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eat the vegetation underneath. Another possible reason is for female competition during winter foraging. Espmark (1964) observed that the presence of antlers on females is related to the hierarchy rank and is a result of the harsh winter conditions and the female dominated parental investment. Males shed their antlers prior to winter, while female antlers are retained throughout winter. Also, female antler size plateaus at the onset of puberty, around age three, while males' antler size increases during their lifetime. This likely reflects the differing life history strategies of the two sexes, where females are resource limited in their reproduction and cannot afford costly antlers, while male reproductive success depends on the size of their antlers because they are under directional sexual selection. In other species of deer, the presence of antlers in females indicates some degree of
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406:. Male-male competition can take place in two forms. First, they can compete behaviorally where males use their antlers as weapons to compete for access to mates; second, they can compete physiologically where males present their antlers to display their strength and fertility competitiveness to compete for access to mates. Males with the largest antlers are more likely to obtain mates and achieve the highest fertilization success due to their competitiveness, dominance and high phenotypic quality. Whether this is a result of male-male fighting or display, or of female choosiness differs depending on the species as the shape, size, and function of antlers vary between species.
389:: 1.46% and 2.2%, dry and wet respectively. Further, the ultimate tensile strength of wet, dry and bovine difference showed differences as well: 188 MPa, 108 MPa, and 99.2 MPa for dry, wet and bovine samples respectively. Similarly, the elastic modulus for dry samples was 17.1 GPa, 7.5 GPa for wet samples, and 17.7 GPa for bovine femur. This difference in elastic modulus is due to the difference in function of a bovine femur versus an antler. Bovine femurs must withstand greater stresses, holding up the body of the animal, whereas an antler is used for sexual selection and competition.
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matched pair from the same animal is a very desirable find but often antlers are shed separately and may be separated by several miles. Some enthusiasts for shed hunting use trained dogs to assist them. Most hunters will follow 'game trails' (trails where deer frequently run) to find these sheds or they will build a shed trap to collect the loose antlers in the late winter/early spring.
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slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected. A third possibility is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population.
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496:, antlers may act as large hearing aids. Equipped with large, highly adjustable external ears, moose have highly sensitive hearing. Moose with antlers have more sensitive hearing than moose without, and a study of trophy antlers with an artificial ear confirmed that the large flattened (palmate) antler behaves like a parabolic reflector.
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regrowth of antlers might have evolved as a way to ensure the availability of complete antler sets to display each year. Antler regeneration in male deer ensures that every mating season begins on a clean slate, as an increase in branching size and complexity happens each regeneration cycle in an individual.
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are the only cervid species that inhabit the Arctic and subarctic regions of the globe, yet their most striking distinction is the presence of pedicles after birth and antlers in both males and females. One possible reason that females of this species evolved antlers is to clear away snow so they can
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If antlers functioned only in male–male competition for mates, the best evolutionary strategy would be to shed them immediately after the rutting season, both to free the male from a heavy encumbrance and to give him more time to regrow a larger new pair. Yet antlers are commonly retained through the
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Discarded antlers represent a source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals and are often gnawed upon by small animals, including squirrels, porcupines, rabbits and mice. This is more common among animals inhabiting regions where the soil is deficient in these minerals. Antlers shed in oak forest
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Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers was developed. It is by using antler grooves, which are formed on the surface of antlers by growth, projecting the branching structure on the burr circumference, and making diagrams. Comparing the positional order among species on
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In most Arctic and temperate-zone species, antler growth and shedding is annual, and is controlled by the length of daylight. Although the antlers are regrown each year, their size varies with the age of the animal in many species, increasing annually over several years before reaching maximum size.
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of antler growth. Alternatively, the lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is
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Antlers function as both weapons in male-male competition and as displays of sexual ornaments for females. Because mature antlers are no longer living during combat, antler fractures are incapable of being repaired following competition. A study in 2019 hypothesized that the periodic casting and
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In the United States in 2017 sheds fetch around US$ 10 per pound, with larger specimens in good condition attracting higher prices. The most desirable antlers have been found soon after being shed. The value is reduced if they have been damaged by weathering or being gnawed by small animals. A
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There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in the red deer, and has a heritable component. Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance,
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Antlers originated once in the cervid lineage. The earliest fossil remains of antlers that have been found are dated to the early
Miocene, about 17 million years ago. These early antlers were small and had just two forks. As antlers evolved, they lengthened and gained many branches, or tines,
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was reported. For the longitudinal and radial orientations, the elastic modulus was 7.19-8.23 and 4.01-4.27 GPa respectively. The transverse direction was overall found to be the stronger orientation with higher mechanical properties. The ultimate tensile strength of 262.96-274.38 MPa in the
324:
typically serve a structural purpose, with load bearing abilities that are greater than any other part of an animals body. Bones typically differ in shape and properties to better fit their overall function. Antlers are not structural and typically have different properties when compared to
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In most US states, the possession of or trade in parts of game animals is subject to some degree of regulation, but the trade in antlers is widely permitted. In the national parks of Canada, the removal of shed antlers is an offense punishable by a maximum fine of C$ 25,000, as the
Canadian
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without antlers, or groups of elk in which at least one male is without antlers. Half of all male elk killed by wolves lack antlers, at times in which only one quarter of all males have shed antlers. These findings suggest that antlers have a secondary function in deterring predation.
