2175:
1152:
114:
1272:
136:
1134:
2813:
653:
704:
1195:), microscopic classic Greek shield-shaped, stalked or sessile. They can appear solitary or clustered. Their texture can likewise be very variable, including fleshy, like charcoal (carbonaceous), leathery, rubbery, gelatinous, slimy, powdery, or cob-web-like. Ascocarps come in multiple colors such as red, orange, yellow, brown, black, or, more rarely, green or blue. Some ascomyceous fungi, such as
1621:
1203:
2102:
1653:
1671:
2428:. The beetle tunnels into the wood and into large chambers in which they lay their eggs. Spores released from the mycetangia germinate into hyphae, which can break down the wood. The beetle larvae then feed on the fungal mycelium, and, on reaching maturity, carry new spores with them to renew the cycle of infection. A well-known example of this is
649:, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized hyphae, the conidiophores. Depending on the species they may be dispersed by wind or water, or by animals. Conidiophores may simply branch off from the mycelia or they may be formed in fruiting bodies.
3846:
Das, Gitishree; Shin, Han-Seung; Leyva-Gómez, Gerardo; Prado-Audelo, María L. Del; Cortes, Hernán; Singh, Yengkhom Disco; Panda, Manasa Kumar; Mishra, Abhay
Prakash; Nigam, Manisha; Saklani, Sarla; Chaturi, Praveen Kumar; Martorell, Miquel; Cruz-Martins, Natália; Sharma, Vineet; Garg, Neha; Sharma,
2328:
algal partner generates metabolic energy through photosynthesis, the fungus offers a stable, supportive matrix and protects cells from radiation and dehydration. Around 42% of the
Ascomycota (about 18,000 species) form lichens, and almost all the fungal partners of lichens belong to the Ascomycota.
2202:
Upon opening of the ascus, ascospores may be dispersed by the wind, while in some cases the spores are forcibly ejected form the ascus; certain species have evolved spore cannons, which can eject ascospores up to 30 cm. away. When the spores reach a suitable substrate, they germinate, form new
2349:
associations of fungi with the root systems of the plants, which can be of vital importance for growth and persistence for the plant. The fine mycelial network of the fungus enables the increased uptake of mineral salts that occur at low levels in the soil. In return, the plant provides the fungus
2170:
run parallel, creating two pairs of genetically different nuclei. One daughter nucleus migrates close to the hook, while the other daughter nucleus locates to the basal part of the hypha. The formation of two parallel cross-walls then divides the hypha into three sections: one at the hook with one
628:
Asexual reproduction is the dominant form of propagation in the
Ascomycota, and is responsible for the rapid spread of these fungi into new areas. Asexual reproduction of ascomycetes is very diverse from both structural and functional points of view. The most important and general is production of
715:
Asexual reproduction process in ascomycetes also involves the budding which we clearly observe in yeast. This is termed a "blastic process". It involves the blowing out or blebbing of the hyphal tip wall. The blastic process can involve all wall layers, or there can be a new cell wall synthesized
726:
The initial events of budding can be seen as the development of a ring of chitin around the point where the bud is about to appear. This reinforces and stabilizes the cell wall. Enzymatic activity and turgor pressure act to weaken and extrude the cell wall. New cell wall material is incorporated
819:
on each side of the septa separating the hyphal segments which control the septal pores. If an adjoining hypha is ruptured, the
Woronin bodies block the pores to prevent loss of cytoplasm into the ruptured compartment. The Woronin bodies are spherical, hexagonal, or rectangular membrane bound
677:
The diverse conidia and conidiophores sometimes develop in asexual sporocarps with different characteristics (e.g. acervulus, pycnidium, sporodochium). Some species of ascomycetes form their structures within plant tissue, either as parasite or saprophytes. These fungi have evolved more complex
2902:. Bakers use the yeast for carbon dioxide production, causing the bread to rise, with the ethanol boiling off during cooking. Most vintners use it for ethanol production, with the carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere during fermentation. Brewers and traditional producers of
1600:
Different types of asexual spores can be identified by colour, shape, and how they are released as individual spores. Spore types can be used as taxonomic characters in the classification within the
Ascomycota. The most frequent types are the single-celled spores, which are designated
2996:
is known for its numerous medicinal benefits, including supporting the immune system, reducing inflammation, providing antioxidant effects, enhancing metabolic health, improving athletic performance, and promoting respiratory health. It contains bioactive compounds such as
2198:
nuclei, usually followed by a further mitotic division that results in eight nuclei in each ascus. The nuclei along with some cytoplasma become enclosed within membranes and a cell wall to give rise to ascospores that are aligned inside the ascus like peas in a pod.
2094:(Rhodophyta). A discarded hypothesis held that a second karyogamy event occurred in the ascogonium prior to ascogeny, resulting in a tetraploid nucleus which divided into four diploid nuclei by meiosis and then into eight haploid nuclei by a supposed process called
1512:
2361:
associations with their host, do not damage their hosts. The exact nature of the relationship between endophytic fungus and host depends on the species involved, and in some cases fungal colonization of plants can bestow a higher resistance against insects,
1240:
Except for lichens, the non-reproductive (vegetative) mycelium of most ascomycetes is usually inconspicuous because it is commonly embedded in the substrate, such as soil, or grows on or inside a living host, and only the ascoma may be seen when fruiting.
1255:
species, which form black spots on bathroom caulking and other moist areas. Many ascomycetes cause food spoilage, and, therefore, the pellicles or moldy layers that develop on jams, juices, and other foods are the mycelia of these species or occasionally
1191:). Ascocarps come in a very large variety of shapes: cup-shaped, club-shaped, potato-like, spongy, seed-like, oozing and pimple-like, coral-like, nit-like, golf-ball-shaped, perforated tennis ball-like, cushion-shaped, plated and feathered in miniature (
2166:. At one end of ascogenous hyphae, characteristic U-shaped hooks develop, which curve back opposite to the growth direction of the hyphae. The two nuclei contained in the apical part of each hypha divide in such a way that the threads of their
1079:
have identified close relationships with ascus-bearing taxa, anamorphic species have been grouped into the
Ascomycota, despite the absence of the defining ascus. Sexual and asexual isolates of the same species commonly carry different
3285:
Jones, E.B. Gareth; Suetrong, Satinee; Sakayaroj, Jariya; Bahkali, Ali H.; Abdel-Wahab, Mohamed A.; Boekhout, Teun; Pang, Ka-Lai (2015). "Classification of marine
Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota".
1393:
that break down organic substances into smaller molecules, which are then taken up into the cell. Many species live on dead plant material such as leaves, twigs, or logs. Several species colonize plants, animals, or other fungi as
673:
all of them are single hyphae with the exception of the aggregations, termed as coremia or synnema. These produce structures rather like corn-stokes, with many conidia being produced in a mass from the aggregated conidiophores.
720:
2906:
use both, with a primary fermentation for the alcohol and a secondary one to produce the carbon dioxide bubbles that provide the drinks with "sparkling" texture in the case of wine and the desirable foam in the case of
2120:
or fertile hyphae. They are supported by the vegetative mycelium containing uni– (or mono–) nucleate hyphae, which are sterile. The mycelium containing both sterile and fertile hyphae may grow into fruiting body, the
659:
The hypha that creates the sporing (conidiating) tip can be very similar to the normal hyphal tip, or it can be differentiated. The most common differentiation is the formation of a bottle shaped cell called a
666:, from which the spores are produced. Not all of these asexual structures are a single hypha. In some groups, the conidiophores (the structures that bear the conidia) are aggregated to form a thick structure.
1535:
through the atmosphere and freshwater environments, as well as ocean beaches and tidal zones. The distribution of species is variable; while some are found on all continents, others, as for example the white
811:
The septal walls have septal pores which provide cytoplasmic continuity throughout the individual hyphae. Under appropriate conditions, nuclei may also migrate between septal compartments through the septal
756:
Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus truffles and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies.
1117:, the hyphal structures that carry conidia-forming cells at the end) are free or loosely organized. They are mostly isolated but sometimes also appear as bundles of cells aligned in parallel (described as
1734:
conidiogenesis, during which a cross-wall forms and the newly created cell develops into a spore. The spores may or may not be generated in a large-scale specialized structure that helps to spread them.
