67:, anti-Japanese sentiment had its beginnings well before World War II. Racial prejudice against Asian immigrants began building soon after Chinese workers started arriving in the country in the mid-19th century, and set the tone for the resistance Japanese would face in the decades to come. Although Chinese were heavily recruited in the mining and railroad industries initially, whites in Western states and territories came to view the immigrants as a source of economic competition and a threat to racial purity as their population increased. A network of anti-Chinese groups (many of which would reemerge in the anti-Japanese movement) worked to pass laws that limited Asian immigrants' access to legal and economic equality with whites. Most important of these discriminatory laws was the exclusion of Asians from citizenship rights. The
486:, Americans often saw themselves fighting against a "nameless mass of vermin", in regards to Japan. Russell attributes this to the outrage of Americans in regards to the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the Bataan Death March, the torture and killing of American POWs in the hands of Imperial Japanese forces, and the perceived "inhuman tenacity" demonstrated in the refusal of Imperial forces to surrender. Kamikaze suicide bombings, according to John Morton Blum, were instrumental in confirming this stereotype of the "insane martial spirit" of Imperial Japan, and the bigoted picture it would engender of the Japanese people as a whole.
1422:...the physical destruction and loss of life at Tokyo exceeded that at Rome (where ten out of fourteen wards of a much smaller city were consumed) or that of any of the great conflagrations of the western world—London, 1666 (436 acres, 13,200 buildings) ; Moscow, 1812 (38,000 buildings) ;Chicago, 1871 (2,124 acres, 17,450 buildings); San Francisco, 1906 (4 square miles, 21,188 buildings).39 Only Japan itself, with the earthquake and fire of 1923 at Tokyo and Yokohama, had suffered so terrible a disaster.
338:
415:, believed that front line troops intensely hated Japanese military personnel and were "not easily persuaded" to take or protect prisoners. They believed that Allied personnel who surrendered got "no mercy" from the Japanese. Allied soldiers believed that Japanese soldiers were inclined to feign surrender, in order to make surprise attacks. Therefore, according to Straus, "enior officers opposed the taking of prisoners on the grounds that it needlessly exposed American troops to risks..."
117:
424:
275:, led to calls for American economic intervention to encourage Japan to leave China; these calls played a role in shaping American foreign policy. As more and more unfavorable reports of Japanese actions came to the attention of the American government, embargoes on oil and other supplies were placed on Japan, out of concern for the safety of the Chinese populace and concern for the safety of American interests in the Pacific.
80:, which relied on coded language barring "aliens ineligible for citizenship" from owning land or real estate, and in some cases from even entering into a temporary lease, to discourage Asian immigrants from establishing homes and businesses in over a dozen states. These laws were greatly detrimental to the newly arrived immigrants, since many of them were farmers and had little choice but to become migrant workers.
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143:. On October 11, 1906, the San Francisco, California Board of Education passed a regulation whereby children of Japanese descent would be required to attend racially segregated and separate schools. At the time, Japanese immigrants made up approximately 1% of the population of California; many of them had come under the treaty in 1894 which had assured free immigration from Japan.
719:, a former U.S. Commissioner of Education, publicly declared that, "What we need is another Sputnik" to re-boot American education, and that "maybe what we should do is get the Japanese to put a Toyota into orbit". Japan was both a threat and a model for human resource development in education and the workforce, merging with the image of Asian-Americans as the "model minority".
