prior, they are still susceptible to anchoring.
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likely to use anchoring than people with happy or neutral mood. In a study focusing on medical practitioners, it was found that physicians that possess positive moods are less susceptible to anchoring bias, when compared to physicians with neutral moods. This was specifically found to be because a
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Several theories have been put forth to explain what causes anchoring, and although some explanations are more popular than others, there is no consensus as to which is best. In a study on possible causes of anchoring, two authors described anchoring as easy to demonstrate, but hard to explain. At
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One decoy effect example is the bundle sales. For example, many restaurants often sell set meals to their consumers, while simultaneously having the meals’ components sold separately. The prices of the meals’ components are the decoy pricing and act as an anchor which enables to make the set meal
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Tversky and
Kahneman suggest that the anchoring effect is the product of anchoring and adjustment heuristics whereby estimates are made starting from an anchor value which is then adjusted in until the individual has reached an answer. Kahneman suggests that anchoring occurs from derivations from
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listing prices. After making their offer, each group was then asked to discuss what factors influenced their decisions. In the follow-up interviews, the real-estate agents denied being influenced by the initial price, but the results showed that both groups were equally influenced by that anchor.
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A series of experiments were conducted to investigate anchoring bias in groups and possible solutions to avoid or mitigate anchoring. The first experiment established that groups are indeed influenced by anchors while the other two experiments highlighted methods to overcome group anchoring bias.
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Sebastian
Schindler’s study which analysed the significance of the anchoring effect against the 5 personality traits in a sample of 1000 participants found that there was evidence against the systematic influence of personality traits on the susceptibility towards the anchoring effect. All
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Anchoring can have more subtle effects on negotiations as well. Janiszewski and Uy investigated the effects of precision of an anchor. Participants read an initial price for a beach house, then gave the price they thought it was worth. They received either a general, seemingly nonspecific anchor
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Anchoring affects everyone, even people who are highly knowledgeable in a field. Northcraft and Neale conducted a study to measure the difference in the estimated value of a house between students and real-estate agents. In this experiment, both groups were shown a house and then given different
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An example of the power of anchoring has been conducted during the
Strategic Negotiation Process Workshops. During the workshop, a group of participants is divided into two sections: buyers and sellers. Each side receives identical information about the other party before going into a one-on-one
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Given the old saying that 'Two Heads are Better than One', it is often presumed that groups come to a more unbiased decision relative to individuals. However, this assumption is supported with varied findings that could not come to a general consensus. Nevertheless, while some groups are able to
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Although it has been found through many research and experiments that attempt to mitigate the decision heuristic of anchoring bias is either marginally significant or not successful at all, it can be found that the consider-the-opposite (COS strategy) has been the most reliable in mitigating the
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on anchoring is contested. A recent study on willingness to pay for consumer goods found that anchoring decreased in those with greater cognitive ability, though it did not disappear. Another study, however, found that cognitive ability had no significant effect on how likely people were to use
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More recently, a third explanation of anchoring has been proposed concerning attitude change. According to this theory, providing an anchor changes someone's attitudes to be more favorable to the particular attributes of that anchor, biasing future answers to have similar characteristics as the
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Expertise is when a judge has relevant knowledge. In a study using price estimation of cars, it was found that relevant knowledge positively influenced anchoring. Expertise in cognitive bias is related to experience however the two are not exclusively exhaustive. In a study using stock return
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The cause of group anchoring remains obscure. Group anchors may have been established at the group level or may simply be the culmination of several individual's personal anchors. Previous studies have shown that when given an anchor before the experiment, individual members consolidated the
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A further study completed by Adrian
Furnham, Hua Chu Boo and Alistair McClelland asked participants to complete four anchoring tasks with each task consisting of a higher or lower anchor. The participants completed a personality test measuring cognitive processes as well as intelligence and
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Predrag
Teovanović’s study ‘Individual Differences in Anchoring Effect: Evidence for the Role of Insufficient Adjustment’ analysed individual measures of individual differences like intelligence, cognitive reflection and basic personality traits to find the effect the anchoring bias had on
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is a psychological phenomenon in which an individual's judgments or decisions are influenced by a reference point or "anchor" which can be completely irrelevant. Both numeric and non-numeric anchoring have been reported in research. In numeric anchoring, once the value of the anchor is set,
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anchoring bias (Adame, 2016). In short, the COS strategy is proposed to an individual by asking them to consider the possibilities the opposite of their perceptions and beliefs. Therefore, depriving the individual of their preexisting attitudes and limiting the decision bias.
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When estimating something, predictors are less likely to choose an amount which is close to the maximum allowable adjustment. According to the theory, predictors adjust less when an anchor is chosen. As a result, the final prediction results are close to the anchor.
