431:
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347:
410:
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382:
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antennal sensory inputs, a second group of moths had their antennae amputated and then re-attached, before being tested in the same stability study. These moths showed slightly decreased performance from intact moths, indicating there are possibly other sensory inputs used in flight stabilization. Re-amputation of the antennae caused a drastic decrease in flight stability to match that of the first amputated group.
221:
38:
237:
451:
286:
459:
253:
728:
584:, often a raised portion of the insect's head capsule. The socket is closed off by the membrane into which the base of the scape is set. However, the antenna does not hang free on the membrane, but pivots on a rigidly sprung projection from the rim of the torulus. That projection on which the antenna pivots is called the
831:
through the
Johnston's organ that can then be used for corrective behavior. A series of low-light, flight stability studies in which moths with flagellae amputated near the pedicel showed significantly decreased flight stability over those with intact antennae. To determine whether there may be other
184:
The subdivisions of crustacean antennae have many names, including flagellomeres (a shared term with insects), annuli, articles, and segments. The terminal ends of crustacean antennae have two major categorizations: segmented and flagellate. An antenna is considered segmented if each of the annuli is
693:
Because the funicle is without intrinsic muscles, it generally must move as a unit, in spite of being articulated. However, some funicles are complex and very mobile. For example, the
Scarabaeidae have lamellate antennae that can be folded tightly for safety or spread openly for detecting odours or
802:, antennae have an important function in signaling courtship. Specifically, antennae are required for males to answer the female mating call. Although females do not require antennae for mating, a mating that resulted from a female without antennae was abnormal.
813:
butterflies also rely on antenna sensitivity to volatile compounds to identify host plants. It was found that females are actually more responsive with their antenna sensing, most likely because they are responsible for oviposition on the correct plant.
592:
end of the scape and its movements in turn can be controlled by muscular connections between the scape and pedicel. The number of flagellomeres can vary greatly between insect species, and often is of diagnostic importance.
674:, and one common adaptation is the ability to fold the antenna in the middle, at the joint between the pedicel and the flagellum. This gives an effect like a "knee bend", and such an antenna is said to be
510:
mating practices. The erection of these fibrillae is considered to be the first stage in reproduction. These fibrillae serve different functions across the sexes. As antennal fibrillae are used by female
1212:
Pass, Guenther. The
Anatomy and Ultrastructure of the Antennal Circulatory Organs in the Cockchafer Beetle Melolontha melolontha L. (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) Zoomorphology 01/1980; 96(1):77-89.
809:, antennae serve to gather information about a host plant's taste and odor. After the desired taste and odor has been identified, the female moth will deposit her eggs onto the plant.
185:
separate from those around it and has individual muscle attachments. Flagellate antennae, on the other hand, have muscle attachments only around the base, acting as a hinge for the
682:
and
Hymenoptera. They are important for insects like ants that follow scent trails, for bees and wasps that need to "sniff" the flowers that they visit, and for beetles such as
632:. The annuli are not true flagellomeres, and in a given insect species the number of annuli generally is not as consistent as the number of flagellomeres in most species.
1457:
698:. The insect manages such actions by changes in blood pressure, by which it exploits elasticity in walls and membranes in the funicles, which are in effect erectile.
588:. The whole structure enables the insect to move the antenna as a whole by applying internal muscles connected to the scape. The pedicel is flexibly connected to the
1014:
Luque, J.; Feldmann, R. M.; Vernygora, O.; Schweitzer, C. E.; Cameron, C. B.; Kerr, K. A.; Vega, F. J.; Duque, A.; Strange, M.; Palmer, A. R.; Jaramillo, C. (2019).
482:). Paired, mobile, and segmented, they are located between the eyes on the forehead. Embryologically, they represent the appendages of the second head segment.
470:
Some claim insects evolved from prehistoric crustaceans, and they have secondary antennae like crustaceans, but not primary antennae. Antennae are the primary
795:
orientation during migration. Antennal clocks exist in monarchs, and they are likely to provide the primary timing mechanism for sun compass orientation.
177:
biramous, but many species later evolved uniramous pairs. The second antennae may be significantly reduced (e.g. remipedes) or apparently absent (e.g.
1471:
Sane, Sanjay P.; Dieudonné, Alexandre; Willis, Mark A.; Daniel, Thomas L. (2007-02-09). "Antennal mechanosensors mediate flight control in moths".
1268:
430:
402:
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346:
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1186:
1152:
1117:
920:
1201:
409:
353:
863:
1348:
Ellis, Peggy; Brimacombe, Linda (1980). "The mating behaviour of the egyptian cotton leafworm moth, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.)".