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by the
American public, and he claims that it was a result of racial hatred. This racial element separated Japanese and Germans, as Dower presents how Germans could be distinguished as "good" or "bad", whereas the 'savage' and 'brutal' traits associated with the Japanese military in the war, were just seen as being "Japanese". Magazines like
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Furthermore, the
European American population became strongly pro-Chinese and strongly anti-Japanese, an example of which was a grass-roots campaign to ask women to stop buying silk stockings, because the material was procured from Japan through its colonies. European traders sought access to Chinese
493:
US Professor of
Japanese History, John Dower, introduces his 'War Hates and War Crimes' by quoting American Historian, Allan Nevins, that 'no foe has been so detested as were the Japanese', in his essay about the Second World War. Dower highlights how the Japanese were more despised than the Germans
396:
U.S. historian James J. Weingartner attributes the very low number of
Japanese in U.S. POW compounds to two key factors: a Japanese reluctance to surrender and a widespread American "conviction that the Japanese were 'animals' or 'subhuman' and unworthy of the normal treatment accorded to POWs." The
439:
The attack on Pearl Harbor on
December 7, 1941 plunged the United States into war and planted the notion that the Japanese were treacherous and barbaric in the minds of Americans. The hysteria which enveloped the West Coast during the early months of the war, combined with long standing anti-Asian
71:
revised the previous law, under which only white immigrants could become U.S. citizens, to extend eligibility to people of
African descent. By designating Asians as permanent aliens, the law prohibited them from voting and serving on juries, which, combined with laws that prevented people of color
489:
Commonwealth troops also employed rhetoric of "hunting", in regards to their engagement with
Imperial Japanese forces. According to T. R. Moreman, the demonization of the Japanese served "to improve morale, foster belief that the war in the Far East was worthwhile and build the moral component of
466:
After the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, much anti-Japanese paraphernalia and propaganda surfaced in the United States. An example of this was the so-called "Jap hunting license", a faux-official document, button or medallion that purported to authorize "open season" on "hunting" the
Japanese,
706:
As argued by Marie
Thorsten, however, Japanophobia mixed with Japanophilia during Japan's peak moments of economic dominance during the 1980s. The fear of Japan became a rallying point for techno-nationalism, the imperative to be first in the world in mathematics, science and other quantifiable
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In the 1970s and 1980s, the waning fortunes of heavy industry in the United States prompted layoffs and hiring slowdowns just as counterpart businesses in Japan were making major inroads into U.S. markets. Nowhere was this more visible than in the automobile industry, where the
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banned the immigration of all but a few token
Japanese. Passage of the Immigration Act contributed to the growth of anti-Americanism and ending of a growing democratic movement in Japan during this time period, opening the door to Japanese militarist government control.
490:
fighting power". Training instruction issued by the headquarters of 5th Indian Division suggested, "The JAP is a fanatic and therefore a menace until he is dead!... It will be our fanatical aim to KILL JAPS. Hunt him and kill him like any other wild beast!"
393:, which was published in 1943, wrote about the accounts of American soldiers, collecting Japanese 'gold teeth' or body parts such as hands or ears, to keep as trophies. The diary became extremely popular within the United States during the Second World war.
376:
United States without warning and the deaths of almost 2,500 people during ongoing U.S./Japanese peace negotiations was presented to the American populace as an act of treachery, barbarism, and cowardice. Following the attack, many non-governmental
95:
as the start of the anti-Japanese movement in California, where, along with the Japanese American population, the exclusion movement was centered. Their efforts focused on ending Japanese immigration and, as with the previous anti-Chinese movement,
193:(1918), Judge Hugh H. Craig sided with the defendant and ruled that American children – who happened to be born to Japanese parents – had the right to own land. California proceeded to strengthen its Alien land law in 1920 and 1923.
557:
regardless of their attitude to the U.S. or Japan. They were held for the duration of the war in the inner U.S. The large Japanese population of Hawaii was not massively relocated in spite of their proximity to vital military areas.
242:
was an informal deal between the governments of Japan and the U.S. It ended the immigration of Japanese laborers, though it did allow the immigration of spouses and children of Japanese immigrants already in the United States.
446:
authorized the military to exclude any person from any area of the country where national security was considered threatened. It gave the military broad authority over the civilian population without the imposition of
722:
Both the animosity and super-humanizing which peaked in the 1980s, when the term "Japan bashing" became popular, had largely faded by the late 1990s. Japan's waning economic fortunes in the 1990s, known today as
294:
broke out in 1937, Western public opinion was decidedly pro-China, with eyewitness reports by Western journalists on atrocities committed against Chinese civilians further strengthening anti-Japanese sentiments.
707:
measures of national strength necessary to boost technological and economic supremacy. Notorious "Japan bashing" took place alongside the image of Japan as superhuman, mimicking in some ways the image of the
207:
This measure, though limited to agricultural lands, represented the first official act of discrimination aimed at the Japanese. . . The immediate purpose, of course, was to restrict Japanese farm competition.
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of all Japanese, as well as 50% of American GI's. Dower suggests the racial hatred of the front-lines in the war rubbed off onto the American public, through media representation of Japanese and propaganda.