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high prices of products on the top of the list. As a result, they will be pleased to see the cheaper products at the middle and bottom of the list and regard these prices as acceptable or cheaper than expected. Therefore, they are more likely to buy these products.
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died before or after age 9, or before or after age 140. Clearly neither of these anchors can be correct, but when the two groups were asked to suggest when they thought he had died, they guessed significantly differently (average age of 50 vs. average age of 67).
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In the negotiation process anchoring serves to determine an accepted starting point for the subsequent negotiations. As soon as one side states their first price offer, the (subjective) anchor is set. The counterbid (counter-anchor) is the second-anchor.
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Scholten, Lotte; van
Knippenberg, Daan; Nijstad, Bernard A.; De Dreu, Carsten K.W. (July 2007). "Motivated information processing and group decision-making: Effects of process accountability on information processing and decision quality".
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anchor-consistent knowledge. In their paper on anchoring bias Kahneman and Tversky showed that people judgements could be skewed either higher or lower when presented with random numbers either high or low before their prediction.
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Wegener, Duane T.; Petty, Richard E.; Detweiler-Bedell, Brian T.; Jarvis, W.Blair G. (2001). "Implications of Attitude Change Theories for Numerical Anchoring: Anchor Plausibility and the Limits of Anchor Effectiveness".
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Blankenship, Kevin L.; Wegener, Duane T.; Petty, Richard E.; Detweiler-Bedell, Brian; Macy, Cheryl L. (2008). "Elaboration and consequences of anchored estimates: An attitudinal perspective on numerical anchoring".
46:. When judging stimuli along a continuum, it was noticed that the first and last stimuli were used to compare the other stimuli (this is also referred to as "end anchoring"). This was applied to attitudes by
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in duration especially when the anchoring effects were formed during the task. Further research to conclude an effect that is effectively retained over a substantial period of time has proven inconsistent.
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Schulz-Hardt, Stefan; Brodbeck, Felix C.; Mojzisch, Andreas; Kerschreiter, Rudolf; Frey, Dieter (2006). "Group decision making in hidden profile situations: Dissent as a facilitator for decision quality".
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Epley, Nicholas; Gilovich, Thomas (2005). "When effortful thinking influences judgmental anchoring: differential effects of forewarning and incentives on self-generated and externally provided anchors".
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might use anchoring. Sellers often influence consumers’ price perception by anchoring a high reference price and that is an anchor value. Following are three ways to set the anchor value for consumers.
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Laughlin, Patrick R.; VanderStoep, Scott W.; Hollingshead, Andrea B. (1991). "Collective versus individual induction: Recognition of truth, rejection of error, and collective information processing".
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Minson, Julia A.; Mueller, Jennifer S. (July 2013). "Groups Weight Outside Information Less Than Individuals Do, Although They Shouldn't: Response to Schultze, Mojzisch, and Schulz-Hardt (2013)".
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negotiation. Following this exercise, both sides debrief about their experiences. The results show that where the participants anchor the negotiation had a significant effect on their success.
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Schultze, Thomas; Mojzisch, Andreas; Schulz-Hardt, Stefan (July 2013). "Groups Weight Outside Information Less Than Individuals Do Because They Should: Response to Minson and Mueller (2012)".
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adjust from there. If a reasonable number were given, though, there would be no adjustment. Therefore, this theory cannot, according to its critics, explain all cases of anchoring effect.
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individual determinants like extroversion and introversion. Furnham found that there was a relationship between high levels of conscientiousness and extraversion with anchoring biases.
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Davies, Martin F. (November 1997). "Belief Persistence after Evidential Discrediting: The Impact of Generated versus Provided Explanations on the Likelihood of Discredited Outcomes".
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could be used as anchors in predicting current house prices. The findings were used to indicate that, in forecasting house prices, these 2-year and 9-years highs might be relevant.
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Epley, N.; Gilovich, T. (2001). "Putting Adjustment Back in the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic: Differential Processing of Self-Generated and Experimenter-Provided Anchors".
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Stasser, Garold; Titus, William (1987). "Effects of information load and percentage of shared information on the dissemination of unshared information during group discussion".
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Ten Velden, Femke S.; Beersma, Bianca; De Dreu, Carsten K. W. (November 2010). "It Takes One to Tango: The Effects of Dyads' Epistemic Motivation Composition in Negotiation".
39:, one might start with the Earth's orbit (365 days) and then adjust upward until they reach a value that seems reasonable (usually less than 687 days, the correct answer).
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Englich, B.; Mussweiler, Thomas; Strack, Fritz (2006). "Playing Dice With Criminal Sentences: The Influence of Irrelevant Anchors on Experts' Judicial Decision Making".
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anchor. Leading proponents of this theory consider it to be an alternate explanation in line with prior research on anchoring-and-adjusting and selective accessibility.
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Utilized methods include the use of process accountability and motivation through competition instead of cooperation to reduce the influence of anchors within groups.