1572:
Asexual reproduction is the dominant form of propagation in the
Ascomycota, and is responsible for the rapid spread of these fungi into new areas. It occurs through vegetative reproductive spores, the
2206:
The form of the ascus is important for classification and is divided into four basic types: unitunicate-operculate, unitunicate-inoperculate, bitunicate, or prototunicate. See the article on
2030:. Mating types are typical of the fungi and correspond roughly to the sexes in plants and animals; however one species may have more than two mating types, resulting in sometimes complex
1976:
phase, which commonly is very short, and meiosis restores the haploid state. The sexual cycle of one well-studied representative species of
Ascomycota is described in greater detail in
727:
during this phase. Cell contents are forced into the progeny cell, and as the final phase of mitosis ends a cell plate, the point at which a new cell wall will grow inwards from, forms.
1580:
cell divisions and thus are sometimes called mitospores, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized
1405:
Owing to their long evolutionary history, the
Ascomycota have evolved the capacity to break down almost every organic substance. Unlike most organisms, they are able to use their own
2312:, and can grow and persist in terrestrial regions of the earth that are inhospitable to other organisms and characterized by extremes in temperature and humidity, including the
2645:
cause skin infections but are not very dangerous for people with healthy immune systems. However, if the immune system is damaged they can be life-threatening; for instance,
1844:
Several Ascomycota species are not known to have a sexual cycle. Such asexual species may be able to undergo genetic recombination between individuals by processes involving
2705:
is the causal agent of blastomycosis, an invasive and often serious fungal infection found occasionally in humans and other animals in regions where the fungus is endemic.
625:
Ascomycetes are 'spore shooters'. They are fungi which produce microscopic spores inside special, elongated cells or sacs, known as 'asci', which give the group its name.
2422:(family Scolytidae) are important symbiotic partners of ascomycetes. The female beetles transport fungal spores to new hosts in characteristic tucks in their skin, the
1452:
attack only one particular leg of one particular insect species. Many Ascomycota engage in symbiotic relationships such as in lichens—symbiotic associations with green
6710:
1809:
Sometimes the conidia are produced in structures visible to the naked eye, which help to distribute the spores. These structures are called "conidiomata" (singular:
1543:, only occur in isolated locations in Italy and Eastern Europe. The distribution of plant-parasitic species is often restricted by host distributions; for example,
5369:
7364:
1343:", are the internal boundaries of individual cells (or compartments). The cell wall and septa give stability and rigidity to the hyphae and may prevent loss of
1097:
Species of the Deuteromycota were classified as Coelomycetes if they produced their conidia in minute flask- or saucer-shaped conidiomata, known technically as
1830:
dehiscence, a double-dividing wall with a central lamella (layer) forms between the cells; the central layer then breaks down thereby releasing the spores. In
3445:
Hendey, N. I. (1964). "Some observations on Cladosporium resinae as a fuel contaminant and its possible role in the corrosion of aluminium alloy fuel tanks".
7237:
992:
Several outdated taxon names—based on morphological features—are still occasionally used for species of the Ascomycota. These include the following sexual (
920:, which are single-celled (unicellular) fungi, which reproduce vegetatively by budding. Most of these species were previously classified in a taxon called
2171:
nucleus, one at the basal of the original hypha that contains one nucleus, and one that separates the U-shaped part, which contains the other two nuclei.
3027:
2082:
of the sexual cycle, during which time the pairs of nuclei synchronously divide. Fusion of the paired nuclei leads to mixing of the genetic material and
1441:, which feeds on aircraft fuel (causing occasional problems for the airline industry), and may sometimes block fuel pipes. Other species can resist high
1903:, with each daughter nuclei being genetically different from the original parent nuclei. Alternatively, nuclei may lose some chromosomes, resulting in
2412:(Isoptera). Since they do not generate fruiting bodies until the insects have left the nests, it is suspected that, as confirmed in several cases of
7312:
3035:
1706:) the entire spore is wound up in a spiral like a spring. Very long worm-like spores with a length-to-diameter ratio of more than 15:1, are called
7338:
6416:
2613:
2612:, the most common cause of fungal infection in the lungs of immune-compromised patients often resulting in death. Also the most frequent cause of
1855:
Parasexuality refers to the process of heterokaryosis, caused by merging of two hyphae belonging to different individuals, by a process called
4028:
4009:
3577:
2955:, and is used to break down starch in rice and other grains into simple sugars for fermentation into East Asian alcoholic beverages such as
786:
Most ascomycetes are terrestrial or parasitic. However, some have adapted to marine or freshwater environments. As of 2015, there were 805
1986:
was reviewed by Wallen and Perlin. They concluded that the most plausible reason for the maintenance of this capability is the benefit of
678:
asexual sporing structures, probably influenced by the cultural conditions of plant tissue as a substrate. These structures are called the
3321:
4079:
2130:
An ascocarp is the fruiting body of the sexual phase in Ascomycota. There are five morphologically different types of ascocarp, namely:
1928:
700:
is a flat saucer shaped bed of conidiophores produced under a plant cuticle, which eventually erupt through the cuticle for dispersal.
5362:
1056:
993:
475:
641:. The asexual, non-motile haploid spores of a fungus, which are named after the Greek word for dust (conia), are hence also known as
4047:
3990:
3971:
3269:
1637:
801:, just as in Basidiomycota. However, these fibers are set in a matrix of glycoprotein containing the sugars galactose and mannose.
1943:, the structure that defines this fungal group and distinguishes it from other fungal phyla. The ascus is a tube-shaped vessel, a
1151:
7446:
5410:
4113:
2230:(animals that feed on decomposing material) to obtain their nutrients. Ascomycetes, along with other fungi, can break down large
2035:
1745:(repeated budding at the tip of the conidiogenic hypha, so that a chain of spores is formed with the youngest spores at the tip),
5405:
4108:
2186:
Fusion of the nuclei (karyogamy) takes place in the U-shaped cells in the hymenium, and results in the formation of a diploid
1785:(spores separate by formation of crosswalls near the tip of the conidiogenic hypha, which thus becomes progressively shorter),
1751:(simultaneous spore formation from a central cell, sometimes with secondary acropetal chains forming from the initial spores),
1385:
as energy sources. These are obtained by feeding on a variety of organic substrates including dead matter, foodstuffs, or as
7343:
1020:, or any structure resembling these morphological structures; and the Plectomycetes, which included those species that form
783:
relationships with plants, thereby providing enhanced water and nutrient uptake and, in some cases, protection from insects.
629:
conidia, but chlamydospores are also frequently produced. Furthermore, Ascomycota also reproduce asexually through budding.
3671:
Carlile, Michael J. (2005). "Two influential mycologists: Helen Gwynne-Vaughan (1879–1967) and Lilian Hawker (1908–1991)".
2182:(the typical cup-like reproductive structure of ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.
5489:
5479:
5462:
5355:
4192:
4182:
4165:
2709:
762:
Some of the plant pathogenic ascomycetes are apple scab, rice blast, the ergot fungi, black knot, and the powdery mildews.
645:. The conidiospores commonly contain one nucleus and are products of mitotic cell divisions and thus are sometimes called
1199:, grow as single-celled yeasts, which—during sexual reproduction—develop into an ascus, and do not form fruiting bodies.
1389:
in or on other living organisms. To obtain these nutrients from their surroundings, ascomycetous fungi secrete powerful
526:, both of animals, including humans, and of plants. Examples of ascomycetes that can cause infections in humans include
2026:
species, the two hyphae must originate from fungal clones that differ genetically, i.e., those that are of a different
7260:
6409:
2503:
1722:, which includes spore formation and dehiscence (separation from the parent structure). Conidiogenesis corresponds to
1234:
1283:
Large masses of yeast cells, asci or ascus-like cells, or conidia can also form macroscopic structures. For example.
2158:: Asci with two layers, produced in pseudothecia that look like perithecia. The ascospores are arranged irregularly.
135:
2072:—occurs. Unlike in animals and plants, plasmogamy is not immediately followed by the merging of the nuclei (called
576:, meaning that they parasitise and kill insects. Other entomopathogenic ascomycetes have been used successfully in
736:
Ascomycota are morphologically diverse. The group includes organisms from unicellular yeasts to complex cup fungi.