217:
Vigorous enforcement of the Alien Land Law has been but one of the cruel discriminatory actions which have marked this nation's treatment since 1941 of those residents who chanced to be of Japanese origin.
222:
Can a state disregard in this manner the historic ideal that those within the borders of this nation are not to be denied rights and privileges because they are of a particular race? I say that it cannot.
104:, ban Japanese and other East Asians from entering the U.S. However, in the process they created an atmosphere of systematic hostility and discrimination that would later contribute to the push to
451:. Although the order did not mention any specific group or recommend detention, its language implied that any citizen might be removed. In practice, the order was applied almost exclusively to
471:" they could "hunt or trap". These "licenses" often characterized Japanese people as sub-human. Many of the "Jap Hunting Licenses", for example, depicted the Japanese in animalistic fashion.
203:(1948), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that California's Alien Land Law was anti-Japanese in concept, and deemed unfit to stand in America's law books. Justices Murphy and Rutledge wrote:
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The more basic purpose of the statute was to irritate the Japanese, to make economic life in California as uncomfortable and unprofitable for them as legally possible.
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despite the fact that over a quarter of a million Americans at that time were of Japanese origin. Some reminded holders that there was "no limit" on the number of "
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Tamura, Eileen H. "The English-only effort, the anti-Japanese campaign, and language acquisition in the education of Japanese Americans in Hawaii, 1915–40."
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hammered this home even further by frequently referring to "the Jap" rather than "Japs", thereby denying the enemy even the merest semblance of pluralism.
2638:
703:, Clancy implies that Japan's prosperity is due primarily to unequal trading terms, and portrays Japan's business leaders acting in a power hungry cabal.
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49:
in the 1970s was seen as a widespread economic threat to the United States and also led to a renewal of anti-Japanese sentiment, known as Japan bashing.
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531:
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A Japanese American unfurled this banner the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. Nonetheless, the man was later detained. This photograph was taken by
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magazine published an article on how to distinguish a Japanese person from a Chinese person by the shape of the nose and the stature of the body. The
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U.S. Marines on their way to Guadalcanal relished the prospect of making necklaces of Japanese gold teeth and "pickling" Japanese ears" as keepsakes.
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In 1907, Californian nativists supporting exclusion of Japanese immigrants and maintenance of segregated schools for Caucasian and Japanese students
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a group of US congressmen smashed Toshiba products on Capitol Hill. Pictures of the event were replayed hundreds of times on Japanese television.
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303:(PMEW) which promised equality and land distribution under Japanese rule. The PMEW had thousands of members hopefully preparing for liberation from
2228:
1826:
91:, which in turn triggered the movement to decrease their number and restrict their economic and political power. Some cite the formation of the
2564:
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24:
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in court, made it virtually impossible for Asian Americans to participate in the country's legal and political systems. Also significant were
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320:
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frequently showed Americans as working precariously under Japanese superiors. Criticism was also lobbied in many novels of the day. Author
598:
474:
Edmund Russell writes that, whereas in Europe Americans perceived themselves to be struggling against "great individual monsters", such as
1123:
Fergusson, Niall (2004). "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat".
727:, coupled with an upsurge in the U.S. economy as the Internet took off largely crowded anti-Japanese sentiment out of the popular media.
660:
were being sold to Nintendo of America, 71 percent of Americans opposed the sale of an American baseball team to a Japanese corporation.
1977:
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satellite in 1957: both events turned the spotlight on American education. American bureaucrats purposely pushed this analogy. In 1982,
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994:
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751:
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saw his chance and approved the state takeover of twenty parcels of land held in the name of American children of Japanese parents,
186:
573:. In 1945, he followed up by signing two bills that facilitated the seizure of land owned by American descendants of the Japanese.
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2602:
2358:
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2223:
518:
405:." Weingartner believes this explains the fact that a mere 604 Japanese captives were alive in Allied POW camps by October 1944.