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Various studies have shown that anchoring is very difficult to avoid. For example, in one study students were given anchors that were wrong. They were asked whether
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Mussweiler, Thomas; Strack, Fritz (1 March 1999). "Hypothesis-Consistent Testing and Semantic Priming in the Anchoring Paradigm: A Selective Accessibility Model".
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positive mood leads to information processing that is more systematic which leads to more efficient problem solving. This leads to a decreased anchoring effect.
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Mussweiler, Thomas; Neumann, Roland (March 2000). "Sources of Mental Contamination: Comparing the Effects of Self-Generated versus Externally Provided Primes".
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Wilson, Timothy D.; Houston, Christopher E.; Etling, Kathryn M.; Brekke, Nancy (1996). "A new look at anchoring effects: Basic anchoring and its antecedents".
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De Dreu, Carsten K. W.; Nijstad, Bernard A.; van Knippenberg, Daan (February 2008). "Motivated Information Processing in Group Judgment and Decision Making".
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more valuable to consumers. With the decoy effect it generates, the anchor increases consumers’ willingness to pay for the set meals, or the mixed bundles.
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Minson, Julia A.; Mueller, Jennifer S. (March 2012). "The Cost of Collaboration: Why Joint Decision Making Exacerbates Rejection of Outside Information".
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Stasser, Garold; Titus, William (June 1985). "Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion".
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Laughlin, Patrick R.; Bonner, Bryan L.; Altermatt, T. William (1998). "Collective versus individual induction with single versus multiple hypotheses".
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least one group of researchers has argued that multiple causes are at play, and that what is called "anchoring" is actually several different effects.
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77:. In one of their first studies, participants were asked to compute, within 5 seconds, the product of the numbers one through to eight, either as
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Cognitive Biases in the Capital Investment Context: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Experiments on Violations of Normative Rationality
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Eroglu, Cuneyt; Croxton, Keely L. (2010). "Biases in judgmental adjustments of statistical forecasts: The role of individual differences".
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manipulations in the 1000 participant study shifted the median response towards the anchor and evidence against a systematic relationship.
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Recently, it has been suggested that the group member who speaks first often has an unproportionally high impact on the final decision .
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Kristensen, Henrik; Gärling, Tommy (1997). "The Effects of Anchor Points and Reference Points on Negotiation Process and Outcome".
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Bodenhausen, G. V.; Gabriel, S.; Lineberger, M. (2000). "Sadness and Susceptibility to Judgmental Bias: The Case of Anchoring".
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Whyte, Glen; Sebenius, James K. (January 1997). "The Effect of Multiple Anchors on Anchoring in Individual and Group Judgment".
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Itzkowitz, Jennifer; Itzkowitz, Jesse; Schwartz, Andrew (2023). "Start Small and Stay Small: Anchoring in App-Based Investing".
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3412:"The Perceived Value of Value Meals: An Experimental Investigation into Product Bundling and Decoy Pricing in Restaurant Menus"
3186:"Bayes Factors show evidence against systematic relationships between the anchoring effect and the Big Five personality traits"
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Sherif, Muzafer; Taub, Daniel; Hovland, Carl I. (1958). "Assimilation and contrast effects of anchoring stimuli on judgments".
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Galinsky, Adam D.; Mussweiler, Thomas (2001). "First offers as anchors: The role of perspective-taking and negotiator focus".
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Strack, Fritz; Mussweiler, Thomas (1997). "Explaining the enigmatic anchoring effect: Mechanisms of selective accessibility".
3068:"Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases: Biases in judgments reveal some heuristics of thinking under uncertainty"
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2659:"Biased and overconfident, unbiased but going for it: How framing and anchoring affect the decision to start a new venture"
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Orr, Dan; Guthrie, Chris (2006). "Anchoring, Information, Expertise, and Negotiation: New Insights from Meta-Analysis".
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Whyte, Glen (April 1993). "Escalating Commitment in Individual and Group Decision Making: A Prospect Theory Approach".
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might be more expensive than option A while having lower quality than option B. In this case, the anchor is the decoy.
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2908:(1987). "Experts, amateurs, and real estate: An anchoring-and-adjustment perspective on property pricing decisions".
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Nijstad, Bernard A.; Oltmanns, Jan (September 2012). "Motivated information processing and group decision refusal".
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Bergman, Oscar; Ellingsen, Tore; Johannesson, Magnus; Svensson, Cicek (2010). "Anchoring and cognitive ability".
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Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1992). "Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty".
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Sniezek, Janet A (June 1992). "Groups under uncertainty: An examination of confidence in group decision making".
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2109:"Hypothesis-Consistent Testing and Semantic Priming in the Anchoring Paradigm: A Selective Accessibility Model"
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in relation to house prices. In this investigation, it was established that the 2-year and 9-year highs on the
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Gigone, Daniel; Hastie, Reid (1993). "The common knowledge effect: Information sharing and group judgment".