7369:
6553:
2851:
3900:"Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities of Cordyceps militaris spent substrate"
749:
The unifying characteristic among these diverse groups is the presence of a reproductive structure known as the
396:
2870:
2845:
2701:
1991:
1757:(repeated sideways spore formation from behind the leading spore, so that the oldest spore is at the main tip),
1791:(double cell walls split the conidiogenic hypha into cells that develop into short, cylindrical spores called
1249:
in hyphal walls, along with prolific growth on surfaces can result in visible mold colonies; examples include
6062:
6638:
6269:
5919:
5877:
5836:
5494:
4197:
4072:
2771:
2715:
2632:, a yeast that attacks the mucous membranes, can cause an infection of the mouth or vagina called thrush or
2596:
1431:
1076:
886:
577:
573:
2292:
Probably since early in their evolutionary history, the Ascomycota have formed symbiotic associations with
1779:(where a chain of conidia, in successively younger stages of development, is emitted from the mother cell),
1310:
causing mummification with a chalk-like appearance, hence the name "chalkbrood". Yeasts for small colonies
7190:
6402:
6135:
5869:
5653:
3060:"Perithecial ascomycetes from the 400 million year old Rhynie chert: an example of ancestral polymorphism"
2983:
2926:
2912:
2733:
2720:
2693:
2647:
2553:
2440:
389:
6067:
6037:
5929:
5695:
7484:
7400:
6866:
6516:
6014:
5924:
5676:
5663:
5645:
5457:
5386:
5347:
4160:
3402:
James, R.R.; Skinner, J.S. (October 2005). "PCR diagnostic methods for Ascosphaera infections in bees".
3207:
James TY; et al. (2006). "Reconstructing the early evolution of Fungi using a six-gene phylogeny".
2801:
2745:
2608:
2083:
1892:
1888:
1730:
conidiogenesis, where the spore is already evident before it separates from the conidiogenic hypha, and
1658:
1233:, can switch between growth as single cells and as filamentous, multicellular hyphae. Other species are
1183:. The ascus is often contained in a multicellular, occasionally readily visible fruiting structure, the
1081:
1064:
934:
336:
6155:
5706:
1527:
The Ascomycota are represented in all land ecosystems worldwide, occurring on all continents including
694:
is a globose to flask-shaped parenchymatous structure, lined on its inner wall with conidiophores. The
685:
6042:
7379:
7273:
7265:
6531:
6302:
6249:
5808:
5671:
5268:
3911:
3898:
Zhang, Danyu; Tang, Qingjiu; He, Xianzhe; Wang, Yipeng; Zhu, Guangyong; Yu, Ling (8 September 2023).
3771:
3481:
3411:
3216:
2833:
2788:
2727:
2673:
if consumed. Symptoms include hallucinations, stomach cramps, and a burning sensation in the limbs ("
2575:
2566:
1836:
dehiscence, the cell wall that joins the spores on the outside degenerates and releases the conidia.
1801:(a large bulging cell separates from the conidiogenic hypha, forms internal walls, and develops to a
1686:
When there are two or more cross-walls, the classification depends on spore shape. If the septae are
1448:
The Ascomycota is characterized by a high degree of specialization; for instance, certain species of
1437:
1224:
1086:
479:
422:
288:
253:
122:
7451:
7304:
5525:
5273:
7474:
6279:
6254:
6052:
6004:
5994:
5795:
5734:
5729:
4975:
4759:
3168:"Assembling the fungal tree of life: progress, classification, and evolution of subcellular traits"
2993:
2931:
2825:
2588:
2557:
are responsible for fading of woolen textiles, which is a common problem especially in the tropics.
2401:
2064:) of the other fungal isolate. The nuclei in the antheridium then migrate into the ascogonium, and
1556:
1399:
1068:
973:
882:
410:
6193:
5701:
5131:
2050:
are sexual structures formed from hyphae, and are the generative cells. A very fine hypha, called
501:
Ascomycetes are of particular use to humans as sources of medicinally important compounds such as
293:
113:
6861:
6543:
6355:
6307:
6294:
6274:
6259:
6239:
6188:
6047:
5859:
5831:
5785:
5721:
5474:
5452:
5440:
5415:
4985:
4177:
4155:
4143:
4118:
4065:
3795:
3505:
3303:
3240:
3135:
2947:
2805:
2738:
2681:
2511:
1473:
516:
233:
130:
7405:
2779:), which, probably to attack competing bacteria, produces an antibiotic that, under the name of
2152:: The asci are in a bowl shaped ascoma (apothecium). These are sometimes called the "cup fungi".
1763:(each spore separates and leaves a ring-shaped scar inside the scar left by the previous spore),
1429:—a protein that forms hair and nails—, can also serve as food sources. Unusual examples include
2783:, triggered a revolution in the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases in the 20th century.
1271:
7479:
7387:
6653:
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6312:
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5777:
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5425:
5319:
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5226:
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4187:
4150:
4138:
4128:
4043:
4024:
4005:
3986:
3967:
3939:
3880:
3787:
3740:
3653:
3573:
3546:
3497:
3427:
3384:
3325:
3265:
3232:
3189:
3127:
3092:
2857:
2793:
2483:
2456:
2429:
2040:
1978:
1883:
1208:
1133:
997:
967:
949:
595:
534:
321:
815:
A unique character of the Ascomycota (but not present in all ascomycetes) is the presence of
7438:
7392:
6929:
6808:
6700:
6643:
6583:
6578:
6506:
6491:
6384:
6231:
6178:
6120:
6029:
5986:
5957:
5841:
5803:
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5399:
5291:
5237:
4991:
4437:
4102:
3929:
3919:
3870:
3860:
3826:
3779:
3760:"Do mites phoretic on elm bark beetles contribute to the transmission of Dutch elm disease?"
3732:
3680:
3643:
3633:
3536:
3489:
3454:
3419:
3376:
3295:
3224:
3179:
3119:
3082:
3074:
2812:
2628:
2523:
1960:
1916:
1912:
1442:
1402:
and derive all their metabolic energy in form of nutrients from the tissues of their hosts.
1390:
1382:
1229:
1033:
1029:
943:
929:
911:
906:
854:
528:
438:
316:
304:
228:
213:
7228:
2134:
Naked asci: these occur in simple ascomycetes; asci are produced on the organism's surface.
7102:
7007:
6969:
6924:
6856:
6613:
6573:
6558:
6451:
6360:
6350:
6332:
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6057:
6019:
5895:
5818:
5686:
5602:
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5164:
4339:
2665:) is a direct menace to humans when it attacks wheat or rye and produces highly poisonous
2617:
2478:
2471:
2434:
2167:
2031:
1769:(the spores arise and are ejected from the open ends of special conidiogenic cells called
1620:
1320:
1025:
916:
878:
652:
543:
539:
341:
326:
309:
268:
238:
218:
208:
1982:. Also, the adaptive basis for the maintenance of sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota
1359:
within a hypha. Vegetative hyphae of most ascomycetes contain only one nucleus per cell (
808:. However, there is not necessarily any fixed number of nuclei in each of the divisions.
470:
group (containing all of the descendants of a common ancestor). Previously placed in the
7415:
6394:
3934:
3915:
3899:
3775:
3622:"An Overview of the Function and Maintenance of Sexual Reproduction in Dikaryotic Fungi"
3485:
3415:
3220:
2101:
1143:
which is parasitic on arthropods. Note the elongated stromata. Species unknown, perhaps
703:
7299:
7162:
7107:
7097:
6939:
6753:
6705:
6618:
6593:
6588:
6568:
6563:
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6107:
6092:
6077:
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5826:
5767:
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5250:
5214:
5189:
4878:
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4301:
4133:
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3621:
3123:
3006:
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2903:
2899:
2840:
2641:
2584:
2528:
2397:
2351:
2325:
2194:, an elongated tube-shaped or cylinder-shaped capsule. Meiosis then gives rise to four
1589:
1461:
1449:
1257:
1192:
1139:
1041:
898:
890:
839:
816:
590:
563:
258:
248:
223:
203:
7242:
3758:
Moser, John C.; Konrad, Heino; Blomquist, Stacy R.; Kirisits, Thomas (February 2010).
3458:
2452:
One of their most harmful roles is as the agent of many plant diseases. For instance:
1652:
7468:
6886:
6871:
6833:
6758:
6694:
6680:
6628:
6623:
6537:
6526:
6521:
6501:
6496:
6471:
6216:
6183:
6173:
6097:
5910:
5900:
5759:
5535:
5296:
5095:
5087:
4917:
4838:
4778:
4689:
4663:
4392:
3541:
3524:
3059:
2754:
2561:
2413:
2305:
2095:
2022:
1465:
1457:
1366:
1348:
1261:
1176:
1072:
1037:
1009:
502:
483:
471:
365:
273:
263:
243:
71:
3849:"Cordyceps spp.: A Review on Its Immune-Stimulatory and Other Biological Potentials"
3799:
3509:
3307:
2226:, breaking down organic materials, such as dead leaves and animals, and helping the
1726:
in animals and plants and can be divided into two fundamental forms of development:
1355:
connection between adjacent cells, also sometimes allowing cell-to-cell movement of
7082:
7077:
7052:
7027:
7017:
6944:
6813:
6687:
6648:
6633:
6608:
6603:
6548:
6481:
6244:
6009:
5887:
5517:
5329:
5156:
5136:
5076:
4980:
4953:
4900:
4858:
4825:
4600:
4378:
4317:
3698:
3259:
3244:
3139:
2371:
2358:
2337:
Members of the Ascomycota form two important types of relationship with plants: as
2243:
1911:(class Saccharomycetes) is an example of a fungus that has a parasexual cycle (see
1862:
1670:
1511:
1378:
1356:
1285:
1251:
1237:, exhibiting asexual (anamorphic) as well as a sexual (teleomorphic) growth forms.