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skin called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom, and grow faster than any other mammal bone. Growth occurs at the tip, and is initially
309:. Additional tumor-suppressing and tumor-growth-inhibiting genes were determined to be responsible for regulating antler growth. This was taken to indicate that antler formation is more similar to a highly controlled form of cancer growth than to normal bone development.
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when compared to human cortical bone. Mineral content differs among species and also depends on the food availability. In recent studies, increase in mineral content has been linked to the increase in stiffness with a decrease in fracture toughness.
1934:
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in the United
Kingdom roe deer hunting is especially popular due to the large antlers produced there. This is due to the high levels of chalk in Yorkshire. The chalk is high in calcium which is ingested by the deer and helps growth in the antlers.
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developed complex scoring systems based on various dimensions and the number of tines or points, and they keep extensive records of high-scoring antlers. Deer bred for hunting on farms are selected based on the size of the antlers.
267:, which is later replaced by bone tissue. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by
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Garrod, A. Notes on the visceral anatomy and osteology of the ruminants, with a suggestion regarding a method of expressing the relations of species by means of formulae. Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London, 2–18
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of antler bones has also been conducted to compare to bovine femur results. The antler samples were tested in dry and wet conditions as done in other studies. The wetness of a sample resulted in a difference in mean maximum
2104:
Lin, Zeshan; Chen, Lei; Chen, Xianqing; Zhong, Yingbin; Yang, Yue; Xia, Wenhao; Liu, Chang; Zhu, Wenbo; Wang, Han; Yan, Biyao; Yang, Yifeng; Liu, Xing; Sternang Kvie, Kjersti; Røed, Knut Håkon; Wang, Kun (June 21, 2019).
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due to their hierarchical structure. Thus, mechanical properties are highly dependent on testing conditions and directions. Due to their cylindrical shape, antlers can be tested using bending along three different
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Dogs are sometimes used to find shed antlers. The North
American Shed Hunting Dog Association (NASHDA) has resources for people who want to train their dogs to find shed antlers and hold shed dog hunting events.
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and the antlers fall off at some point. As a result of their fast growth rate, antlers are considered a handicap since there is an immense nutritional demand on deer to re-grow antlers annually, and thus can be
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the diagram, the tine on the same position is homologous. The study revealed that three-pointed structures of
Capreolinae and Cervini are homoplasious, and their subclades gained synapomorphous tines.
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Antlers are usually found only on males. Only reindeer (known as caribou in North
America) have antlers on the females, and these are normally smaller than those of the males. Nevertheless, fertile
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and other spiritual figures in various cultures, and for dances; 21 antler "frontlets" apparently for wearing on the head, and over 10,000 years old, have been excavated at the
English
1848:
Gilbert, Clément; Ropiquet, Anne; Hassanin, Alexandre (2006). "Mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies of
Cervidae (Mammalia, Ruminantia): Systematics, morphology, and biogeography".
1998:
Metz, Matthew C.; Emlen, Douglas J.; Stahler, Daniel R.; MacNulty, Daniel R.; Smith, Douglas W. (September 3, 2018). "Predation shapes the evolutionary traits of cervid weapons".
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The principal means of evolution of antlers is sexual selection, which operates via two mechanisms: male-to-male competition (behaviorally, physiologically) and female
1390:"Major-Histocompatibility-Complex-Associated Variation in Secondary Sexual Traits of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus): Evidence for Good-Genes Advertisement"
340:. In antlers, the mineral content is considerably lower than other examples of bone tissue, while having a high volume of collagen. This leads antlers to having lower
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becoming more complex. The homology of tines has been discussed since the 1900s and has provided great insight into the evolutionary history of the
Cervidae family.
862:. In the Viking Age and medieval period, it formed an important raw material in the craft of comb-making. In later periods, antler—used as a cheap substitute for
1573:
Landete-Castillejos, T.; Kierdorf, H.; Gomez, S.; Luna, S.; García, A. J.; Cappelli, J.; Pérez-Serrano, M.; Pérez-Barbería, J.; Gallego, L.; Kierdorf, U. (2019).