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2468:"How Much Does Expertise Reduce Behavioral Biases? The Case of Anchoring Effects in Stock Return Estimates"
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2526:"Susceptibility to anchoring effects: How openness-to-experience influences responses to anchoring cues"
2059:"The effect of accuracy motivation on anchoring and adjustment: Do people adjust from provided anchors?"
894:"The effect of accuracy motivation on anchoring and adjustment: Do people adjust from provided anchors?"
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Chapman, Gretchen B.; Johnson, Eric J. (1999). "Anchoring, Activation, and the Construction of Values".
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2157:"When in Doubt Follow the Crowd: How Idea Quality Moderates the Effect of an Anchor on Idea Evaluation"
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Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (27 September 1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases".
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Janiszewski, Chris; Uy, Dan (2008). "Precision of the Anchor Influences the Amount of Adjustment".
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1976:
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1705:
1645:
1571:
1528:
1485:
1366:
1322:
1179:
1162:
Kerr, Norbert L.; Tindale, R. Scott (February 2004). "Group Performance and Decision Making".
1075:
913:
874:
665:
593:
532:
462:
429:
293:
3499:
2833:
2786:
1071:
4167:
4027:
3967:
3892:
3877:
3737:
3690:
3599:
3594:
3579:
3461:
3423:
3411:
3382:
3323:
3285:
3189:
3158:
3079:
3067:
3029:
2994:
2944:
2917:
2856:
2821:
2748:
2703:
2670:
2609:
2575:
2540:
2506:
2479:
2407:
2348:
2301:
2251:
2220:
2184:
2123:
2070:
2015:
1968:
1933:
1903:
1875:
1807:
1768:
1741:
1697:
1670:
1637:
1606:
1563:
1520:
1477:
1450:
1420:
1393:
1358:
1314:
1287:
1260:
1233:
1206:
1171:
1141:
1104:
1067:
1040:
1013:
986:
959:
933:"Training in the mitigation of anchoring bias: A test of the consider-the-opposite strategy"
905:
866:
828:
798:
767:
738:
699:
657:
585:
524:
467:
1175:
50:
et al. in their 1958 article "Assimilation and effects of anchoring stimuli on judgments".
4135:
4125:
3902:
3882:
3797:
3700:
3675:
3670:
3643:
3621:
3533:
3355:
3258:
3214:
2877:
Strategic Negotiation: A Breakthrough Four-Step Process for Effective Business Negotiation
684:
626:
74:
62:
17:
727:"On the effect of anchoring on valuations when the anchor is transparently uninformative"
2744:
581:
4177:
4172:
4162:
4085:
4002:
3962:
3912:
3857:
3847:
3832:
3827:
3792:
3747:
3712:
3616:
3565:
630:
447:
125:
47:
4237:
4115:
4095:
4058:
4032:
4017:
3997:
3977:
3940:
3852:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3680:
3584:
3369:
Stettinger, Martin; Felfering, Alexander; Leitner, Gerhard; Reiterer, Stefan (2015).
3297:
3006:
2982:
2948:
2921:
2768:
2684:
2510:
2483:
2058:
2019:
1866:
Furnham, Adrian; Boo, Hua Chu (2011). "A literature review of the anchoring effect".
1827:
1780:
1610:
779:
605:
43:
36:
3473:
2964:
2594:
2552:
2427:
2321:
2271:
2196:
2043:
1583:
1497:
1334:
711:
544:
492:
4075:
3837:
3822:
3107:
3049:
2675:
2658:
2467:
1988:
1945:
1717:
1540:
840:
395:
70:
3147:"Individual Differences and the Susceptibility to the Influence of Anchoring Cues"
3083:
2752:
2629:"Individual differences in anchoring: Numerical ability, education and experience"
2579:
1811:
802:
589:
3386:
2875:
2707:
758:
Shuen Shie, Fu (2019). "The Anchoring Effect of Historical Peak to House Price".
3992:
3762:
3752:
3742:
3638:
3465:
3162:
1879:
1397:
1362:
1210:
1145:
870:
771:
452:
3033:
2613:
2224:
1745:
1108:
832:
743:
726:
4110:
4105:
4080:
2998:
2544:
2353:
2336:
2004:"The Anchoring-and-Adjustment Heuristic: Why the Adjustments Are Insufficient"
1641:
1424:
1237:
419:
89:
3289:
3170:
3091:
2411:
2255:
2082:
2027:
1819:
1772:
1701:
1649:
1567:
1524:
1481:
1318:
932:
4198:
3685:
3375:
User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization: 23rd International Conference
3193:
2305:
2131:
1972:
1625:
3099:
3041:
2956:
2860:
2760:
2419:
2313:
2263:
2188:
2127:
2090:
2035:
1980:
1709:
1575:
1532:
1489:
1454:
1370:
1326:
1291:
1253:"Group Judgments: Deliberation, Statistical Means, and Information Markets"
1183:
1044:
1017:
990:
917:
669:
661:
597:
536:
3427:
1125:
Kerr, Norbert L.; MacCoun, Robert J.; Kramer, Geoffrey P. (October 1996).