239:
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105:
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and Japanese nationals, with only few Italian and German Americans suffering similar fates. Ultimately, approximately 110,000
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was specifically created to prevent land ownership among Japanese citizens who were residing in the state of California. In
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638:
569:. In 1943, Governor Warren signed a bill that expanded the Alien Land Law by denying the Japanese the opportunity to farm
535:
342:
2552:
2414:
2404:
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554:
460:
432:
2429:
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353:, as it propelled the United States into World War II. The Americans were unified by the attack to fight against the
2186:
665:
629:. The anti-Japanese sentiment manifested itself in occasional public destruction of Japanese cars, and in the 1982
602:
120:
Young China Club warning to American visitors against buying Japanese goods in San Francisco's Chinatown circa 1940
68:
2502:
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1640:
538:
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of 1882 stopped immigration from China, American labor recruiters began targeting Japanese workers, triggering a
46:
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1407:"THE PACIFIC: MATTERHORN TO NAGASAKI JUNE 1944 TO AUGUST 1945 – The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume V."
1043:
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Popular culture of the period reflected American's growing distrust of Japan. Futuristic period pieces such as
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291:
92:
2512:
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2257:
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1962:
771:
247:
124:
101:
30:
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The politics of prejudice: The anti-Japanese movement in California and the struggle for Japanese exclusion
1205:
401:, who says that "Allied troops often saw the Japanese in the same way that Germans regarded Russians — as
337:
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2380:
2300:
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1972:
1869:
1812:
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Other highly symbolic deals—including the sale of famous American commercial and cultural symbols such as
630:
350:
308:
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In 1942, with the Japanese incarcerated in ten American concentration camps, California Attorney General
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2419:
2334:
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No Quarter Given: The Change in Strategic Bombing Application in the Pacific Theater During World War II
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84:
837:
2487:
2353:
1997:
1934:
1904:
1889:
1874:
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443:
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by the Japanese blockade, as Taishan County was the homeland of most Chinese Americans at that time.
2507:
2262:
2141:
1894:
1424:
No other air attack of the war, either in Japan or Europe, was so destructive of life and property.
1068:
960:
The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles
724:
526:. Sixty-nine cities in Japan lost significant areas and hundreds of thousands of civilian lives to
268:
226:
It took four years for California's Supreme Court to concede that the law was unconstitutional, in
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97:
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2537:
2517:
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1914:
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140:
88:
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2112:
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2002:
1924:
1909:
1879:
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Buell, Raymond Leslie. "The development of the anti-Japanese agitation in the United States."
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860:
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Author John M. Curatola wrote that the anti-Japanese sentiment probably played a role in the
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War and Nature: Fighting Humans and Insects with Chemicals from World War I to Silent Spring
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736:
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657:
645:
634:
479:
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366:
349:
The most profound cause of anti-Japanese sentiment outside of Asia had its beginning in the
345:
urging civilians to collect and recycle scrap metal in order to contribute to the war effort
272:
2582:
2547:
2439:
2272:
2191:
2166:
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2087:
1982:
1939:
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1919:
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1864:
1849:
626:
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38:
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markets and resources. Chinese Americans were again distressed when an estimated 150,000
267:
was roundly criticized in the US. In addition, efforts by citizens who were outraged by
2559:
2213:
2082:
686:
428:
398:
284:
136:
73:
1769:
MeGovney, Dudley O. "The anti-Japanese land laws of California and ten other states."
1406:
1239:
Various primary and secondary sources list counts between 110,000 and 120,000 persons.
818:
2617:
2375:
2022:
1987:
1899:
1859:
1152:
886:
859:(illustrated ed.). Verlag für die Deutsche Wirtschaft AG. pp. 37, 103–104.
699:
64:
33:
against American citizens of Japanese descent in the United States would peak during
2542:
2387:
1738:
August, Jack. "The Anti-Japanese Crusade in Arizona's Salt River Valley: 1934-35."
716:
708:
577:
475:
362:
128:
58:
34:
20:
196:
Other states passes similar laws including Washington in 1921 and Oregon in 1923.
1785:
Shim, Doobo. "From yellow peril through model minority to renewed yellow peril."