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Hunters have developed terms for antler parts: beam, palm, brow, bez or bay, trez or tray, royal, and surroyal. These are the main shaft, flattened center, first
893:
tribes also used antler to make bows, gluing tendons to the bow instead of tying them as cables. An antler bow, made in the early 19th century, is on display at
2506:
Pocock, R. The Homologies between the Branches of the Antlers of the Cervidae based on the Theory of Dichotomous Growth. Journal of Zoology 103, 377–406 (1933).
220:, such as sheep, goats, bison and cattle—are two-part structures that usually do not shed. A horn's interior of bone is covered by an exterior sheath made of
844:
Antler has been used through history as a material to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and toys. It was an especially important material in the European Late
2932:"The effects of deer antler velvet extract or powder supplementation on aerobic power, erythropoiesis, and muscular strength and endurance characteristics"
2247:
Melnycky; et al. (December 2013). "Scaling of antler size in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): sexual dimorphism and variability in resource allocation".
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meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no
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transverse direction was statistically significant when compared to the longitudinal and radial directions' values of 46.91-48.55 and 41.75-43.67 MPa.
51:
2647:
1257:
768:, and moose begin to shed. The North American Shed Hunting Club, founded in 1991, is an organization for those who take part in this activity.
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Samejima, Y., Matsuoka, H. A new viewpoint on antlers reveals the evolutionary history of deer (Cervidae, Mammalia). Sci Rep 10, 8910 (2020).
2790:
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1682:"Comparison of the structure and mechanical properties of bovine femur bone and antler of the North American elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis)"
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from other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels. The "horns" of a
874:, as well as buttons and the like. The decorative display of wall-mounted pairs of antlers has been popular since medieval times at least.
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The diversification of antlers, body size and tusks has been strongly influenced by changes in habitat and behavior (fighting and mating).
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in these orientations have resulted in different mechanical properties. In samples from antler bone taken in the transverse direction, an
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Brooke, V. On the classification of the Cervidæ, with a synopsis of the existing Species. Journal of Zoology 46, 883–928 (1878).
292:, antlers are shed at different times in the year depending on multiple factors. Some equatorial deer never shed their antlers.
258:
Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing, it is covered with highly
740:, second tine, third tine, fourth tine, and fifth or higher tines, respectively. The second branch is also called an advancer.
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firm, in the early 20th century. For a time only total length or spread was recorded. In the middle of the century, the
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Ditchkoff, Stephen S.; Lochmiller, Robert L.; Masters, Ronald E.; Hoofer, Steven R.; Bussche, Ronald A. Van Den (2007).
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government considers antlers to belong to the people of Canada and part of the ecosystems in which they are discarded.
764:. In the United States, the middle of December to the middle of February is considered shed hunting season, when deer,
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CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved October 27, 2012
659:
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An antler on a red deer stag. Velvet covers a growing antler, providing blood flow that supplies oxygen and nutrients.
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Elk, deer, and moose antlers have also become popular forms of dog chews that owners purchase for their pet canines.
1641:
Landete-Castillejos, T.; Currey, J. D.; Estevez, J. A.; Gaspar-López, E.; Garcia, A.; Gallego, L. (November 2007).
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2172:"Studies in dominance-subordination relationship in a group of semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.)"
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Schaefer and Mahoney (December 2001). "Antlers on Female Caribou: Biogeography of the Bones of Contention".
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31:
1643:"Influence of physiological effort of growth and chemical composition on antler bone mechanical properties"
1575:"Antlers - Evolution, development, structure, composition, and biomechanics of an outstanding type of bone"
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481:
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DiSalvo (September 18, 2015). How to Squeeze Snake Oil from Deer Antlers and Make Millions. forbes.com
141:, a suffix indicating an action or state of being) possibly from some form of an unattested Latin word
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1897:; Slate, Jon; Pemberton, Josephine M.; Brotherstone, Sue; Guinness, Fiona; Clutton-Brock, Tim (2002).
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group, made bows and arrows using antler, reinforced with strands of animal tendons braided to form a
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Gathering shed antlers or "sheds" attracts dedicated practitioners who refer to it colloquially as
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341:
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Donaldson, John; Doutt, J. Kenneth (1965). "Antlers in Female White-Tailed Deer: A 4-Year Study".
1526:"While males fight, females choose: male phenotypic quality informs female mate choice in mammals"
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243:) meet some of the criteria of antlers, but are not considered true antlers because they contain
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Wishart, William (1985). "Frequency of Antlered White-Tailed Does in Camp Wainwright, Alberta".