878:
4157:
4042:
1796:"The anchoring effect in business intelligence supported decision-making"
1664:
619:
1264:
703:
1937:
1674:
950:
Mussweiler, Thomas (July 2001). "The durability of anchoring effects".
263:
2825:
2337:"Moody experts: How mood and expertise influence judgmental anchoring"
1436:
1434:
1157:
1155:
1120:
1118:
3319:
2074:
909:
528:
280:
Research has correlated susceptibility to anchoring with most of the
1907:
1843:"What is business intelligence? Turning data into business insights"
963:
106:
The anchoring effect was also found to be present in a study in the
95:
The anchoring effect was also found to be present in a study in the
3327:
685:"On the Robustness of Anchoring Effects in WTP and WTA Experiments"
3145:
Furnham, Adrian; Boo, Hua Chu; McClelland, Alastair (2012-01-01).
262:
2983:"Good Grief! Anxiety Sours the Economic Benefits of First Offers"
1669:(Text.PhDThesis thesis). Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München.
725:
Ioannidis, Konstantinos; Offerman, Theo; Sloof, Randolph (2020).
3556:
3529:
2057:
Simmons, Joseph P.; LeBoeuf, Robyn A.; Nelson, Leif D. (2010).
892:
Simmons, Joseph P.; LeBoeuf, Robyn A.; Nelson, Leif D. (2010).
2627:
Welsh, Matthew; Delfabbo, Paul; Burns, Nicholas; Begg, Steve.
2593:
Oechssler, Jörg; Roider, Andreas; Schmitz, Patrick W. (2009).
683:
Fudenberg, Drew; Levine, David K; Maniadis, Zacharias (2012).
69:
The anchoring and adjustment heuristic was first theorized by
2442:"The Anchoring Effect and How it Can Impact Your Negotiation"
1059:
3122:"(PDF) Individual Differences in Anchoring Effect: Evidence"
2657:
Dubard Barbosa, Saulo; Fayolle, Alain; Smith, Brett (2019).
3318:
Lazear, Edward; Malmendier, Ulrike; Weber, Roberto (2006).
3274:"Binomial real option pricing for restaurant menu analysis"
42:
The original description of the anchoring effect came from
3450:"Incidental prices and their effect on willingness to pay"
3371:"Counteracting anchoring effects in group decision making"
179:
A peer-reviewed study sought to investigate the effect of
3525:
3185:
2238:
Lewis, Joshua; Gaertig, Celia; Simmons, Joseph (2019).
2102:
2100:
814:
812:
3184:
Schindler, Sebastian; Querengässer, Jan (2019-11-19).
1919:
1917:
1058:
Tindale, R. Scott; Winget, Jeremy R. (26 March 2019).
2478:(3). European Journal of Social Psychology: 391–412.
1624:
Hartmann, Stephan; Rafiee Rad, Soroush (2020-10-01).
556:
554:
2910:
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
2849:
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
2466:
Kaustia, Markku; Alho, Eeva; Puttonen, Vesa (2008).
1599:
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
1443:
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
1280:
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
1127:"Bias in judgment: Comparing individuals and groups"
852:
850:
650:
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
643:
641:
4186:
4051:
3926:
3563:
2370:"The Influence of Mood States on Anchoring Effects"
1794:Ni, Feng; Arnott, David; Gao, Shijia (2019-04-03).
563:"Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases"
3504:. Gabler research. Gabler Verlag. pp. 67–70.
2446:PON - Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School
65:, one of the first researchers to study anchoring.
3416:Journal of Restaurant & Foodservice Marketing
2981:; Kopelman, Shirli; Abbott, Jeanna Lanza (2014).
1841:Fruhlinger, Mary K. Pratt and Josh (2019-10-16).
2780:
2778:
2698:Fischhoff, Baruch (30 April 1982). "Debiasing".
2002:Epley, Nicholas; Gilovich, Thomas (April 2006).
2602:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
1666:Anchoring in deliberations of structured groups
3066:Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1974-09-27).
2240:"Extremeness aversion is a cause of anchoring"
3541:
8:
3022:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2063:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1413:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1386:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1351:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1226:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1199:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1097:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
898:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
821:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3230:"An experimental study on social anchoring"
2595:"Cognitive abilities and behavioral biases"
859:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
4204:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
3548:
3534:
3526:
2400:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
2107:Mussweiler, Thomas; Strack, Fritz (1999).