1685:
1636:"Trophies of War: U.S. Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941-1945"
1463:
2467:
2434:
2012:
1992:
595:
562:
527:
448:
402:
358:
329:
100:
groups like the Asiatic Exclusion League lobbied to limit and finally, with the
42:
1755:
2363:
2017:
2007:
1944:
1136:
694:
412:
132:
891:"The xenophobic career of Miller Freeman, founding father of modern Bellevue"
656:
building to Japanese firms—further fanned anti-Japanese sentiment. When the
2527:
2462:
1967:
1724:
1607:
1552:"That Time Republicans Smashed a Boombox With Sledgehammers on Capitol Hill"
1326:
The jungle, the Japanese and the British Commonwealth armies at war, 1941–45
671:
264:
1254:
299:
could be quite different than the mainstream, with organizations like the
2497:
637:
beaten to death when he was mistaken to be Japanese. In 1987, after the
581:
516:
of Japanese cities, which began on March 9/10, 1945 with the destructive
1743:
1144:
2457:
1661:
1510:
945:
856:
Japanese American history: An A-to-Z Reference from 1868 to the Present
712:
1835:
622:
618:
1653:
1502:
1306:
V was for victory: politics and American culture during World War II
937:
459:
and Japanese Americans were interned in housing facilities called "
341:
An American propaganda poster from World War II produced under the
2472:
614:
422:
255:
Japanese military activity prior to American entry in World War II
613:) watched as their former customers bought Japanese imports from
580:, it was found that 13% of the U.S. public were in favor of the
1808:
19:
has existed since the late 19th century, especially during the
1219:"Manzanar National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)"
1079:. Vol. 11, no. 25. Chicago: Time Inc. pp. 81–82
468:
378:
230:(1952). Finally, in 1956, California voters repealed the law.
1248:
Boggs, Jeremy. Open Season. 06 Mar. 2004. 15 Oct. 2007. <
922:"The California Alien Land Law and the Fourteenth Amendment"
1780:
Cane fires: The anti-Japanese movement in Hawaii, 1865-1945
1412:. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. p. 617
1218:
693:) involving Japanese businessmen in the U.S. Likewise, in
1804:
1025:. University of Washington Press. pp. 146–166, 210–228.
333:
An American propaganda poster – "Death-trap for the Jap"
1489:
Feraru, A. N. (1950). "Public Opinion Polls on Japan".
1185:
The Anguish Of Surrender: Japanese POWs of World War II
549:
An estimated 112,000 to 120,000 Japanese migrants and
381:
hunting licenses" were circulated around the country.
1178:
1176:
1174:
234:
Anti-Japanese immigration agreements and legislation
2450:
2283:
2051:
1953:
1842:
1707:
Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II
1687:
America's International Relations Since World War I
1465:
America's International Relations Since World War I
89:
rapid increase in the country's Japanese population
1277:
522:firebombing of Tokyo to August 15, 1945, with the
135:in California after the Japanese victory over the
2523:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
1189:Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 116.
1578:"Wave of Japan-Bashing Stings Pacific Northwest"
440:prejudices, set the stage for what was to come.
108:120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II.
767:Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States
220:
215:
210:
205:
1820:
45:theater. After the war, the rise of Japan as
8:
2624:Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States
1526:"Japan Protests Trade Sanctions in the Bill"
1439:Bombing to Win: Airpower and Coercion in War
989:. Indiana University Press. pp. 18–19.
372:The bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japan on the
173:Native Sons and Daughters of the Golden West
17:Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States
1405:Craven, Wesley F.; Cates, James L. (1953).
1165:
1110:
973:The Story of Japanese Farming in California
792:"Japan-Bashing, an Ugly American Tradition"
742:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States
679:took a break from science fiction to write
1827:
1813:
1805:
1284:. Cambridge University Press. p. 98.
987:Looking After Minidoka: An American Memoir
832:
830:
2493:Interminority racism in the United States
1441:. Cornell University Press. p. 129.
881:
879:
877:
1468:. Oxford University Press. p. 135.
962:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
762:Nativism (politics) in the United States
336:
328:
325:American mutilation of Japanese war dead
115:
1634:Weingartner, James J. (February 1992).
975:. Saratoga, California: Robert D. Reed.
782:
297:African American sentiments at the time
170:Japanese Exclusion League of California
2644:History of racism in the United States
2565:Sociology of race and ethnic relations
163:California Joint Immigration Committee
1709:. New York: Oxford University Press.
321:Allied war crimes during World War II
301:Pacific Movement of the Eastern World
191:State of California v. Jukichi Harada
7:
2588:
790:Walter, Russell Mead (4 June 1989).
1978:Discrimination based on nationality
1668:from the original on 11 August 2011
1363:. New York: Pantheon Books. p. 34.