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with larger sets being more highly prized. The first organization to keep records of sizes was
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Morina, Daniel L.; Demarais, Steve; Strickland, Bronson K.; Larson, Jamie E. (April 1, 2018).
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In tropical species, antlers may be shed at any time of year, and in some species such as the
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Increasing size of antlers year on year in different European game species, 1891 illustration
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Sleivert, G; Burke, V; Palmer, C; Walmsley, A; Gerrard, D; Haines, S; Littlejohn, R (2003).
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Fang, Zhongqi; Chen, Bin; Lin, Shiyun; Ye, Wei; Xiao, Hang; Chen, Xi (December 2018).
193:). In most species, antlers appear to replace tusks. However, one modern species (the
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1956:"Low Heterozygosity at Microsatellite Markers in Iberian Red Deer with Small Antlers"
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Perez-Gonzalez, J.; Carranza, J.; Torres-Porras, J.; Fernandez-Garcia, J. L. (2010).
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1767:"Investigation of inner mechanism of anisotropic mechanical property of antler bone"
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While antlers are classified as bone, they differ in some ways from human bones and
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identified eight genes active in antler formation that are normally associated with
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This article is about the antlers of deer and related species. For other uses, see
1542:
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2107:"Biological adaptations in the Arctic cervid, the reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus )"
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1442:"Antiquity and fundamental processes of the antler cycle in Cervidae (Mammalia)"
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culture to make carvings and engraved designs on objects such as the so-called
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Rössner, Gertrud E.; Costeur, Loïc; Scheyer, Torsten M. (December 16, 2020).
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Malo, A. F.; Roldan, E. R. S.; Garde, J.; Soler, A. J.; Gomendio, M. (2005).
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condition, the frequency of which has been seen to vary from 1.5% to 0.02%.
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3000:. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. p. 113.
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2372:"Palmated antlers of moose may serve as a parabolic reflector of sounds"
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2051:"Formation, structure, and function of extra-skeletal bones in mammals"
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1899:"Antler Size in Red Deer: Heritability and Selection but No Evolution"
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Antlers found shortly after being shed by a whitetail deer in eastern
27:
Extensions of the skull found in animals of the family Cervidae (deer)
925:
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Bones and Cartilage: Developmental and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology
2981: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
2671:"Fieldsports Britain: Grouse on the Glorious Twelfth, roebucks and"
429:
winter and into the spring, suggesting that they have another use.
205:, which are not true cervids, also bear tusks in place of antlers.
2968:
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Chen, Poyu; Stokes, A. G.; McKittrick, Joanna M. (February 2009).
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1721:"Organic and mechanical properties of Cervidae antlers: a review"
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International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism
904:
Through history large deer antler from a suitable species (e.g.
430:
321:
186:
98:. They are generally found only on males, with the exception of
87:
75:
2726:
Antlers: A Guide to Collecting, Scoring, Mounting, and Carving
2699:
Antlers: A Guide to Collecting, Scoring, Mounting, and Carving
2561:
Antlers: A Guide to Collecting, Scoring, Mounting, and Carving
765:
438:
2752:"Parks Canada reminds visitors you can look, but don't touch"
704:
inhabited by squirrels are rapidly chewed to pieces by them.
145:, "before the eye" (and applied to the word for "branch" or "
2431:"The systematics of the Cervidae: a total evidence approach"
2997:
Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
2840:"Deer-antler pick, used in flint mining from Grimes Graves"
2531:
George A. Feldhamer; William J. McShea (January 26, 2012).
959:
stage, antlers of elk and deer have been used in Asia as a
332:
bones. Bone is characterized as being made up of primarily
1771:
Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials
1304:"Antlers honestly advertise sperm production and quality"
866:—was a material especially associated with equipment for
936:. Antlers are still worn in traditional dances such as
1308:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
870:, such as saddles and horse harness, guns and daggers,
276:
of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability.
2526:
2524:
1505:. American Association for the Advancement of Science
1719:
Picavet, P. P.; Balligand, M. (September 12, 2016).
1354:
Whitaker, John O.; Hamilton, William J. Jr. (1998).
437:
are 3.6 times more likely to attack individual male
1231:"What Is The Difference Between Horns And Antlers?"
1075:
The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Volume 1
1072:
908:) were often cut down to its shaft and its lowest
2644:"Wildlifeonline – Questions & Answers – Deer"
987:study did not find evidence of intended effects.
967:for more than 2,000 years. Recently, deer antler
653:Sambar deer with thick, forked beams for antlers.