1761:Group Processes & Intergroup Relations
1690:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
1064:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology
246:shown the opposite effect: sad people are
3448:Nunes, Joseph; Boatwright, Peter (2004).
3320:"Sorting, prices, and social preferences"
2674:
2352:
2213:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
2177:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
2116:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1734:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1663:Leyva Galano, José Antonio (2024-02-23).
1033:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1006:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
979:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
742:
692:American Economic Journal: Microeconomics
111:accumulated investments in the long run.
2814:Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution
2155:Goerzen, T.; Kundisch, D. (2017-12-10).
1307:Personality and Social Psychology Review
57:
731:Journal of Economic Science Association
484:
3351:
3340:
3254:
3243:
3210:
3199:
2788:The Essentials of Contract Negotiation
1176:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142009
1072:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.262
3377:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science.
3272:Yang, Chih-Yun; Chang, Te-Yi (2011).
3061:
3059:
2785:Jung, Stefanie; Krebs, Peter (2019).
1896:Journal of Behavioral Decision Making
952:European Journal of Social Psychology
635:(1 June 2004). Retrieved 29 May 2007.
7:
2499:International Journal of Forecasting
3228:Merb, Lukas; Proeger, Till (2014).
760:The Journal of Real Estate Research
352:Individual differences in anchoring
88:As a second example, in a study by
3410:Schwartz, Zvi; Cohen, Eli (1999).
561:Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1974).
517:Journal of Experimental Psychology
25:
3151:Journal of Individual Differences
795:The Journal of Behavioral Finance
2949:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02057.x
2511:10.1016/j.ijforecast.2009.02.005
2484:10.1111/j.1755-053X.2008.00018.x
2020:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01704.x
422:
2636:digital.library.adelaide.edu.au
2335:Englich, B.; Soder, K. (2009).
1926:Journal of Risk and Uncertainty
267:The Big Five personality traits
97:Journal of Real Estate Research
2987:Group Decision and Negotiation
2676:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2018.12.006
2524:McElroy, T.; Dowd, K. (2007).
1868:The Journal of Socio-Economics
412:online vendors and retailers.
382:Sorting the prices of products
101:Case-Shiller House Price Index
1:
3454:Journal of Marketing Research
3278:Cornell Hospitality Quarterly
3084:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
2753:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
2663:Journal of Business Venturing
2580:10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.028
1812:10.1080/12460125.2019.1620573
803:10.1080/15427560.2023.2209233
590:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
108:Journal of Behavioral Finance
83:8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
79:1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8
3387:10.1007/978-3-319-20267-9_10
2922:10.1016/0749-5978(87)90046-X
2708:10.1017/CBO9780511809477.032
2533:Judgment and Decision Making
2341:Judgment and Decision Making
1626:"Anchoring in Deliberations"
1611:10.1016/0749-5978(92)90048-C
4070:Déformation professionnelle
3466:10.1509/jmkr.41.4.457.47014
2379:. The Ohio State University
1880:10.1016/j.socec.2010.10.008
1800:Journal of Decision Systems
1398:10.1037/0022-3514.48.6.1467
1363:10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.1080
1211:10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1481
1164:Annual Review of Psychology
1146:10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.687
871:10.1037/0096-3445.125.4.387
772:10.22300/0896-5803.41.3.443
282:Big Five personality traits
4275:
4064:Basking in reflected glory
3034:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.657
2700:Judgment Under Uncertainty
2614:10.1016/j.jebo.2009.04.018
2225:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.07.005
1746:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.010
1251:Sunstein, Cass R. (2004).
1109:10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.959
833:10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.437
744:10.1007/s40881-020-00094-1
18:Anchoring (cognitive bias)
4212:
4194:Cognitive bias mitigation
3163:10.1027/1614-0001/a000076
2999:10.1007/s10726-013-9348-4
2874:Dietmeyer, Brian (2004).