1073:"How to tell Japs from the Chinese"
1044:"Taishan, Home of Overseas Chinese"
838:"Anti-Japanese exclusion movement,"
23:, which had also extended to other
599:Big Three automobile manufacturers
176:Anti-Japanese League of Washington
14:
1766:(Univ of California Press, 1977).
757:Japanese American Citizens League
431:in March 1942, just prior to the
397:latter reasoning is supported by
187:California Alien Land Law of 1913
2597:
2587:
2578:
2577:
1787:Journal of Communication Inquiry
545:Internment of Japanese Americans
2598:
1524:Sanger, David E. (1988-08-04).
1206:A More Perfect Union. 1990–2001
571:as they had before World War II
283:locals died from starvation in
2483:Go back to where you came from
1799:History of Education Quarterly
1:
2639:Japan–United States relations
1684:Bagby, Wesley Marvin (1999).
1462:Bagby, Wesley Marvin (1999).
1384:. BiblioScholar. p. 72.
752:Japan–United States relations
541:bombers during this period.
536:United States Army Air Forces
343:Works Progress Administration
1576:Egan, Timothy (1992-02-04).
1348:. Simon and Schuster, p. 13.
1023:Theodore Roosevelt and Japan
1010:State of California v. Oyama
711:after it launched the first
433:Japanese American internment
228:State of California v. Fujii
201:State of California v. Oyama
1752:Political Science Quarterly
1690:. Oxford University Press.
920:Ferguson, Edwin E. (1947).
154:Anti-Japanese organizations
2667:
1550:Novak, Matt (2016-05-09).
1380:Curatola, John M. (2012).
1304:Blum, John Morton (1976).
1097:Tregaskis, Richard (1943)
1071:, ed. (22 December 1941).
1021:Esthus, Raymond A. (1967)
971:Bunje, Emil T. H. (1957).
958:Kurashige, Scott. (2008).
666:Back to the Future Part II
505:
502:Strategic bombing of Japan
318:
69:Naturalization Act of 1870
56:
2649:Japanese-American history
2573:
1705:Schaffer, Ronald (1985).
1641:Pacific Historical Review
1346:How we felt about the war
1208:. Smithsonian Institution
1137:10.1191/0968344504wh291oa
1101:. Random House. pp. 15–16
843:. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
824:. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
639:Toshiba–Kongsberg scandal
553:from the West Coast were
261:invasion of China in 1931
167:Committee of One Thousand
74:testifying against whites
1602:Thorsten, Marie (2012).
307:with the arrival of the
292:Second Sino-Japanese War
131:had become increasingly
93:Asiatic Exclusion League
2629:Anti-Japanese sentiment
2513:Psychometrics of racism
1963:Anti-miscegenation laws
1357:Dower, W. John (1993).
1042:Staff Reporter (1978).
985:Nakadate, Neil (2013).
772:Killing of Vincent Chin
625:, a consequence of the
576:In a December 19, 1944
248:Immigration Act of 1924
148:rioted in San Francisco
102:Immigration Act of 1924
41:became involved in the
31:Anti-Japanese sentiment
2478:Ethnic plastic surgery
1973:Biological determinism
1789:22.4 (1998): 385-409.
1754:37.4 (1922): 605-638.
1742:21.2 (1979): 113-136.
1324:Moreman, T. R. (2005)
1182:Straus, Ulrich (2003)
1012:, 332 U.S. 633 (1948).
896:International Examiner
737:Anti-Americanism#Japan
631:murder of Vincent Chin
519:Operation Meetinghouse
436:
351:attack on Pearl Harbor
346:
334:
309:Japanese Imperial Army
263:and the annexation of
224:
219:
214:
209:
159:California Farm Bureau
121:
47:a major economic power
2634:Asian-American issues
2398:In Jewish communities
2376:Hispanic & Latino
1771:California Law Review
1437:Pape, Robert (1996).
1344:Nevins, Allan (1946)
1328:. Routledge. p. 103.
926:California Law Review
853:Niiya, Brian (1993).
506:Further information:
426:
340:
332:
240:Gentlemen's Agreement
119:
85:Chinese Exclusion Act
2488:Herrenvolk democracy
1740:Arizona and the West
1276:Russell, E. (2001).
461:War Relocation Camps
444:Executive Order 9066
125:Anti-Japanese racism
2508:Perpetual foreigner
1801:33.1 (1993): 37-58.
1308:. Harcourt. p. 46.