485:A six-year old moose undergoing domestication at
2405:"Moose's sharp hearing is attributed to antlers"
975:because the extract, with its trace amounts of
106:each year and function primarily as objects of
55:Red deer at the beginning of the growing season
2370:Bubenik, George A.; Bubenik, Peter G. (2008).
971:has become popular among Western athletes and
1804:Rajaram, A.; Ramanathan, N. (December 1982).
1046:"What are antlers and what is their purpose?"
129:(see present French : "Andouiller", from
74:. Antlers are a single structure composed of
8:
2969:North American Shed Hunting Dog Association
2242:
2240:
1949:
1947:
2517:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64555-7
2429:Heckeberg, Nicola S. (February 18, 2020).
1843:
1841:
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1235:A Moment of Science – Indiana Public Media
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1993:
1991:
1971:
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1360:. Cornell University Press. p. 517.
1327:
1016:"Arctic Wildlife – Arctic Studies Center"
1940:from the original on September 16, 2016.
1889:
1887:
1098:
1096:
2669:Fieldsports Britain (August 28, 2009).
2359:from the original on December 10, 2016.
1297:
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1007:
979:, is believed to help build and repair
897:. Its manufacture is attributed to the
778:
588:
511:
410:Heritability and reproductive advantage
2781:Bauer, Erwin A.; Bauer, Peggy (2000).
2677:from the original on December 11, 2021
2624:from the original on September 3, 2014
2585:Bauer, Erwin A.; Bauer, Peggy (2000).
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1145:from the original on October 28, 2012.
2902:from the original on October 18, 2017
2762:from the original on February 6, 2015
2650:from the original on January 15, 2012
2424:
2422:
2420:
2376:European Journal of Wildlife Research
1850:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1636:
1634:
1499:"Cancer genes help deer antlers grow"
1167:from the original on November 8, 2010
1115:from the original on November 8, 2010
7:
1793:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1708:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1669:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1497:Pennisi, Elizabeth (June 20, 2019).
1357:Mammals of the Eastern United States
1201:. Academic Press. pp. 103–114.
817:Carving for decorative and tool uses
2750:Susan Quinlan (November 18, 2011).
2729:. Stackpole Books. pp. 46–47.
2702:. Stackpole Books. pp. 44–52.
1806:"Tensile properties of antler bone"
197:) has tusks and no antlers and the
2892:"Velvet Antler – Research Summary"
2846:from the original on March 8, 2012
2822:"Bow, Bow Case, Arrows and Quiver"
2403:James Randerson (March 20, 2008).
2170:Espmark, Yngve (October 1, 1964).
1915:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01480.x
1725:Veterinary Research Communications
1407:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00794.x
201:have small antlers and tusks. The
25:
2810:. Waveland Press. pp. 38–39.
2610:Laskow, Sarah (August 27, 2014).
2589:. Voyageur Press. pp. 20–1.
790:Denali National Park and Preserve
2976:
2783:Antlers: Nature's Majestic Crown
2587:Antlers: Nature's Majestic Crown
924:Antler headdresses were worn by
801:
781:
658:
646:
634:
622:
610:
591:
572:
558:
544:
528:
514:
2564:. Stackpole Books. p. 46.
965:alternative medicinal substance
673:Homology and evolution of tines
454:Reindeer in Kebnekaise valley,
2319:Journal of Wildlife Management
2284:Journal of Wildlife Management
2000:Nature Ecology & Evolution
1810:Calcified Tissue International
325:structural bones like femurs.
62:are extensions of an animal's
1:
2785:. Voyageur Press. p. 7.
2534:Deer: The Animal Answer Guide
1543:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.02.004
1105:"Online Etymology Dictionary"
830:
829:made from a red deer antler,
712:Antlered heads are prized as
694:Exploitation by other species
539:with relatively large antlers
239:(which is not a cervid but a
2353:"Moose as a domestic animal"
2188:10.1016/0003-3472(64)90061-2
1698:10.1016/j.actbio.2008.09.011
424:Protection against predation
224:(the same material as human
185:. The ancestors of deer had
2868:. DK Images. Archived from
2537:. JHU Press. pp. 32–.
2355:. The Kostroma moose farm.
1870:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.017
1783:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.07.043
1157:"Dictionary.com Unabridged"
617:Young red deer, with velvet
3040:
1832:– via Springer Link.
1747:– via Springer Link.
1659:10.1016/j.bone.2007.07.013
1591:10.1016/j.bone.2019.115046
1458:10.1007/s00114-020-01713-x
1260:February 29, 2012, at the
912:and used as a one-pointed
446:Female antlers in reindeer
356:Further, bones are highly
295:A 2019 study published in
173:Two sambar deer fighting,
29:
2896:www.vitaminsinamerica.com
2673:. fieldsportschannel.tv.