1110:
1106:
1001:
979:
894:
874:
787:
680:
614:
491:
467:
331:
1998:. DNA damage can be caused by a variety of stresses such as nutrient limitation.
1268:
that develop on plants, especially in the tropics are the thalli of many species.
3924:
2765:
On the other hand, ascus fungi have brought some important benefits to humanity.
2249:
The fruiting bodies of the Ascomycota provide food for many animals ranging from
2140:: Asci are in flask-shaped ascoma (perithecium) with a pore (ostiole) at the top.
1678:
with vase-shaped phialides and newly formed conidia on their ends (bright points)
1179:. During sexual reproduction, many Ascomycota typically produce large numbers of
7325:
7222:
7137:
7112:
7057:
7032:
6954:
6949:
6914:
6904:
6598:
6511:
5577:
5378:
5220:
5146:
4998:
4962:
4942:
4890:
4864:
4754:
4702:
4675:
4657:
4630:
4397:
4266:
4255:
3831:
3814:
3010:
2808:, although there is some doubt over the long-term side-effects of the treatment.
2797:
2633:
2419:
2293:
2227:
2051:
2027:
2012:
1857:
1361:
1336:
1325:
1295:
1202:
1164:
798:
605:
511:
425:
and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include
46:
3078:
7170:
7132:
7062:
7042:
7037:
7022:
6992:
6964:
6919:
6909:
6876:
6818:
6793:
6486:
6461:
5748:
5301:
5125:
5116:
5101:
4969:
4906:
4765:
4726:
4721:
4607:
4524:
4419:
4331:
3865:
3783:
3736:
3684:
3565:
3423:
3380:
3299:
3014:
2998:
2780:
2424:
2338:
2255:
2231:
2223:
2179:
2116:
hyphae emerge in which each cell contains two nuclei. These hyphae are called
2065:
2056:
2047:
1987:
1969:
1927:
1878:
1832:
1723:
1551:
1528:
1501:
1497:
1469:
1468:, some ascomycetes form symbioses with plants by colonizing the roots to form
1410:
1369:
cells—especially in the apical regions of growing hyphae—can also be present.
1351:. The septa commonly have a small opening in the center, which functions as a
1265:
870:
759:
Many of them cause tree diseases, such as Dutch elm disease and apple blights.
559:
551:
547:
506:
187:
91:
56:
7213:
3638:
7428:
7286:
7087:
7067:
6959:
6838:
6773:
6763:
6748:
6743:
6724:
6476:
5200:
5141:
4849:
4814:
4772:
4749:
4731:
4618:
4554:
4429:
4306:
4249:
4236:
4088:
3493:
3002:
2967:
2952:
2935:
2917:
2686:
2580:
2536:
2516:
2363:
2346:
2342:
2317:
2275:
2268:
2235:
2219:
2162:
The sexual structures are formed in the fruiting layer of the ascocarp, the
2091:
2074:
2069:
1904:
1900:
1815:
1485:
1414:
1386:
1352:
1344:
1300:
1290:
1276:
1220:
1028:
included the yeasts and yeast-like fungi that have now been placed into the
830:
696:
690:
582:
568:
450:
446:
418:
283:
147:
96:
4057:
3943:
3884:
3791:
3744:
3657:
3550:
3501:
3431:
3388:
3236:
3193:
3184:
3167:
3096:
637:
Asexual reproduction may occur through vegetative reproductive spores, the
17:
3131:
3110:
Cavalier-Smith, T. (August 1998). "A revised six-kingdom system of life".
2804:
to prevent rejection, is also prescribed for auto-immune diseases such as
1445:
and grow, for example, on salted fish, and a few ascomycetes are aquatic.
1289:
species can colonize lung cavities (visible in x-rays), causing a form of
515:
species on cheeses and those producing antibiotics for treating bacterial
7423:
7351:
7252:
7207:
7142:
7122:
7117:
7092:
7072:
7047:
7012:
7002:
6997:
6828:
6803:
6783:
6443:
5999:
5633:
5624:
5610:
5469:
5207:
5169:
5070:
5047:
4594:
4589:
4581:
4511:
4386:
4261:
4244:
4222:
4172:
2956:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2375:
2367:
2163:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2123:
1866:
1810:
1770:
1573:
1545:
1422:
1395:
1311:
1184:
1172:
1060:
1045:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1005:
961:
955:
849:
844:
684:. This is a cushion of conidiophores created from a pseudoparenchymatous
662:
610:
523:
459:
86:
81:
66:
61:
51:
39:
3367:
pneumonia: current concepts in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment".
3228:
2357:
Endophytic fungi live inside plants, and those that form mutualistic or
1795:; sometimes every second cell dies off, leaving the arthroconidia free),
1636:
765:
The yeasts are used to produce alcoholic beverages and breads. The mold
509:
bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese. Examples of ascomycetes include
7147:
7127:
6823:
6798:
6788:
6778:
6734:
6671:
6221:
5948:
5323:
5058:
4895:
4741:
4648:
4637:
4501:
4407:
4363:
4271:
2975:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2829:
2501:), which is especially prevalent in North America, is brought about by
2409:
2392:
2087:
2017:
2006:
The sexual part of the life cycle commences when two hyphal structures
1995:
1948:
1870:
1577:
1537:
1493:
1477:
1426:
1315:
1246:
1242:
1175:, which—when visible to the naked eye (macroscopic)—is commonly called
1168:
1051:
Some ascomycetes do not reproduce sexually or are not known to produce
1040:
included the remaining species of the Ascomycota, which are now in the
862:
740:
638:
442:
430:
381:
369:
167:
101:
76:
3087:
2174:
2078:). Instead, the nuclei from the two hyphae form pairs, initiating the
1094:, for asexual and sexual isolates, respectively, of the same species.
779:
Others, such as morels (a highly prized edible fungi), form important
7330:
6987:
6979:
6848:
5382:
4713:
4443:
4345:
4287:
2862:
2621:
2405:
2379:
2321:
2313:
2309:
2287:
2260:
2250:
2239:
2195:
2187:
2007:
1983:
1973:
1965:
1896:
1874:
1606:
1576:. The conidiospores commonly contain one nucleus and are products of
1532:
1481:
1418:
1406:
1340:
1332:
1216:
937:
group within the Ascomycota that was recognized following molecular (
794:
454:
426:
402:
357:
157:
7356:
7184:
3759:
3723:
Schulz B, Boyle C., B; Boyle, C (2005). "The endophytic continuum".
1939:
Sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota leads to the formation of the
1861:, followed by a series of events resulting in genetically different
843:
are the largest subphylum and contains all ascomycetes that produce
7291:
719:
7317:
6896:
6768:
5283:
4923:
2875:
2811:
2658:
2494:
2301:
2278:
relationships with other organisms, including plants and animals.
2207:
2191:
2173:
2100:
1926:
1669:
1651:
1635:
1619:
1581:
1510:
1453:
1303:
1270:
1201:
1180:
1160:
1150:
1132:
1052:
866:
805:
746:
There are 2000 identified genera and 30,000 species of Ascomycota.
718:
600:
555:
487:
434:
414:
385:
361:
183:
3572:(4th ed.). University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
1718:
Important characteristics of the anamorphs of the Ascomycota are
6934:
6426:
4540:
3472:
Laybourn-Parry J., J (2009). "Microbiology. No place too cold".
2960:
2921:
2883:
2879:
2697:
causes histoplasmosis, which affects immunocompromised patients.
2652:
2467:, has led to the death of many elms in Europe and North America.
2264:
2242:, and thus have important roles in nutrient cycling such as the
1307:
1159:
Most species grow as filamentous, microscopic structures called
7188:
6398:
5351:
4061:
2824:
Some ascomycete fungi can be altered relatively easily through
861:. The Pezizomycotina includes most macroscopic "ascos" such as
753:, though in some cases it has a reduced role in the life cycle.
474:
along with asexual species from other fungal taxa, asexual (or
1615:
938:
495:
7278:
3815:"A brief review on the medicinal uses of Cordyceps militaris"
3525:"Truffles: much more than a prized and local fungal delicacy"
2016:
species, mating is enabled between hyphae of the same fungal
3058:
Taylor, TN; Hass, H; Kerp, H; Krings, M; Hanlin, RT (2005).