841:Densho Encyclopedia
822:Densho Encyclopedia
689:(later made into a
269:Japanese atrocities
2538:Racial integration
2518:Race and sexuality
2323:Japanese Americans
2043:Racial segregation
2033:Racial nationalism
1782:(Temple UP, 1992).
1491:Far Eastern Survey
1099:Guadalacanal diary
1051:China Reconstructs
819:"Alien land laws,"
817:Lyon, Cherstin M.
654:Rockefeller Center
589:Since World War II
551:Japanese Americans
539:B-29 Superfortress
524:surrender of Japan
508:Air raids on Japan
457:Japanese nationals
453:Japanese Americans
437:
390:Guadalacanal Diary
347:
335:
141:Russo-Japanese War
122:
112:Early 20th century
2611:
2610:
2359:African Americans
2306:Chinese Americans
2003:Ethnic stereotype
1448:978-0-8014-8311-0
1391:978-1-2492-8348-5
1360:War Without Mercy
1195:978-0-295-98336-3
866:978-0-8160-2680-7
836:Anderson, Emily.
797:Los Angeles Times
650:Columbia Pictures
514:strategic bombing
2656:
2601:
2600:
2591:
2590:
2581:
2580:
2435:Racial supremacy
2393:Jewish Americans
2371:Native Americans
2340:Zainichi Koreans
2328:Japanese Koreans
2311:Zainichi Chinese
2284:Racism by target
2061:Global apartheid
2053:Racism by region
2038:Racial profiling
2028:Racial hierarchy
1829:
1822:
1815:
1806:
1762:Daniels, Roger.
1728:
1701:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1622:
1621:
1604:Superhuman Japan
1599:
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1253:. Archived from
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1197:
1180:
1169:
1166:Weingartner 1992
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1111:Weingartner 1992
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889:(May 10, 2022),
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850:
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808:
806:
804:
787:
747:Anti-Japaneseism
677:Michael Crichton
658:Seattle Mariners
646:Columbia Records
635:Chinese American
480:Benito Mussolini
367:Kingdom of Italy
273:Nanjing Massacre
127:and fear of the
25:Asian immigrants
2666:
2665:
2659:
2658:
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2655:
2654:
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2614:
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2607:
2569:
2548:Racism in sport
2446:
2440:White supremacy
2279:
2047:
1983:Ethnic conflict
1955:
1949:
1843:Types of racism
1838:
1833:
1778:Okihiro, Gary.
1773:35 (1947): 7+ .
1735:
1733:Further reading
1717:
1704:
1698:
1683:
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1669:
1654:10.2307/3640788
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1497:(10): 101–103.
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725:the Lost Decade
627:1973 oil crisis
591:
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532:nuclear attacks
510:
504:
484:Joseph Goebbels
421:
355:Empire of Japan
327:
317:
305:white supremacy
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181:Alien land laws
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78:alien land laws
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2533:Racial figleaf
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2451:Related topics
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1954:Manifestations
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1251:"Introduction"
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1125:War in History
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687:murder mystery
603:General Motors
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399:Niall Ferguson
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285:Taishan County
271:, such as the
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28:
26:
22:
18:
2553:in Australia
2543:Racial quota
2322:
2187:Soviet Union
2130:Saudi Arabia
2071:South Africa
1998:Ethnic slurs
1993:Ethnic jokes
1895:Internalized
1798:
1786:
1779:
1770:
1763:
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1686:
1677:
1670:. Retrieved
1648:(1): 53–67.
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2098:North Korea
2013:Hate speech
1935:Substantive
1915:Neocolonial
1672:30 November
1410:ibiblio.org
1083:19 February
1069:Luce, Henry
567:in absentia
563:Earl Warren
528:firebombing
449:martial law
106:incarcerate
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2618:Categories
2347:Vietnamese
2120:Arab world
2018:Hate group
2008:Hate crime
1945:Xenophobia
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1261:2012-04-01
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695:Tom Clancy
682:Rising Sun
652:, and the
359:its allies
319:See also:
281:Taishanese
133:xenophobic
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2224:Palestine
2142:Australia
1968:Apartheid
1956:of racism
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672:RoboCop 3
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419:Jap hunts
411:, a U.S.
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1940:Symbolic
1930:Societal
1920:Romantic
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1865:Cultural
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