2388:10.1007/s10344-007-0165-4
2049:Nasoori, Alireza (2020).
2020:10.1038/s41559-018-0657-5
1737:10.1007/s11259-016-9663-8
945:Abbots Bromley Horn Dance
859:Bison Licking Insect Bite
730:Safari Club International
435:Yellowstone National Park
153:Structure and development
1103:Harper, Douglas (2010).
208:In contrast to antlers,
66:found in members of the
2948:10.1123/ijsnem.13.3.251
2261:10.1644/12-mamm-a-282.1
2132:10.1126/science.aav6312
1193:Hall, Brian K. (2005).
788:A shed moose antler in
726:Boone and Crockett Club
641:American elk, or wapiti
32:Antler (disambiguation)
2806:Balikci, Asen (1989).
2723:Dennis Walrod (2010).
2696:Dennis Walrod (2010).
2558:Dennis Walrod (2010).
1320:10.1098/rspb.2004.2933
1071:Brown, Leslie (1993).
994:Shed hunting with dogs
854:Bâton de commandements
841:
682:
489:
458:
284:
255:
181:Antlers are unique to
178:
166:
122:Antler comes from the
56:
48:
1973:10.1093/jhered/esq049
1446:The Science of Nature
1020:naturalhistory.si.edu
824:
680:
484:
453:
317:Mechanical properties
282:
253:
172:
160:
54:
42:
2249:Journal of Mammalogy
1274:"Mammals: Pronghorn"
681:Antler phylogenetics
2123:2019Sci...364.6312L
2012:2018NatEE...2.1619M
1960:Journal of Heredity
1895:Kruuk, Loeske E. B.
1862:2006MolPE..40..101G
1079:. Clarendon Press.
943:and carried in the
891:Indigenous American
752:Shed antler hunting
487:Kostroma Moose Farm
477:Antenna for hearing
417:genetic correlation
2808:The Netsilik Inuit
2448:10.7717/peerj.8114
2117:(6446): eaav6312.
2055:Biological Reviews
1822:10.1007/BF02411255
1686:Acta Biomaterialia
1052:. January 14, 2019
961:dietary supplement
842:
838:Wallace Collection
683:
490:
466:Rangifer tarandus)
459:
350:fracture toughness
285:
256:
179:
167:
57:
49:
2988:Chambers, Ephraim
2792:978-1-61060-343-0
2756:Prairie Post West
2736:978-0-8117-0596-7
2709:978-0-8117-0596-7
2596:978-1-61060-343-0
2571:978-0-8117-0596-7
2544:978-1-4214-0387-8
2217:(12): 3556–3560.
2067:10.1111/brv.12597
2006:(10): 1619–1625.
552:White-tailed deer
522:Porcupine caribou
108:sexual attraction
16:(Redirected from
3031:
3001:
2980:
2979:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2872:on July 25, 2011
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2778:
2772:
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2769:
2767:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2617:Medium (service)
2607:
2601:
2600:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2528:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2485:
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2468:
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2415:
2412:
2399:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2255:(6): 1371–1379.
2244:
2235:
2234:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2176:Animal Behaviour
2167:
2161:
2160:
2134:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2046:
2040:
2039:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1975:
1951:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1891:
1882:
1881:
1845:
1834:
1833:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1762:
1749:
1748:
1731:(3–4): 141–147.
1716:
1710:
1709:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1638:
1629:
1628:
1602:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1545:
1530:Animal Behaviour
1521:
1515:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1477:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1409:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1351:
1342:
1341:
1331:
1314:(1559): 149–57.
1299:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1270:
1264:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1190:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1153:
1147:
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1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1100:
1091:
1090:
1078:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1022:. Archived from
1012:
920:Ceremonial roles
887:cable-backed bow
835:
832:
805:
785:
662:
650:
638:
626:
614:
595:
576:
562:
548:
532:
518:
398:Sexual selection
104:shed and regrown
100:reindeer/caribou
21:
3039:
3038:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3028:
3009:
3008:
3007:
2986:
2977:
2974:
2967:
2963:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2905:
2903:
2890:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2873:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2849:
2847:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2826:Brooklyn Museum
2820:
2819:
2815:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2793:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2763:
2749:
2748:
2744:
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2722:
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2717:
2710:
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2690:
2680:
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2663:
2653:
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2642:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2625:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2557:
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2545:
2530:
2529:
2522:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2482:
2428:
2427:
2418:
2402:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2331:10.2307/3798545
2316:
2315:
2311:
2296:10.2307/3801538
2281:
2280:
2276:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2223:10.2307/2680172
2208:
2207:
2203:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2061:(4): 986–1019.