381:
82:, the exact nature of what they sense and how they sense it is not the same in all groups. Functions may variously include sensing
1432:"Host plant suitability and a test of the feeding specialization hypothesis using Papilio cresphontes (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)"
1178:
94:. Antennae are sometimes modified for other purposes, such as mating, brooding, swimming, and even anchoring the arthropod to a
416:
360:
204:, a highly modified crustacean, use their antennae to attach to rocks and other surfaces. The second antennae in the burrowing
78:
of the arthropod head. They vary widely in form but are always made of one or more jointed segments. While they are typically
663:. However, traditionally in working on wasps the funicle is taken to comprise the segments between the club and the pedicel.
423:
367:
102:
that use their antennae for swimming. Antennae can also locate other group members if the insect lives in a group, like the
395:
339:
936:
Cotton, Trevor J.; Braddy, Simon J. (2004). "The phylogeny of arachnomorph arthropods and the origin of the
Chelicerata".
485:
All insects have antennae, however they may be greatly reduced in the larval forms. Amongst the non-insect classes of the
98:. Larval arthropods have antennae that differ from those of the adult. Many crustaceans, for example, have free-swimming
780:
that identify the odour. The sum of the electrical potentials of the antennae to a given odour can be measured using an
589:
531:
1545:
1173:
Thomas A. Keil (1999). "Morphology and development of the peripheral olfactory organs". In
Hansson, Bill S. (ed.).
1140:
690:
that need to fold their antennae away when they self-protectively fold up all their limbs in defensive attitudes.
659:; traditionally in describing beetle anatomy, the term "funicle" refers to the segments between the club and the
1016:"Exceptional preservation of mid-Cretaceous marine arthropods and the evolution of novel forms via heterochrony"
31:
138:
1488:
75:
601:
1451:
799:
277:
192:
There are several notable non-sensory uses of antennae in crustaceans. Many crustaceans have a mobile
1480:
1396:
1383:
Justus, K. A.; Mitchell, B. K. (November 1996). "Oviposition site selection by the diamondback moth,
1304:
1105:
1027:
597:
1493:
1240:
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897:
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have setae that interlock to form a tube or "snorkel" which funnels filtered water over the gills.
95:
1522:
1431:
1412:
1365:
996:
953:
781:
741:
887:
628:, the flagellum partly or entirely consists of a flexibly connected string of small ring-shaped
1291:"Antennal circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies"
1514:
1506:
1439:
1330:
1295:
1244:
1236:
1182:
1148:
1144:
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806:
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87:
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243:
149:
bear two pairs of antennae. The pair attached to the first segment of the head are called
42:
1109:
1099:
1484:
1400:
1308:
1031:
709:. Some groups have a simple or variously modified apical or subapical bristle called an
1325:
1290:
1048:
1015:
828:
260:
64:
1361:
1539:
1076:
819:
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655:. The collective term for the segments between the club and the antennal base is the
506:
227:
174:
79:
1416:
1369:
1000:
957:
608:
do however have intrinsic muscles throughout the flagellum. Such groups include the
1526:
745:
683:
640:
158:
37:
1430:
MI), Scriber, J.M. (Michigan State
University, East Lansing; R.V., Dowell (1991).
220:
130:, which have none, all non-crustacean arthropods have a single pair of antennae.
671:
600:
that permits movement, though the flagellum of "true" insects does not have any
463:
236:
123:
1264:
984:
949:
938:
Earth and
Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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209:
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115:
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889:
Functional
Morphology and Diversity: Antennules and Antennae in the Crustacea
1502:
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sensors of insects and are accordingly well-equipped with a wide variety of
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119:
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83:
68:
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1289:
Merlin, Christine; Gegear, Robert J.; Reppert, Steven M. (September 2009).
1084:
1057:
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992:
458:
824:
609:
486:
111:
17:
114:(having two major branches) leg-like structures, as seen in some modern
1408:
1217:
731:
Olfactory receptors (scales and holes) on the antenna of the butterfly
716:
617:
498:
494:
127:
110:(unbranched) antenna-like structures, followed by one or more pairs of
660:
252:
757:
679:
636:
620:. In many true insects, especially the more primitive groups such as
292:
99:
727:
773:
726:
666:
Quite commonly the funicle beyond the pedicel is quite complex in
526:
457:
449:
193:
137:
36:
142:
Cutaway diagram of a barnacle, with antennae highlighted by arrow
765:
749:
106:. The common ancestor of all arthropods likely had one pair of
576:
The scape is mounted in a socket in a more or less ring-shaped
545:
The three basic segments of the typical insect antenna are the
200:, which is characterized by its use of antennae for swimming.
103:
30:
This article is about arthropod anatomy. For other uses, see
760:
that possess these receptors signal this binding by sending
971:
Boxshall, G.A. (2004). "The evolution of arthropod limbs".
915:(1st ed.). The Systematics Association. p. 117.
973:
Biological
Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
744:
on the antennae bind to free-floating molecules, such as
189:—a flexible string of annuli with no muscle attachment.
776:. From there, neurons in the antennal lobes connect to
701:
In the groups with more uniform antennae (for example:
157:. This pair is generally uniramous, but is biramous in
86:, air motion, heat, vibration (sound), and especially
1202:
The Insects: An Outline of Entomology, Fourth Edition
854:(4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.