2966:
Finally, some members of the Ascomycota are choice edibles;
2378:, which can affect the health of plant-eating (herbivorous)
1738:
These two basic types can be further classified as follows:
1219:
species, the thallus of the fungus defines the shape of the
1819:(which are flask-shaped and arise in the fungal tissue) or
1460:—in which the fungal symbiont directly obtains products of
3699:"Ascomycota – Characteristics, Nutrition and Significance"
2865:
of a number of ascomycete fungi have been fully sequenced.
2828:
procedures. They can then produce useful proteins such as
2146:: The ascocarp (a cleistothecium) is spherical and closed.
1324:
species in the mouth or vagina causes "thrush", a form of
772:
Almost half of all members of the phylum Ascomycota form
478:) ascomycetes are now identified and classified based on
3350:
3338:
2651:
is responsible for severe lung infections that occur in
2591:
and skin and mucous membrane lesions when eaten by pigs.
2218:
The Ascomycota fulfil a central role in most land-based
1331:
The cell walls of the ascomycetes almost always contain
2308:. These mutualistic associations are commonly known as
2990:) are some of the most sought-after fungal delicacies.
1702:
ray-like arms radiate from a central body; in others (
1377:
In common with other fungal phyla, the Ascomycota are
793:
The cell walls of the hyphae are variably composed of
421:, are formed. However, some species of Ascomycota are
380:. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000
3962:
Alexopoulos, C.J.; Mims, C.W.; Blackwell, M. (1996).
2689:, which damages the liver and is highly carcinogenic.
1823:(which are cushion-shaped and arise in host tissue).
1476:, which have developed hyphal traps to capture small
1472:
associations. The Ascomycota also represents several
1435:, which feeds on wall paint, and the kerosene fungus
1067:. Some taxonomists placed this group into a separate
2836:, or TPa, which is employed to dissolve blood clots.
2685:, which grows on peanuts and other hosts, generates
2438:, which is carried by the European elm bark beetle,
1895:. The chromosome number may then be restored to its
1605:. If the spore is divided into two by a cross-wall (
996:) groups, defined by the structures of their sexual
743:
have an Ascomycota as the fungal part of the lichen.
384:. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "
7197:
7160:
6978:
6895:
6847:
6732:
6723:
6670:
6442:
6331:
6293:
6230:
6215:
6164:
6106:
6085:
6076:
6028:
5985:
5974:
5956:
5947:
5909:
5886:
5868:
5850:
5817:
5794:
5776:
5758:
5747:
5720:
5685:
5662:
5644:
5632:
5623:
5601:
5594:
5560:
5534:
5516:
5509:
5282:
5259:
5236:
5186:
5155:
5115:
5086:
5057:
5045:
4952:
4916:
4877:
4848:
4824:
4811:
4740:
4712:
4688:
4647:
4617:
4580:
4567:
4537:
4510:
4490:
4428:
4406:
4360:
4330:
4315:
4284:
4235:
4220:
4019:Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008).
1972:per nucleus. During sexual reproduction there is a
1694:, and if they possess a net-like structure it is a
4002:Fungal Biology: Understanding the Fungal Lifestyle
3819:Pharmacological Research – Modern Chinese Medicine
2098:, but this hypothesis was disproven in the 1950s.
857:. It is roughly equivalent to the previous taxon,
804:The mycelium of ascomycetes is usually made up of
1425:, an abundant structural protein in animals, and
6711:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms
3813:Abdullah, Salik; Kumar, Abhinandan (June 2023).
2951:is added to a pulp of soaked soya beans to make
2540:cause brown rot of stone fruit such as peaches (
2482:), and virtually eliminated the once-widespread
2127:, which may contain millions of fertile hyphae.
1891:, i.e., an exchange of genetic material between
1877:formation and results in an increased number of
790:in the Ascomycota, distributed among 352 genera.
3847:Rohit; Patra, Jayanta Kumar (8 February 2021).
3615:
3613:
3447:Transactions of the British Mycological Society
1947:, which contains the sexual spores produced by
1206:The "candlesnuff fungus" in its asexual state,
3363:Krajicek BJ, Thomas CF Jr, Limper AH (2009). "
2916:play a role in the manufacture of the cheeses
2476:is responsible for attacking Sweet Chestnuts (
2203:hyphae, which restarts the fungal life cycle.
589:Several species of ascomycetes are biological
6410:
5363:
4073:
2769:The most famous case may be that of the mold
889:. It also contains microscopic fungi such as
820:structures with a crystalline protein matrix.
769:is used to produce the antibiotic penicillin.
8:
1121:) or as cushion-shaped masses (described as
910:comprise most of the "true" yeasts, such as
716:which is extruded from within the old wall.
2636:, and is also blamed for "yeast allergies".
2564:attack and spoil foodstuffs – for instance
2090:. A similar sexual cycle is present in the
1869:. The merging of nuclei is not followed by
1339:, and divisions within the hyphae, called "
1012:, which included all sac fungi that formed
941:) analyses. The taxon was originally named
7185:
6729:
6667:
6439:
6435:
6417:
6403:
6395:
6227:
6082:
5982:
5953:
5755:
5641:
5629:
5598:
5540:
5513:
5370:
5356:
5348:
5233:
5063:
5054:
5042:
4949:
4913:
4883:
4830:
4821:
4808:
4694:
4623:
4577:
4564:
4547:
4534:
4507:
4487:
4483:
4412:
4370:
4327:
4323:
4294:
4232:
4228:
4217:
4213:
4080:
4066:
4058:
4040:The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
1163:or as budding single cells (yeasts). Many
1063:(mitospores) were previously described as
112:
31:
3933:
3923:
3874:
3864:
3830:
3647:
3637:
3540:
3183:
3086:
1464:. In common with many basidiomycetes and
1347:in case of local damage to cell wall and
847:(fruiting bodies), except for one genus,
2459:, caused by the closely related species
776:associations with algae to form lichens.
702:
651:
372:. Its members are commonly known as the
3050:
2800:, which, as well as being given during
2796:can hardly be exaggerated. It excretes
2614:Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
2374:the fungal symbiont produces poisonous
1588:. Depending on the species they may be
593:in laboratory research. Most famously,
538:and several tens of species that cause
457:(loosely termed "ascolichens") such as
5338:denotes groups with over 1,000 species
3604:
3592:
3351:Alexopoulos, Mims & Blackwell 1996
3339:Alexopoulos, Mims & Blackwell 1996
2886:, during which process sugars such as
2616:, which often occurs in patients with
1690:, like the rungs of a ladder, it is a
1075:(or "Fungi Imperfecti"). Where recent
1059:species. Those anamorphs that produce
409: 'sac, wineskin'), a microscopic
2382:and deter or kill insect herbivores.
2350:with metabolic energy in the form of
2060:, and merges with a gametangium (the
1958:Apart from a few exceptions, such as
1662:; conidiogenesis is blastic-phialidic
1644:; conidiogenesis is blastic-phialidic
1048:, which are in the Taphrinomycotina.
1004:, which included all species forming
7:
7380:7779fd79-e0d0-4f73-90fe-de1892b2e1a0
4023:(10th ed.). Wallingford: CABI.
2386:Symbiotic relationships with animals
1640:Conidiophores of molds of the genus
3523:Mello A, Murat, Bonfante P (2006).
1826:Dehiscence happens in two ways. In
1773:, which remain constant in length),
1523:Distribution and living environment
977:), and the mammalian lung parasite
4004:. Guildford, UK: Bios Scientific.
3124:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x
2551:Members of the Ascomycota such as
2054:emerges from one gametangium, the
1531:. Spores and hyphal fragments are
621:Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes
25:
3404:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology
2416:species, they may be cultivated.
2390:Several ascomycetes of the genus
2105:Unitunicate-inoperculate Asci of
1592:by wind or water, or by animals.
833:that are described and accepted:
3542:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00252.x
2333:Mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes
2112:From the fertilized ascogonium,
2036:adaptive function of mating type
1968:, i.e., they contain one set of
1935:with eight two-celled Ascospores
1840:Heterokaryosis and parasexuality
1084:species names, as, for example,
134:
3166:Lutzoni F; et al. (2004).
2527:is responsible for the disease
1500:, and small arthropods such as
4817:
4813:
4573:
4569:
2324:, and mountaintops. While the
731:Characteristics of ascomycetes
486:similarities to ascus-bearing
1:
4038:Taylor EL, Taylor TN (1993).
4000:Jennings DH, Lysek G (1996).
3620:Wallen RM, Perlin MH (2018).
