891:, JND) is the magnitude of the smallest difference between two stimuli of differing intensities that a participant can detect a certain proportion of the time, with the specific percentage depending on the task. Several methods are employed to test this threshold. For instance, the subject may be asked to adjust one stimulus until it is perceived as identical to another (method of adjustment), to describe the direction and magnitude of the difference between two stimuli, or to decide whether the intensities in a pair of stimuli are the same or different (forced choice). The just-noticeable difference is not a fixed quantity; rather, it varies depending on the intensity of the stimuli and the specific sense being tested. According to
1052:
likelihood is calculated of where the threshold lies. The point of maximum likelihood is then chosen as the best estimate for the threshold, and the next stimulus is presented at that level (since a decision at that level will add the most information). In a
Bayesian procedure, a prior likelihood is further included in the calculation. Compared to staircase procedures, Bayesian and ML procedures are more time-consuming to implement but are considered to be more robust. Well-known procedures of this kind are Quest, ML-PEST, and Kontsevich & Tyler's method.
1031:
997:. In this method, the observers themselves control the magnitude of the variable stimulus, beginning with a level that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and vary it until they are satisfied by the subjective equality of the two. The difference between the variable stimuli and the standard one is recorded after each adjustment, and the error is tabulated for a considerable series. At the end, the mean is calculated giving the average error which can be taken as a measure of sensitivity.
1039:
last of these 'reversals' are then averaged. There are many different types of staircase procedures, using different decision and termination rules. Step-size, up/down rules and the spread of the underlying psychometric function dictate where on the psychometric function they converge. Threshold values obtained from staircases can fluctuate wildly, so care must be taken in their design. Many different staircase algorithms have been modeled and some practical recommendations suggested by Garcia-Perez.
747:, it was Peirce who gave me my first training in the handling of a psychological problem, and at the same time stimulated my self-esteem by entrusting me, then fairly innocent of any laboratory habits, with a real bit of research. He borrowed the apparatus for me, which I took to my room, installed at my window, and with which, when conditions of illumination were right, I took the observations. The results were published over our joint names in the
775:). He also advocated the assignment of numbers in ratio to the strengths of stimuli, called magnitude estimation. Stevens added techniques such as magnitude production and cross-modality matching. He opposed the assignment of stimulus strengths to points on a line that are labeled in order of strength. Nevertheless, that sort of response has remained popular in applied psychophysics. Such multiple-category layouts are often misnamed
723:, who soon became a distinguished experimental psychologist in his own right. Peirce and Jastrow largely confirmed Fechner's empirical findings, but not all. In particular, a classic experiment of Peirce and Jastrow rejected Fechner's estimation of a threshold of perception of weights. In their experiment, Peirce and Jastrow in fact invented randomized experiments: They randomly assigned volunteers to a
36:
980:
therefore reduces errors of habituation and expectation. For 'absolute thresholds' again the subject reports whether they are able to detect the stimulus. For 'difference thresholds' there has to be a constant comparison stimulus with each of the varied levels. Friedrich
Hegelmaier described the method of constant stimuli in an 1852 paper. This method allows for full sampling of the
691:. As a physicist and philosopher, Fechner aimed at developing a method that relates matter to the mind, connecting the publicly observable world and a person's privately experienced impression of it. His ideas were inspired by experimental results on the sense of touch and light obtained in the early 1830s by the German physiologist
699:, most notably those on the minimum discernible difference in intensity of stimuli of moderate strength (just noticeable difference; jnd) which Weber had shown to be a constant fraction of the reference intensity, and which Fechner referred to as Weber's law. From this, Fechner derived his well-known logarithmic scale, now known as
899:
lighter. In some experiments, the subject may also indicate that the two weights are the same. At the point of subjective equality (PSE), the subject perceives both weights as identical. The just-noticeable difference, or difference limen (DL), is the magnitude of the difference in stimuli that the subject notices some proportion
580:
1065:
The exponents of those dimensions found in numerical magnitude estimation predict the exponents found in magnitude production. Magnitude estimation generally finds lower exponents for the psychophysical function than multiple-category responses, because of the restricted range of the categorical anchors, such as those used by
1038:
Staircases usually begin with a high intensity stimulus, which is easy to detect. The intensity is then reduced until the observer makes a mistake, at which point the staircase 'reverses' and intensity is increased until the observer responds correctly, triggering another reversal. The values for the
970:
in 1960 in his study of auditory perception. In this method, the sound starts out audible and gets quieter after each of the subject's responses, until the subject does not report hearing it. At that point, the sound is made louder at each step, until the subject reports hearing it, at which point it
731:
to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights. On the basis of their results they argued that the underlying functions were continuous, and that there is no threshold below which a difference in physical magnitude would be undetected. Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology
1042:
One of the more common staircase designs (with fixed-step sizes) is the 1-up-N-down staircase. If the participant makes the correct response N times in a row, the stimulus intensity is reduced by one step size. If the participant makes an incorrect response the stimulus intensity is increased by the
979:
Instead of being presented in ascending or descending order, in the method of constant stimuli the levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly. This prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus, and
874:
level of 50% is commonly used. For example, consider the absolute threshold for tactile sensation on the back of one's hand. A participant might not feel a single hair being touched, but might detect the touch of two or three hairs, as this exceeds the threshold. The absolute threshold is also often
1064:
with stable, replicable exponent. Although contexts can change the law & exponent, that change too is stable and replicable. Instead of numbers, other sensory or cognitive dimensions can be used to match a stimulus and the method then becomes "magnitude production" or "cross-modality matching".