2048:
2047:
2043:
1997:
1996:
1989:
1953:
1952:
1945:
1937:
1893:
1892:
1885:
1847:
1846:
1837:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1764:
1763:
1752:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1640:
1639:
1632:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1439:
1438:
1431:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1353:
1352:
1345:
1301:
1300:
1289:
1279:
1277:
1276:. San Diego Zoo
1272:
1271:
1267:
1262:Wayback Machine
1253:
1249:
1239:
1237:
1229:Love, Heather.
1228:
1227:
1223:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1192:
1191:
1180:
1170:
1168:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1133:
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1128:
1118:
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1102:
1101:
1094:
1087:
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1069:
1065:
1055:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1029:
1027:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1005:
996:
983:; however, one
953:
922:
895:Brooklyn Museum
840:, London (2010)
833:
819:
812:
806:
797:
786:
754:
720:Ltd., a London
710:
701:
699:Ecological role
696:
675:
668:
663:
654:
651:
642:
639:
630:
627:
618:
615:
606:
596:
587:
580:
577:
568:
563:
554:
549:
540:
533:
524:
519:
510:
502:
500:Diversification
479:
448:
426:
412:
400:
395:
382:Tensile testing
371:elastic modulus
319:
305:, particularly
228:and toenails).
155:
137:meaning eye and
133:meaning before,
120:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3037:
3035:
3027:
3026:
3024:Mammal anatomy
3021:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3005:External links
3003:
2990:, ed. (1728).
2973:
2972:
2961:
2922:
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2857:
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2798:
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2499:
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2414:
2413:
2362:
2344:
2325:(4): 699–705.
2309:
2290:(2): 386–388.
2274:
2236:
2201:
2182:(4): 420–426.
2162:
2096:
2041:
1987:
1943:
1909:(8): 1683–95.
1883:
1835:
1816:(3): 301–305.
1796:
1750:
1711:
1692:(2): 693–706.
1672:
1653:(5): 794–803.
1630:
1565:
1516:
1489:
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1380:
1366:
1343:
1287:
1265:
1247:
1221:
1207:
1178:
1161:Dictionary.com
1148:
1126:
1109:Dictionary.com
1092:
1085:
1063:
1037:
1026:on May 1, 2018
1006:
1004:
1001:
995:
992:
952:
949:
921:
918:
848:, used by the
818:
815:
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787:
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753:
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709:
708:Trophy hunting
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411:
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396:
394:
391:
373:of 8.92-10.02
342:yield strength
318:
315:
274:honest signals
154:
151:
119:
116:
102:. Antlers are
84:fibrous tissue
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3036:
3025:
3022:
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3019:Bone products
3017:
3016:
3014:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2983:public domain
2970:
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2942:(3): 251–65.
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2758:. p. 3.
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2639:
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2623:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2612:"Antler Farm"
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2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
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1994:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1966:(5): 553–61.
1965:
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1900:
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1879:
1875:
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1867:
1863:
1859:
1856:(1): 101–17.
1855:
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1827:
1823:
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1815:
1811:
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1400:(3): 616–25.
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1367:0-8014-3475-0
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957:velvet antler
951:Dietary usage
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2895:
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2876:December 28,
2874:. Retrieved
2870:the original
2866:"970747.JPG"
2860:
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2382:(3): 533–5.
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1278:. Retrieved
1268:
1255:Antlered Doe
1250:
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1234:
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1198:
1169:. Retrieved
1160:
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1028:. Retrieved
1024:the original
1019:
1010:
997:
989:
985:double-blind
954:
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903:
876:
857:
843:
827:powder flask
774:
770:
762:bone picking
761:
758:shed hunting
757:
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735:
718:Rowland Ward
711:
702:
688:
684:
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491:
465:
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380:
367:Bend testing
363:orientations
355:
327:
320:
311:
307:osteosarcoma
296:
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286:
257:
241:antilocaprid
230:
207:
191:canine teeth
189:(long upper
180:
142:
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134:
130:
126:
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2766:December 5,
2681:October 30,
1600:10578/30778
1509:November 4,
1373:November 8,
1240:December 5,
1214:November 8,
1171:November 8,
1119:November 8,
1050:Ace Antlers
941:deer dances
850:Magdalenian
846:Paleolithic
834: 1570
629:Fallow deer
508:Capreolinae
404:mate choice
358:anisotropic
303:bone cancer
269:osteoclasts
226:fingernails
163:fallow deer
127:antoillier
3013:Categories
2628:August 28,
1585:: 115046.