3459:10.1016/s0007-1536(64)80024-3
2761:Beneficial effects for humans
2710:Paracoccidioides brasiliensis
1714:Conidiogenesis and dehiscence
1109:were those species where the
953:). It includes hyphal fungi (
3925:10.1371/journal.pone.0291363
3028:List of Ascomycota families
2408:, and the fungal gardens of
2190:. The zygote grows into the
1813:), and may take the form of
1279:contains numerous apothecia.
3832:10.1016/j.prmcm.2023.100228
2839:Several species are common
2816:Stilton cheese veined with
2737:are the causative agent of
2531:, which attacks grapevines.
2504:Cochliobolus heterostrophus
2274:Many ascomycetes also form
2263:and larger mammals such as
1171:usually referred to as the
1145:Ophiocordyceps caloceroides
566:. The members of the genus
27:Division or phylum of fungi
7501:
3172:American Journal of Botany
3079:10.3852/mycologia.97.1.269
3036:List of Ascomycota genera
2786:The medical importance of
2602:Human disease interactions
2594:
2560:Blue-green, red and brown
2448:Plant disease interactions
2285:
2032:vegetative incompatibility
2002:Formation of sexual spores
1318:, and excessive growth of
463:belong to the Ascomycota.
395:
6666:
6438:
6434:
6429:phyla/divisions by domain
6381:
5543:
5393:
5314:
5066:
5041:
4886:
4833:
4807:
4697:
4626:
4563:
4550:
4533:
4486:
4482:
4415:
4373:
4326:
4297:
4231:
4216:
4212:
4096:
3866:10.3389/fphar.2020.602364
3853:Frontiers in Pharmacology
3784:10.1007/s00114-009-0630-x
3737:10.1017/S095375620500273X
3685:10.1017/s0269915x05003058
3529:FEMS Microbiology Letters
3424:10.1016/j.jip.2005.08.004
3381:10.1016/j.ccm.2009.02.005
3369:Clinics in Chest Medicine
3300:10.1007/s13225-015-0339-4
2852:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
2719:are the causal agents of
609:species are used in many
200:
196:Subdivisions and classes
195:
131:Scientific classification
129:
120:
111:
34:
4543:
4539:
3639:10.3389/fmicb.2018.00503
3566:"Basic Biology of Fungi"
2871:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
2846:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
2702:Blastomyces dermatitidis
2473:Cryphonectria parasitica
1555:(Southern Beech) in the
1197:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
933:include a disparate and
364:that, together with the
6639:Thermodesulfobacteriota
6270:Cryptomycocolacomycetes
6063:Sporopachydermiomycetes
5878:Calcarisporiellomycetes
4021:Dictionary of the Fungi
3564:Cole, Garry T. (1996).
3494:10.1126/science.1173645
2772:Penicillium chrysogenum
2716:Paracoccidioides lutzii
2597:Cyclaneusma needle cast
2107:Hypomyces chrysospermus
1964:, most ascomycetes are
1626:Trichoderma aggressivum
1432:Aureobasidium pullulans
1381:organisms that require
578:biological pest control
368:, forms the subkingdom
5920:Palaeovesiarbusmycetes
5870:Calcarisporiellomycota
5837:Ramicandelaberomycetes
5654:Neocallimastigomycetes
3185:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1446
2988:Hypomyces lactifluorum
2927:Penicillium roqueforti
2913:Penicillium camemberti
2894:are fermented to make
2843:in biology, including
2820:
2818:Penicillium roqueforti
2734:Coccidioides posadasii
2721:paracoccidioidomycosis
2694:Histoplasma capsulatum
2648:Pneumocystis jirovecii
2573:Cereals infected with
2554:Stachybotrys chartarum
2441:Scolytus multistriatus
2396:colonize the nests of
2300:), and other types of
2253:and slugs and snails (
2183:
2109:
1936:
1893:homologous chromosomes
1679:
1663:
1645:
1629:
1628:, diameter approx. 3μm
1519:
1280:
1212:
1156:
1148:
1137:A member of the genus
723:
707:
656:
574:entomopathogenic fungi
38:Temporal range: Early
7401:Paleobiology Database
6867:Neocallimastigomycota
6387:(polyphyletic group).
6015:Schizosaccharomycetes
5677:Monoblepharidomycetes
5646:Neocallimastigomycota
3964:Introductory Mycology
3258:McCoy, Peter (2016).
2815:
2802:Organ transplantation
2751:Penicillium marneffei
2746:Talaromyces marneffei
2609:Aspergillus fumigatus
2595:Further information:
2544:) and sour cherries (
2470:The originally Asian
2222:. They are important
2210:for further details.
2177:
2104:
1951:and which are called
1930:
1783:blastic-retrogressive
1673:
1659:Trichoderma harzianum
1655:
1639:
1623:
1514:
1400:mutualistic symbionts
1274:
1205:
1155:Ascomycete life cycle
1154:
1136:
1065:mitosporic Ascomycota
825:Modern classification
722:
706:
688:in plant tissue. The
655:
599:, several species of
522:Many ascomycetes are
337:Schizosaccharomycetes
6532:Coprothermobacterota
6303:Peribolosporomycetes
6250:Agaricostilbomycetes
6136:Collemopsidiomycetes
6010:Pneumocystidomycetes
5809:Entomophthoromycetes
5672:Hyaloraphidiomycetes
5553:Paramicrosporidiales
3725:Mycological Research
3570:Medical Microbiology
3322:"Caterpillar Fungus"
2834:human growth hormone
2789:Tolypocladium niveum
2728:Coccidioides immitis
2675:Saint Anthony's Fire
2587:(DON), which causes
2576:Fusarium graminearum
2567:Penicillium italicum
2465:Ophiostoma novo-ulmi
1988:repairing DNA damage
1568:Asexual reproduction
1438:Amorphotheca resinae
1087:Aspergillus nidulans
988:Outdated taxon names
546:ascomycetes include
332:Pneumocystidomycetes
123:Sarcoscypha coccinea
6280:Spiculogloeomycetes
6255:Cystobasidiomycetes
6068:Trigonopsidomycetes
6038:Alloascoideomycetes
5995:Archaeorhizomycetes
5930:Archaeosporomycetes
5796:Entomophthoromycota
5735:Blastocladiomycetes
5730:Physodermatomycetes
5696:Caulochytriomycetes
5536:Microsporidiomycota
5215:Gunflint microbiota
4976:Klebsormidiophyceae
4760:Hyphochytriomycetes
3981:Deacon, J. (2005).
3916:2023PLoSO..1891363Z
3776:2010NW.....97..219M
3764:Naturwissenschaften
3486:2009Sci...324.1521L
3416:2005JInvP..90...98J
3229:10.1038/nature05110
3221:2006Natur.443..818J
3001:, cordycepic acid,
2994:Cordyceps militaris
2826:genetic engineering
2777:Penicillium notatum
2589:Fusarium ear blight
2402:fungus-growing ants
2086:and is followed by
2068:—the mixing of the
1994:that occurs during
1923:Sexual reproduction
1749:blastic-synchronous
1676:Trichoderma fertile
1557:Southern Hemisphere
1516:Hypomyces completus
1092:Emericella nidulans
974:Schizosaccharomyces
971:), fission yeasts (
517:infectious diseases
453:in the majority of
413:in which nonmotile
6862:Blastocladiomycota
6356:Bartheletiomycetes
6308:Monilielliomycetes
6295:Ustilaginomycotina
6275:Atractiellomycetes
6260:Microbotryomycetes
6240:Tritirachiomycetes
6189:Laboulbeniomycetes
5925:Paraglomeromycetes
5860:Mortierellomycetes
5832:Dimargaritomycetes
5786:Basidiobolomycetes
5722:Blastocladiomycota
5664:Monoblepharomycota
4986:Coleochaetophyceae
4366:
4362:
4290:
4286:
3353:, pp. 218–222
3264:. Chthaeus Press.