711:
founding the first laboratory for psychological research in
Leipzig (Institut für experimentelle Psychologie). Fechner's work systematised the introspectionist approach (psychology as the science of consciousness), that had to contend with the Behaviorist approach in which even verbal responses are
1015:
slope. Adaptive methods are classified into staircase procedures (see below) and
Bayesian, or maximum-likelihood, methods. Staircase methods rely on the previous response only, and are easier to implement. Bayesian methods take the whole set of previous stimulus-response pairs into account and are
1010:
that provide little information about the parameter of interest, usually the threshold. Adaptive staircase procedures (or the classical method of adjustment) can be used such that the points sampled are clustered around the psychometric threshold. Data points can also be spread in a slightly wider
954:
In experiments, the ascending and descending methods are used alternately and the thresholds are averaged. A possible disadvantage of these methods is that the subject may become accustomed to reporting that they perceive a stimulus and may continue reporting the same way even beyond the threshold
1051:
Bayesian and maximum-likelihood (ML) adaptive procedures behave, from the observer's perspective, similar to the staircase procedures. The choice of the next intensity level works differently, however: After each observer response, from the set of this and all previous stimulus/response pairs the
950:
In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of
898:
In discrimination experiments, the experimenter seeks to determine at what point the difference between two stimuli, such as two weights or two sounds, becomes detectable. The subject is presented with one stimulus, for example, a weight, and is asked to say whether another weight is heavier or
951:
sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected.
932:
In psychophysics, experiments seek to determine whether the subject can detect a stimulus, identify it, differentiate between it and another stimulus, or describe the magnitude or nature of this difference. Software for psychophysical experimentation is overviewed by
Strasburger.
992:
In the method of adjustment, the subject is asked to control the level of the stimulus and to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. The adjustment is repeated many times. This is also called the
743:; other studies considered the perception of light, etc. Jastrow wrote the following summary: "Mr. Peirce’s courses in logic gave me my first real experience of intellectual muscle. Though I promptly took to the laboratory of psychology when that was established by
850:) is the point of intensity at which the participant can just detect the presence of a stimulus (absolute threshold) or the difference between two stimuli (difference threshold). Stimuli with intensities below this threshold are not detectable and are considered
758:
Modern approaches to sensory perception, such as research on vision, hearing, or touch, measure what the perceiver's judgment extracts from the stimulus, often putting aside the question what sensations are being experienced. One leading method is based on
941:
Psychophysical experiments have traditionally used three methods for testing subjects' perception in stimulus detection and difference detection experiments: the method of limits, the method of constant stimuli and the method of adjustment.
751:. The demonstration that traces of sensory effect too slight to make any registry in consciousness could none the less influence judgment, may itself have been a persistent motive that induced me years later to undertake a book on
786:
should be considered the founder of psychophysics. Although al-Haytham made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and such claims have been rebuffed.
642:" or, more completely, as "the analysis of perceptual processes by studying the effect on a subject's experience or behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one or more physical dimensions".
1005:
The classic methods of experimentation are often argued to be inefficient. This is because, in advance of testing, the psychometric threshold is usually unknown and most of the data are collected at points on the
854:. Stimuli at values close to a threshold may be detectable on some occasions; therefore, a threshold is defined as the point at which a stimulus or change in a stimulus is detected on a certain proportion
1034:
Diagram showing a specific staircase procedure: Transformed Up/Down Method (1 up/ 2 down rule). Until the first reversal (which is neglected) the simple up/down rule and a larger step size is used.
1060:
In the prototypical case, people are asked to assign numbers in proportion to the magnitude of the stimulus. This psychometric function of the geometric means of their numbers is often a
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Steingrimsson, R.; Luce, R. D. (2006). "Empirical evaluation of a model of global psychophysical judgments: III. A form for the psychophysical function and intensity filtering".