2545:10.1017/S1930297500000279
2354:10.1017/S1930297500000693
1642:10.1007/s10670-018-0064-y
1425:10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.81
1238:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.50
937:Learning & Motivation
3778:Illusion of transparency
3290:10.1177/1938965511410054
2979:Rosette, Ashleigh Shelby
2638:. University of Adelaide
2412:10.1177/0146167205282152
2256:10.1177/0956797618799305
1773:10.1177/1368430212454588
1702:10.1177/0146167210383698
1568:10.1177/0956797612472206
1525:10.1177/0956797613476894
1482:10.1177/0956797611429132
1319:10.1177/1088868307304092
438:List of cognitive biases
340:, but also the starting
315:Anchoring in negotiation
155:Anchoring bias in groups
27:Psychological phenomenon
2306:10.1111/1467-9280.00263
1973:10.1111/1467-9280.00372
1257:SSRN Electronic Journal
1060:"Group Decision-Making"
620:Avoiding Decision Traps
209:Selective accessibility
196:Anchoring-and-adjusting
141:Durability of anchoring
3350:Cite journal requires
3253:Cite journal requires
3209:Cite journal requires
2861:10.1006/obhd.1997.2713
2189:10.1006/jesp.2000.1431
2128:10.1006/jesp.1998.1364
1455:10.1006/obhd.1996.2674
1292:10.1006/obhd.1993.1018
1045:10.1006/jesp.1998.1364
1018:10.1006/jesp.1999.1415
991:10.1006/jesp.1997.1336
662:10.1006/obhd.1999.2841
453:Negotiation strategies
268:
120:Difficulty of avoiding
66:
4146:Arab–Israeli conflict
3873:Social influence bias
3818:Out-group homogeneity
3428:10.1300/J061v03n03_03
3194:10.17605/OSF.IO/R48WQ
2937:Psychological Science
2902:Northcraft, Gregory B
2880:. Kaplan Publishing.
2294:Psychological Science
2244:Psychological Science
2161:ICIS 2017 Proceedings
2008:Psychological Science
1961:Psychological Science
1556:Psychological Science
1513:Psychological Science
1470:Psychological Science
458:Law of the instrument
266:
181:business intelligence
175:Business intelligence
61:
54:Experimental findings
4244:Behavioral economics
3788:Mere-exposure effect
3718:Extrinsic incentives
3664:Selective perception
3126:research.amanote.com
2472:Financial Management
1134:Psychological Review
494:Anchoring Definition
373:Anchoring in pricing
227:Extremeness aversion
4013:Social desirability
3908:von Restorff effect
3783:Mean world syndrome
3758:Hostile attribution
3498:Serfas, S. (2010).
3078:(4157): 1124–1131.
2745:1974Sci...185.1124T
2739:(4157): 1124–1131.
1265:10.2139/ssrn.578301
704:10.1257/mic.4.2.131
582:1974Sci...185.1124T
576:(4157): 1124–1131.
255:Personal Experience
236:Influencing factors
3928:Statistical biases
3706:Curse of knowledge
2791:. pp. 28–29.
1938:10.1007/BF00122574
1675:10.5282/edoc.33309
625:2013-06-14 at the
443:Poisoning the well
269:
67:
4231:
4230:
3868:Social comparison
3649:Choice-supportive
3511:978-3-8349-6485-4
3396:978-3-319-20266-2
2906:Neale, Margaret A
2887:978-0-7931-8304-3
2568:Economics Letters
1696:(11): 1454–1466.
463:Confirmation bias
430:Psychology portal
407:Incidental prices
294:cognitive ability
288:Cognitive ability
16:(Redirected from
4266:
4249:Cognitive biases
4028:Systematic error
3983:Omitted-variable
3898:Trait ascription
3738:Frog pond effect
3566:Cognitive biases
3550:
3543:
3536:
3527:
3522:
3520:
3518:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3480:
3445:
3439:
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3407:
3401:
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3366:
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3353:
3348:
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3338:
3336:
3334:
3315:
3309:
3308:
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3269:
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3256:
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3181:
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3118:
3112:
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3063:
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3011:
3010:
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2898:
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2728:
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2563:
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2356:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2219:(6): 1465–1476.
2207:
2201:
2200:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2136:
2130:. Archived from
2113:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2075:10.1037/a0021540
2054:
2048:
2047:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1921:
1912:
1911:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1636:(5): 1041–1069.
1621:
1615:
1614:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1562:(7): 1371–1372.
1551:
1545:
1544:
1519:(7): 1373–1374.
1508:
1502:
1501:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1438:
1429:
1428:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1392:(6): 1467–1478.
1381:
1375:
1374:
1357:(6): 1080–1093.
1345:
1339:
1338:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1205:(6): 1481–1489.
1194:
1188:
1187:
1159:
1150:
1149:
1131:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1001:
995:
994:
974:
968:
967:
947:
941:
940:
931:Adame, Bradley.