3112:Biological Reviews
2948:Aspergillus oryzae
2874:) is used to make
2821:
2806:multiple sclerosis
2749:, formerly called
2739:coccidioidomycosis
2682:Aspergillus flavus
2663:Claviceps purpurea
2512:Taphrina deformans
2184:
2110:
1937:
1761:blastic-annellidic
1680:
1664:
1646:
1630:
1609:), it is called a
1520:
1281:
1275:The ascocarp of a
1213:
1157:
1149:
1077:molecular analyses
1055:and are therefore
887:caterpillar fungus
724:
708:
669:E.g. In the order
657:
443:dead man's fingers
278:"Unplaced orders"
234:Laboulbeniomycetes
7462:
7461:
7388:Open Tree of Life
7191:Taxon identifiers
7182:
7181:
7178:
7177:
7156:
7155:
6719:
6718:
6662:
6661:
6654:Verrucomicrobiota
6392:
6391:
6377:
6376:
6373:
6372:
6369:
6368:
6323:Exobasidiomycetes
6318:Ustilaginomycetes
6313:Malasseziomycetes
6265:Classiculomycetes
6211:
6210:
6207:
6206:
6156:Xylobotryomycetes
6116:Candelariomycetes
5966:Entorrhizomycetes
5943:
5942:
5852:Mortierellomycota
5778:Basidiobolomycota
5743:
5742:
5707:Sanchytriomycetes
5619:
5618:
5590:
5589:
5586:
5585:
5345:
5344:
5310:
5309:
5246:Spironematellidae
5227:Meteora sporadica
5182:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5111:
5110:
5037:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5029:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5013:
5012:
5009:
5008:
4937:Prasinodermophyta
4873:
4872:
4803:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4787:
4786:
4684:
4683:
4520:Centroplasthelida
4478:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4356:
4355:
4280:
4279:
4042:. Prentice Hall.
4030:978-0-85199-826-8
4011:978-1-85996-150-6
3579:978-0-9631172-1-2
3480:(5934): 1521–22.
3328:on 12 March 2007.
2924:, while those of
2858:Neurospora crassa
2484:American Chestnut
2457:Dutch elm disease
2430:Dutch elm disease
2370:; in the case of
2366:(nematodes), and
2345:. Mycorrhiza are
2041:Neurospora crassa
2010:. In the case of
1979:Neurospora crassa
1884:Mitotic crossover
1767:blastic-phialidic
1755:blastic-sympodial
1743:blastic-acropetal
1684:
1683:
1674:Conidiophores of
1656:Conidiophores of
1624:Conidiospores of
1549:is only found on
1518:on culture medium
1474:carnivorous fungi
1391:digestive enzymes
1383:organic compounds
1260:and almost never
1227:species, such as
1209:Xylaria hypoxylon
1069:artificial phylum
968:Archaeorhizomyces
950:Archaeascomycetes
633:Conidia formation
596:Neurospora crassa
535:Aspergillus niger
505:, as well as for
351:
350:
322:Archaeorhizomyces
191:
16:(Redirected from
7492:
7455:
7454:
7442:
7441:
7432:
7431:
7419:
7418:
7409:
7408:
7396:
7395:
7383:
7382:
7373:
7372:
7360:
7359:
7347:
7346:
7334:
7333:
7321:
7320:
7308:
7307:
7295:
7294:
7282:
7281:
7269:
7268:
7256:
7255:
7246:
7245:
7233:
7232:
7231:
7218:
7217:
7216:
7186:
6930:Anthocerotophyta
6809:Hemimastigophora
6730:
6701:Nitrososphaerota
6668:
6644:Thermomicrobiota
6584:Kiritimatiellota
6579:Ignavibacteriota
6544:Deferribacterota
6507:Campylobacterota
6492:Bdellovibrionota
6440:
6436:
6419:
6412:
6405:
6396:
6385:fungi imperfecti
6232:Pucciniomycotina
6228:
6179:Geoglossomycetes
6121:Coniocybomycetes
6083:
6043:Dipodascomycetes
6030:Saccharomycotina
5987:Taphrinomycotina
5983:
5958:Entorrhizomycota
5954:
5842:Kickxellomycetes
5804:Neozygitomycetes
5756:
5712:Chytridiomycetes
5642:
5630:
5599:
5541:
5514:
5422:
5402:
5385:classification,
5372:
5365:
5358:
5349:
5292:Collodictyonidae
5238:Hemimastigophora
5234:
5193:
5064:
5055:
5051:
5043:
4992:Zygnematophyceae
4950:
4930:
4914:
4884:
4831:
4822:
4818:
4809:
4695:
4624:
4578:
4574:
4565:
4548:
4544:
4535:
4508:
4495:
4488:
4484:
4438:Choanoflagellata
4413:
4371:
4367:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4295:
4291:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4218:
4214:
4125:
4105:
4082:
4075:
4068:
4059:
4053:
4034:
4015:
3996:
3977:
3948:
3947:
3937:
3927:
3895:
3889:
3888:
3878:
3868:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3703:MicroscopeMaster
3695:
3689:
3688:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3651:
3641:
3617:
3608:
3607:, pp. 167–8
3602:
3596:
3595:, pp. 164–6
3590:
3584:
3583:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3544:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3336:
3330:
3329:
3324:. Archived from
3318:
3312:
3311:
3288:Fungal Diversity
3282:
3276:
3275:
3261:Radical Mycology
3255:
3249:
3248:
3215:(7113): 818–22.
3204:
3198:
3197:
3187:
3163:
3157:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3090:
3064:
3055:
2984:lobster mushroom
2930:do the same for
2794:immunosuppressor
2629:Candida albicans
2524:Uncinula necator
2488:Castanea dentata
2372:grass endophytes
2326:photoautotrophic
2168:mitotic spindles
2038:is discussed in
1961:Candida albicans
1917:Parasexual cycle
1913:Candida albicans
1909:Candida albicans
1901:nuclear division
1799:thallic-solitary
1616:
1409:to digest plant
1230:Candida albicans
1187:(also called an
1034:Taphrinomycotina
1030:Saccharomycotina
944:Archiascomycetes
930:Taphrinomycotina
907:Saccharomycotina
855:Taphrinomycotina
829:There are three
544:plant-pathogenic
529:Candida albicans
466:Ascomycota is a
411:sexual structure
406:
399:
317:Taphrinomycotina
305:Saccharomycotina
229:Geoglossomycetes
214:Coniocybomycetes
181:
139:
138:
116:
106:
32:
21:
7500:
7499:
7495:
7494:
7493:
7491:
7490:
7489:
7465:
7464:
7463:
7458:
7450:
7445:
7437:
7435:
7427:
7422:
7414:
7412:
7404:
7399:
7391:
7386:
7378:
7376:
7368:
7363:
7355:
7350:
7342:
7337:
7329:
7324:
7316:
7311:
7303:
7298:
7290:
7285:
7277:
7272:
7264:
7259:
7251:
7249:
7241:
7236:
7227:
7226:
7221:
7212:
7211:
7206:
7193:
7183:
7174:
7152:
7103:Gnathostomulida
7008:Xenacoelomorpha
6974:
6970:Flowering plant
6925:Marchantiophyta
6891:
6857:Chytridiomycota
6843:
6715:
6658:
6614:Planctomycetota
6574:Gemmatimonadota
6559:Elusimicrobiota
6452:Acidobacteriota
6430:
6423:
6393:
6388:
6365:
6361:Tremellomycetes
6351:Wallemiomycetes
6333:Agaricomycotina
6327:
6289:
6285:Pucciniomycetes
6219:
6203:
6199:Sordariomycetes
6160:
6151:Lecanoromycetes
6141:Dothideomycetes
6131:Arthoniomycetes
6102:
6072:
6058:Saccharomycetes
6024:
6020:Taphrinomycetes
6000:Neolectomycetes
5978:
5970:
5939:
5905:
5896:Endogonomycetes
5882:
5864:
5846:
5819:Kickxellomycota
5813:
5790:
5772:
5751:
5739:
5716:
5687:Chytridiomycota
5681:
5658:
5637:
5615:
5603:Aphelidiomycota
5595:Aphelidiomyceta
5582:
5573:Metchnikovellea
5568:Chytridiopsidea
5556:
5547:Morellosporales
5530:
5505:
5504:
5420:
5398:
5389:
5376:
5346:
5341:
5306:
5278:
5269:Ancyromonadidae
5255:
5232:
5187:
5174:
5165:Malawimonadidae
5151:
5107:
5082:
5046:
5005:
4948:
4921:
4920:
4912:
4869:
4844:
4812:
4783:
4736:
4708:
4680:
4643:
4613:
4568:
4559:
4538:
4529:
4506:
4491:
4450:
4424:
4402:
4361:
4352:
4316:
4311:
4285:
4276:
4221:
4208:
4207:
4123:
4101:
4092:
4086:
4056:
4050:
4037:
4031:
4018:
4012:
3999:
3993:
3980:
3974:
3961:
3957:
3952:
3951:
3910:(9): e0291363.
3897:
3896:
3892:
3845:
3844:
3840:
3812:
3811:
3807:
3757:
3756:
3752:
3722:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3705:
3697:
3696:
3692:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3626:Front Microbiol
3619:
3618:
3611:
3603:
3599:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3401:
3400:
3396:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3349:
3345:
3337:
3333:
3320:
3319:
3315:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3178:(10): 1446–80.