795:
Psychophysicists usually employ experimental stimuli that can be objectively measured, such as pure tones varying in intensity, or lights varying in luminance. All the canonical
959:). Conversely, the subject may also anticipate that the stimulus is about to become detectable or undetectable and may make a premature judgment (the error of anticipation).
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Absolute and difference thresholds are sometimes considered similar in principle because background noise always interferes with our ability to detect stimuli.
1011:
range, if the psychometric function's slope is also of interest. Adaptive methods can thus be optimized for estimating the threshold only, or both threshold
671:. These models help explain why humans typically perceive minimal loss of signal quality when audio and video signals are compressed using lossy techniques.
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after the question items used by Likert to create multi-item psychometric scales, e.g., seven phrases from "strongly agree" through "strongly disagree".
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687:. He coined the term "psychophysics", describing research intended to relate physical stimuli to the contents of consciousness such as sensations
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An absolute threshold is the level of intensity at which a subject can detect the presence of a stimulus a certain proportion of the time; a
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one size. A threshold is estimated from the mean midpoint of all runs. This estimate approaches, asymptotically, the correct threshold.
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and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1900s.
915:(2AFC) paradigm is used to assess the point at which performance reduces to chance in discriminating between two alternatives; here,
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879:. Various methods are employed to measure absolute thresholds, similar to those used for discrimination thresholds (see below).
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German website about a dissertation project with an animation about the staircase method (Transformed Up/Down
Staricase Method)
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763:, developed for cases of very weak stimuli. However, the subjectivist approach persists among those in the tradition of
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Gustav
Theodor Fechner (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics), Kap. IX: Das Weber’sche Gesetz.
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1441:"Deception, Efficiency, and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design"
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they produce. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and
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Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 1: Psychophysical
Measurement of Thresholds: Differential Sensitivity".
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Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 2: Psychophysical
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is made quieter in steps again. This way the experimenter is able to "zero in" on the threshold.
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Psychophysics has widespread and important practical applications. For instance, in the realm of
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suggested by 19th century researchers, in contrast with
Fechner's log-linear function (cf.
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Laming, Donald; Janet Laming (1992). "F. Hegelmaier: On memory for the length of a line".
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Omar Khaleefa (1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?".
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generally more robust against lapses in attention. Practical examples are found here.
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The Peirce–Jastrow experiments were conducted as part of Peirce's application of his
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667:, insights from psychophysics have guided the development of models and methods for
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831:. Regardless of the sensory domain, there are three main areas of investigation:
1342:(September 1988). "Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design".
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is typically 75%, as a 50% success rate corresponds to chance in the 2AFC task.
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984:, but can result in a lot of trials when several conditions are interleaved.
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2003:
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Strasburger H (1995–2020). Software for visual psychophysics: an overview.
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Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception
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also refers to a general class of methods that can be applied to study a
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Gescheider G (1997). "Chapter 3: The Classical Psychophysical Methods".
703:. Weber's and Fechner's work formed one of the bases of psychology as a
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quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical
652:. Modern applications rely heavily on threshold measurement,
1976:
Kontsevich, Leonid L.; Tyler, Christopher W. (August 1999).
1500:
The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods
1352:(3, "A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment"): 427–451.
1949:
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Omar Khaleefa has argued that the medieval scientist
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Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics)
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Stevens, S. S. (1957). "On the psychophysical law".
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1902:Watson, Andrew B.; Pelli, Denis G. (March 1983).
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767:(1906–1973). Stevens revived the idea of a
1904:"Quest: A Bayesian adaptive psychometric method"
749:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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1678:(3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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1539:American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences
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715:Fechner's work was studied and extended by
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911:in the comparison task. Additionally, the
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1664:. 4th ED. Neil R. Carlson, C. Donald Heth
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2087:Psychophysics - A Practical Introduction
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1185:Bruce V, Green PR, Georgeson MA (1996).
905:of the time; typically, 50% is used for
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1804:Treutwein, Bernhard (September 1995).
1634:. pp. 2.3–2.4. Retrieved May 29, 2012.
835:, discrimination thresholds (e.g. the
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1806:"Adaptive psychophysical procedures"
1662:Psychology: the Science of Behaviour
1315:"On Small Differences in Sensation"
962:To avoid these potential pitfalls,
2065:Journal of Mathematical Psychology
1943:Harvey, Lewis O. (November 1986).
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1189:(3rd ed.). Psychology Press.