928:
922:
921:
910:10.1037/a0021540
889:
883:
882:
854:
845:
844:
816:
807:
806:
790:
784:
783:
755:
749:
748:
746:
722:
716:
715:
689:
680:
674:
673:
645:
636:
616:
610:
609:
567:
558:
549:
548:
529:10.1037/h0048784
512:
506:
505:
504:
502:
489:
468:Bandwagon effect
432:
427:
426:
425:
84:
80:
32:anchoring effect
21:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4259:Prospect theory
4234:
4233:
4232:
4227:
4208:
4182:
4047:
3922:
3903:Turkey illusion
3671:Compassion fade
3568:
3559:
3554:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3497:
3494:
3492:Further reading
3489:
3488:
3478:
3476:
3447:
3446:
3442:
3432:
3430:
3409:
3408:
3404:
3397:
3368:
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3317:
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3312:
3302:
3300:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3252:
3242:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3208:
3198:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3130:
3128:
3120:
3119:
3115:
3065:
3064:
3057:
3019:
3018:
3014:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2888:
2873:
2872:
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2841:
2811:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2784:
2783:
2776:
2730:
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2718:
2697:
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2587:
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2274:
2237:
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2232:
2209:
2208:
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2173:
2172:
2168:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2098:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1923:
1922:
1915:
1908:10.1002/bdm.495
1892:
1891:
1887:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1851:
1849:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1793:
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1116:
1094:
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1056:
1052:
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1029:
1025:
1003:
1002:
998:
976:
975:
971:
964:10.1002/ejsp.52
949:
948:
944:
930:
929:
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891:
890:
886:
856:
855:
848:
818:
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757:
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752:
724:
723:
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687:
682:
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677:
647:
646:
639:
627:Wayback Machine
618:Edward Teach, "
617:
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393:
384:
375:
354:
317:
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303:
290:
278:
257:
243:
238:
229:
220:
218:Attitude change
211:
198:
189:
177:
157:
143:
122:
117:
115:Characteristics
82:
81:or reversed as
78:
75:Daniel Kahneman
63:Daniel Kahneman
56:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4272:
4270:
4262:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4236:
4235:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4190:
4188:
4187:Bias reduction
4184:
4183:
4181:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4163:Political bias
4160:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4091:Infrastructure
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4066:
4061:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4008:Self-selection
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3948:
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3938:
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3930:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3843:Pro-innovation
3840:
3835:
3830:
3828:Overton window
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3698:
3696:Dunning–Kruger
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3610:Correspondence
3607:
3605:Actor–observer
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3571:
3569:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3510:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3460:(4): 457–466.
3440:
3422:(3–4): 19–37.
3402:
3395:
3361:
3352:|journal=
3328:10.3386/w12041
3310:
3284:(3): 273–282.
3264:
3255:|journal=
3220:
3211:|journal=
3176:
3137:
3113:
3055:
3028:(4): 657–669.
3012:
2993:(3): 629–647.
2970:
2943:(2): 121–127.
2927:
2893:
2886:
2866:
2839:
2820:(3): 597–628.
2804:
2797:
2774:
2723:
2716:
2690:
2669:(3): 528–557.
2649:
2619:
2608:(1): 147–152.
2585:
2558:
2516:
2505:(1): 116–133.
2489:
2458:
2433:
2406:(2): 188–200.
2390:
2377:Knowledge Bank
2360:
2327:
2300:(4): 320–323.
2284:
2250:(2): 159–173.
2230:
2202:
2166:
2147:
2122:(2): 136–164.
2096:
2069:(6): 917–932.
2049:
2014:(4): 311–318.
1994:
1967:(5): 391–396.
1951:
1932:(4): 297–323.
1913:
1902:(3): 199–212.
1885:
1858:
1833:
1786:
1767:(5): 637–651.
1751:
1740:(4): 539–552.
1723:
1680:
1655:
1616:
1605:(1): 124–155.
1589:
1546:
1503:
1476:(3): 219–224.
1460:
1430:
1403:
1376:
1340:
1297:
1286:(3): 430–455.
1270:
1243:
1216:
1189:
1170:(1): 623–655.
1151:
1140:(4): 687–719.
1114:
1103:(5): 959–974.
1087:
1080:
1050:
1039:(2): 136–164.
1023:
1012:(2): 194–206.
996:
985:(6): 561–578.
969:
958:(4): 431–442.
942:
923:
904:(6): 917–932.
884:
865:(4): 387–402.
846:
827:(3): 437–446.
808:
785:
766:(3): 443–472.
750:
717:
698:(2): 131–145.
675:
656:(2): 115–153.
637:
611:
550:
523:(2): 150–155.
507:
497:, Investopedia
483:
482:
480:
477:
476:
475:
473:Framing effect
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
448:Primacy effect
445:
440:
434:
433:
417:
414:
408:
405:
392:
389:
383:
380:
374:
371:
353:
350:
316:
313:
311:
308:
302:
301:Overconfidence
299:
292:The impact of
289:
286:
277:
274:
256:
253:
242:
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237:
234:
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219:
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210:
207:
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156:
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142:
139:
126:Mahatma Gandhi
121:
118:
116:
113:
55:
52:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4271:
4260:
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4255:
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4239:
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4221:
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4215:
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4211:
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4179:
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4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4141:United States
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4116:False balance
4114:
4113:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
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4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3988:Participation
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3957:
3956:Psychological
3954:
3953:
3952:
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3934:
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3931:
3929:
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3804:
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3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3723:Fading affect
3721:
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3716:
3714:
3711:
3707:
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2137:on 2014-11-29
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4238:Categories
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