1003:References
934:Starr Carr
930:Mesolithic
889:. Several
214:pronghorns
212:—found on
195:water deer
124:Old French
2457:2167-8359
2441:: e8114.
2196:0003-3472
2157:195191761
2141:0036-8075
2091:216556342
2075:1464-7931
1903:Evolution
1625:201751091
1609:1873-2763
1552:0003-3472
1536:: 69–74.
1466:1432-1904
1394:Evolution
1195:"Antlers"
825:A German
745:Yorkshire
722:taxidermy
599:Irish elk
537:mule deer
346:stiffness
265:cartilage
237:pronghorn
203:musk deer
118:Etymology
80:cartilage
2992:"antler"
2956:14669926
2900:Archived
2844:Archived
2760:Archived
2675:Archived
2654:March 1,
2648:Archived
2622:Archived
2475:32110477
2396:44737101
2357:Archived
2269:86047535
2149:31221829
2083:32338826
2036:52147419
2028:30177803
1982:20478822
1935:Archived
1931:33699313
1923:12353761
1878:16584894
1791:30114597
1777:: 1–10.
1745:27618827
1706:18951859
1667:17822969
1617:31446115
1484:33326046
1452:(1): 3.
1424:10418779
1416:11327168
1338:15695205
1280:June 27,
1258:Archived
1165:Archived
1163:. 2010.
1143:Archived
1135:"antler"
1113:Archived
1056:June 21,
932:site of
906:red deer
879:Netsilik
856:and the
810:Oklahoma
728:and the
714:trophies
585:Cervinae
471:intersex
462:Reindeer
393:Function
334:collagen
260:vascular
199:muntjacs
175:Silvassa
165:fighting
68:Cervidae
45:red deer
2985::
2850:July 6,
2488:(1877).
2466:7034380
2339:3798545
2304:3801538
2231:2680172
2211:Ecology
2119:Bibcode
2111:Science
2008:Bibcode
1858:Bibcode
1830:6809293
1560:3942922
1503:Science
1475:7744388
1329:1634960
969:extract
955:In the
926:shamans
868:hunting
605:species
603:extinct
298:Science
245:keratin
222:keratin
183:cervids
177:, India
112:weapons
110:and as
70:(deer)
60:Antlers
43:Mature
18:Antlers
2954:
2906:May 1,
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1030:May 1,
914:pickax
796:(2010)
794:Alaska
666:Chital
456:Sweden
431:Wolves
387:strain
336:and a
330:bovine
290:sambar
218:bovids
135:oeil,
131:ant-,
94:, and
92:nerves
72:family
2435:PeerJ
2392:S2CID
2335:JSTOR
2300:JSTOR
2265:S2CID
2227:JSTOR
2153:S2CID
2087:S2CID
2032:S2CID
1938:(PDF)
1927:S2CID
1621:S2CID
1556:S2CID
1420:S2CID
977:IGF-1
938:Yaqui
883:Inuit
881:, an
864:ivory
760:, or
579:Moose
494:moose
322:Bones
210:horns
187:tusks
161:Male
64:skull
2952:PMID
2908:2018
2878:2022
2852:2012
2787:ISBN
2768:2011
2731:ISBN
2704:ISBN
2683:2012
2656:2012
2630:2014
2591:ISBN
2566:ISBN
2539:ISBN
2471:PMID
2453:ISSN
2192:ISSN
2145:PMID
2137:ISSN
2079:PMID
2071:ISSN
2024:PMID
1978:PMID
1919:PMID
1874:PMID
1826:PMID
1787:PMID
1741:PMID
1702:PMID
1663:PMID
1647:Bone
1613:PMID
1605:ISSN
1579:Bone
1548:ISSN
1511:2023
1480:PMID
1462:ISSN
1412:PMID
1375:2010
1362:ISBN
1334:PMID
1282:2013
1242:2020
1216:2010
1203:ISBN
1173:2010
1121:2010
1081:ISBN
1058:2023
1032:2018
910:tine
877:The
738:tine
566:Pudú
344:and
233:does
216:and
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147:horn
139:-ier
88:skin
76:bone
2944:doi
2461:PMC
2443:doi
2384:doi
2327:doi
2292:doi
2257:doi
2219:doi
2184:doi
2127:doi
2115:364
2063:doi
2016:doi
1968:doi
1964:101
1911:doi
1866:doi
1818:doi
1779:doi
1733:doi
1694:doi
1655:doi
1595:hdl
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1583:128
1538:doi
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1470:PMC
1454:doi
1450:108
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