1496:"Charles S. Peirce as a Teacher"
937:Classical psychophysical methods
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1725:Psychophysics: the fundamentals
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1240:Gustav Theodor Fechner (1860).
1217:Psychophysics: the fundamentals
1146:Psychophysics: the fundamentals
1001:Adaptive psychophysical methods
719:, who was aided by his student
1908:Perception & Psychophysics
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1995:10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00285-5
1872:10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00340-4
1439:Trudy Dehue (December 1997).
1403:American Journal of Education
1069:as items in attitude scales.
913:two-alternative forced choice
321:Industrial and organizational
1823:10.1016/0042-6989(95)00016-X
1263:. B Scharf. (Ed.) pp. 17–67.
712:as physical as the stimuli.
476:Human factors and ergonomics
887:A difference threshold (or
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975:Method of constant stimuli
889:just-noticeable difference
837:just-noticeable difference
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1853:Garcia-Perez, MA (1998).
1090:Mathematical neuroscience
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251:Applied behavior analysis
2090:(2 ed.). Elsevier.
1115:Physiological psychology
729:repeated-measures design
1204:. New York: John Wiley.
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658:signal detection theory
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1144:Gescheider G (1997).
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765:Stanley Smith Stevens
683:in Leipzig published
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2027:Psychological Review
1494:(21 December 1916).
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988:Method of adjustment
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877:detection threshold
875:referred to as the
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799:have been studied:
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91:Behavioral genetics
22:Part of a series on
2140:1860 introductions
1962:10.3758/BF03201438
1921:10.3758/BF03202828
1762:10.1007/BF01358261
1630:2017-11-17 at the
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1988:(16): 2729–2737.
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481:Intelligence
212:Quantitative
177:Mathematical
172:Intelligence
162:Experimental
157:Evolutionary
147:Differential
957:habituation
893:Weber's Law
860:of trials.
811:(including
739:program to
636:perceptions
523:Disciplines
396:Suicidology
291:Educational
246:Anomalistic
222:Theoretical
197:Personality
127:Comparative
110:Cognitivism
101:Behaviorism
2129:Categories
2057:References
1859:Vision Res
1558:Perception
852:subliminal
827:, and the
791:Thresholds
632:sensations
451:Competence
316:Humanistic
296:Ergonomics
281:Counseling
256:Assessment
192:Perception
152:Ecological
28:Psychology
2071:: 15–29.
1770:0340-0727
1423:143685203
1172:241358787
1062:power law
864:Detection
769:power law
640:sensation
446:Cognition
361:Political
271:Community
106:Cognitive
56:Subfields
2103:1 August
2047:13441853
2004:10492833
1889:18832392
1840:10550300
1628:Archived
1586:43532965
1578:18546671
1478:23526321
1382:52201011
1325:: 73–83.
1313:(1885).
1073:See also
630:and the
558:Timeline
471:Feelings
466:Emotions
426:Behavior
420:Concepts
381:Religion
366:Positive
356:Pastoral
341:Military
306:Forensic
301:Feminist
286:Critical
276:Consumer
266:Coaching
261:Clinical
137:Cultural
76:Abnormal
2012:8464834
1930:6844102
1881:9797963
1832:8594817
1786:6965887
1778:1494608
1520:2012322
1470:9519574
1374:1013489
841:scaling
839:), and
805:hearing
784:Alhazen
725:blinded
707:, with
705:science
697:Leipzig
675:History
628:stimuli
533:Outline
406:Traffic
401:Systems
336:Medical
167:Gestalt
51:History
46:Outline
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1067:Likert
801:vision
797:senses
656:, and
563:Topics
386:School
311:Health
217:Social
120:Social
2008:S2CID
1885:S2CID
1836:S2CID
1782:S2CID
1582:S2CID
1516:JSTOR
1474:S2CID
1444:(PDF)
1419:S2CID
1378:S2CID
1362:JSTOR
1168:S2CID
1132:Notes
848:limen
825:smell
821:taste
809:touch
509:Lists
346:Music
331:Media
326:Legal
182:Moral
2119:Link
2105:2023
2092:ISBN
2043:PMID
2000:PMID
1926:PMID
1877:PMID
1828:PMID
1774:PMID
1766:ISSN
1729:ISBN
1680:ISBN
1605:ISBN
1574:PMID
1545:(2).
1524:and
1466:PMID
1449:Isis
1345:Isis
1309:and
1284:ISBN
1221:ISBN
1158:ISBN
815:and
813:skin
634:and
486:Mind
2073:doi
2035:doi
1990:doi
1957:doi
1916:doi
1867:doi
1818:doi
1758:doi
1566:doi
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1458:doi
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1013:and
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695:in
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