791:, antennae are necessary for proper time-compensated
242:
The large flattened plates in front of the eyes of a
165:. The pair attached to the second segment are called
823:), antennae aid in flight stabilization. Similar to
715:(this may be especially well-developed in various
59:), sometimes referred to as "feelers", are paired
911:Fortey, Richard A.; Thomas, Richard H . (1998).
569:. The pedicel (the second segment) contains the
454:Terms used to describe shapes of insect antennae
27:Paired appendages used for sensing in arthropods
596:True flagellomeres are connected by membranous
74:Antennae are connected to the first one or two
913:Arthropod Relationships: Phylogenetic Analysis
1098:Gullan, Penny J.; Cranston, Peter S. (2005).
892:. Oxford University Press. pp. 199–236.
504:Antennal fibrillae play an important role in
8:
1456:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
565:, which often comprises many units known as
898:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780195398038.003.0007
881:
879:
877:
875:
827:in Dipteran insects, the antennae transmit
1232:Henderson's Dictionary of Biological Terms
1168:
1166:
1164:
1492:
1324:
1047:
678:. Geniculate antennae are common in the
573:which is a collection of sensory cells.
301:
840:
388:
332:
1449:
230:, showing the enlarged second antennae
1101:The Insects: an Outline of Entomology
519:utilize them to locate female mates.
52:
7:
1133:Chapman, Reginald Frederick (1998).
534:of antenna surface detail of a wasp
1136:The Insects: Structure and Function
886:Boxshall, Geoff; Jaume, D. (2013).
851:The Insects: Structure and Function
1436:The Great Lakes Entomologist (USA)
1387:(L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)".
1269:Georg-August-Universität Göttingen
25:
515:to locate hosts to feed on, male
446:Insect morphology § Antennae
246:are the modified second antennae.
429:
422:
415:
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401:
394:
380:
373:
366:
359:
352:
345:
338:
303:Examples of crustacean antennae
284:
269:
251:
235:
219:
1229:Lawrence, Eleanor, ed. (2005).
295:with antennae used for swimming
817:In the crepuscular hawk moth (
264:, showing its reduced antennae
1:
1362:10.1016/s0003-3472(80)80112-6
1265:"Electroantennography (EAG)"
1104:(3rd ed.). Oxford, UK:
705:), all segments are called
670:such as beetles, moths and
1562:
1389:Journal of Insect Behavior
1141:Cambridge University Press
1139:(4th ed.). New York:
443:
173:. The second antennae are
29:
985:10.1017/s1464793103006274
950:10.1017/S0263593300000596
466:from C. T. Bingham (1905)
291:The nauplius larvae of a
561:(stem), and finally the
1503:10.1126/science.1133598
1317:10.1126/science.1176221
800:African cotton leafworm
1040:10.1126/sciadv.aav3875
848:Chapman, R.F. (1998).
738:
542:
467:
462:Antennal shape in the
455:
143:
45:
737:, electron micrograph
730:
647:flagellomeres form a
530:
461:
453:
444:Further information:
278:Caribbean hermit crab
141:
40:
1106:Blackwell Publishing
1073:What is a butterfly?
1071:Darby, Gene (1958).
604:muscles. Some other
41:Large antennae on a
1485:2007Sci...315..863S
1401:1996JIBeh...9..887J
1385:Plutella xylostella
1309:2009Sci...325.1700M
1303:(5948): 1700–1704.
1032:2019SciA....5.3875L
742:Olfactory receptors
532:Electron micrograph
304:
1409:10.1007/BF02208976
1218:10.1007/BF00310078
782:electroantennogram
739:
651:shape, called the
580:region called the
543:
497:have antenna, but
468:
456:
390:Secondary antennae
302:
276:Antennules of the
167:secondary antennae
159:crabs and lobsters
144:
46:
1546:Arthropod anatomy
1479:(5813): 863–866.
1250:978-0-13-127384-9
1237:Pearson Education
1235:(13th ed.).
1188:978-3-540-65034-8
1181:. pp. 5–48.
1154:978-0-521-57890-5
1119:978-1-4051-1113-3
922:978-94-011-4904-4
811:Giant swallowtail
789:monarch butterfly
762:action potentials
437:
436:
175:plesiomorphically
122:. Except for the
16:(Redirected from
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1356:(4): 1239–1248.
1350:Animal Behaviour
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1177:(1st ed.).
1175:Insect Olfaction
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1020:Science Advances
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641:chalcidoid wasps
571:Johnston's organ
538:Vespula vulgaris
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1026:(4): eaav3875.
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1079:. p. 8.
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1077:Benefic Press
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118:and fossil
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754:pheromones
752:including
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586:antennifer
559:pedicellus
517:C. pipiens
513:C. pipiens
491:Collembola
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319:Decapoda
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