3165:
3164:
3160:
3151:
3147:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3062:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3047:
3024:
3007:polysaccharides
2868:Baker's Yeast (
2841:model organisms
2763:
2741:(valley fever).
2618:Cystic fibrosis
2604:
2599:
2479:Castanea sativa
2461:Ophiostoma ulmi
2450:
2435:Ophiostoma ulmi
2398:leafcutter ants
2388:
2335:
2290:
2284:
2216:
2004:
1933:Hypocrea virens
1925:
1842:
1789:thallic-arthric
1716:
1598:
1570:
1565:
1525:
1375:
1131:
1026:Hemiascomycetes
998:fruiting bodies
990:
922:Hemiascomycetes
891:powdery mildews
869:, ascolichens,
827:
733:
713:
635:
623:
591:model organisms
564:powdery mildews
540:skin infections
360:of the kingdom
342:Taphrinomycetes
327:Neolectomycetes
310:Saccharomycetes
289:Itchiclahmadion
269:Sordariomycetes
254:Omnivoromycetes
239:Lecanoromycetes
219:Dothideomycetes
209:Arthoniomycetes
180:
133:
107:
105:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
43:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7498:
7496:
7488:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7467:
7466:
7460:
7459:
7457:
7456:
7443:
7433:
7420:
7410:
7397:
7384:
7374:
7361:
7348:
7335:
7322:
7309:
7296:
7283:
7270:
7257:
7247:
7234:
7219:
7203:
7201:
7195:
7194:
7189:
7180:
7179:
7176:
7175:
7168:
7166:
7163:Incertae sedis
7158:
7157:
7154:
7153:
7151:
7150:
7145:
7140:
7135:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7108:Micrognathozoa
7105:
7100:
7098:Acanthocephala
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7020:
7015:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6984:
6982:
6976:
6975:
6973:
6972:
6967:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6940:Lycopodiophyta
6937:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6912:
6907:
6901:
6899:
6893:
6892:
6890:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6853:
6851:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6801:
6796:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6771:
6766:
6761:
6756:
6754:Ancyromonadida
6751:
6746:
6740:
6738:
6727:
6721:
6720:
6717:
6716:
6714:
6713:
6708:
6706:Thermoproteota
6703:
6698:
6691:
6684:
6676:
6674:
6664:
6663:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6656:
6651:
6646:
6641:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6619:Pseudomonadota
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6594:Mycoplasmatota
6591:
6589:Lentisphaerota
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6569:Fusobacteriota
6566:
6564:Fibrobacterota
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6534:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6467:Armatimonadota
6464:
6459:
6457:Actinomycetota
6454:
6448:
6446:
6432:
6431:
6424:
6422:
6421:
6414:
6407:
6399:
6390:
6389:
6382:
6379:
6378:
6375:
6374:
6371:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6348:
6346:Agaricomycetes
6343:
6341:Dacrymycetales
6337:
6335:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6299:
6297:
6291:
6290:
6288:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6236:
6234:
6225:
6213:
6212:
6209:
6208:
6205:
6204:
6202:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6170:
6168:
6166:Sordariomyceta
6162:
6161:
6159:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6146:Eurotiomycetes
6143:
6138:
6133:
6128:
6126:Lichinomycetes
6123:
6118:
6112:
6110:
6108:Dothideomyceta
6104:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6095:
6093:Orbiliomycetes
6089:
6087:
6080:
6078:Pezizomycotina
6074:
6073:
6071:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6034:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5991:
5989:
5980:
5972:
5971:
5969:
5968:
5962:
5960:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5937:
5935:Glomeromycetes
5932:
5927:
5922:
5915:
5913:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5903:
5898:
5892:
5890:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5880:
5874:
5872:
5866:
5865:
5863:
5862:
5856:
5854:
5848:
5847:
5845:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5827:Zoopagomycetes
5823:
5821:
5815:
5814:
5812:
5811:
5806:
5800:
5798:
5792:
5791:
5789:
5788:
5782:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5771:
5770:
5768:Olpidiomycetes
5764:
5762:
5753:
5752:(paraphyletic)
5745:
5744:
5741:
5740:
5738:
5737:
5732:
5726:
5724:
5718:
5717:
5715:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5698:
5691:
5689:
5683:
5682:
5680:
5679:
5674:
5668:
5666:
5660:
5659:
5657:
5656:
5650:
5648:
5639:
5638:(paraphyletic)
5627:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5613:
5607:
5605:
5596:
5592:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5584:
5583:
5581:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5564:
5562:
5558:
5557:
5555:
5554:
5551:
5550:Nucleophagales
5548:
5544:
5538:
5532:
5531:
5529:
5528:
5526:Rozellomycetes
5522:
5520:
5511:
5507:
5506:
5503:
5502:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5498:
5495:Mesomycetozoea
5492:
5487:
5477:
5467:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5444:
5443:
5431:Diaphoretickes
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5395:
5394:
5391:
5390:
5377:
5375:
5374:
5367:
5360:
5352:
5343:
5342:
5340:
5339:
5333:
5326:
5322:excluded from
5315:
5312:
5311:
5308:
5307:
5305:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5288:
5286:
5280:
5279:
5277:
5276:
5274:Planomonadidae
5271:
5265:
5263:
5261:Ancyromonadida
5257:
5256:
5254:
5253:
5251:Paramastigidae
5248:
5242:
5240:
5231:
5230:
5223:
5217:
5211:
5203:
5196:
5194:
5190:Incertae sedis
5184:
5183:
5180:
5179:
5176:
5175:
5173:
5172:
5167:
5161:
5159:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5121:
5119:
5113:
5112:
5109:
5108:
5106:
5105:
5098:
5092:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5081:
5080:
5073:
5067:
5061:
5052:
5039:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5023:
5022:
5019:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5011:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5004:
5003:
4995:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4966:
4958:
4956:
4947:
4946:
4939:
4933:
4931:
4911:
4910:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4887:
4881:
4879:Archaeplastida
4875:
4874:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4867:
4862:
4854:
4852:
4846:
4845:
4843:
4842:
4834:
4828:
4819:
4805:
4804:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4789:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4769:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4746:
4744:
4738:
4737:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4718:
4716:
4710:
4709:
4707:
4706:
4698:
4692:
4686:
4685:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4678:
4673:
4670:Dinoflagellata
4666:
4664:Chrompodellida
4661:
4653:
4651:
4645:
4644:
4642:
4641:
4634:
4627:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4612:
4611:
4604:
4597:
4592:
4586:
4584:
4575:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4551:
4545:
4531:
4530:
4528:
4527:
4522:
4516:
4514:
4505:
4504:
4498:
4496:
4493:Diaphoretickes
4480:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4464:
4463:
4460:
4459:
4456:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4449:
4448:
4440:
4434:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4416:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4382:
4374:
4368:
4358:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4342:
4336:
4334:
4321:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4298:
4292:
4282:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4275:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4252:
4247:
4241:
4239:
4226:
4210:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4198:Mesomycetozoea
4195:
4190:
4180:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4147:
4146:
4134:Diaphoretickes
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4098:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4091:classification
4087:
4085:
4084:
4077:
4070:
4062:
4055:
4054:
4048:
4035:
4029:
4016:
4010:
3997:
3991:
3983:Fungal Biology
3978:
3972:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3890:
3838:
3805:
3770:(2): 219–227.
3750:
3715:
3690:
3679:(3): 129–131.
3663:
3609:
3597:
3585:
3578:
3556:
3515:
3464:
3453:(7): 467–475.
3437:
3394:
3355:
3343:
3331:
3313:
3277:
3270:
3250:
3199:
3158:
3145:
3118:(3): 203–266.
3102:
3073:(1): 269–285.
3049:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3038:incertae sedis
3033:
3030:incertae sedis
3023:
3020:
3019:
3018:
2991:
2972:Morchella spp.
2964:
2943:
2908:
2904:sparkling wine
2900:carbon dioxide
2866:
2837:
2810:
2809:
2784:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2742:
2724:
2706:
2698:
2690:
2678:
2656:
2642:Epidermophyton
2637:
2625:
2603:
2600:
2593:
2592:
2585:deoxynivalenol
2571:
2558:
2549:
2546:Prunus ceranus
2542:Prunus persica
2532:
2529:powdery mildew
2520:
2508:
2491:
2468:
2449:
2446:
2387:
2384:
2352:photosynthetic
2334:
2331:
2286:Main article:
2283:
2280:
2215:
2212:
2178:Diagram of an
2160:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2003:
2000:
1945:meiosporangium
1924:
1921:
1871:meiotic events
1846:heterokaryosis
1841:
1838:
1807:
1806:
1796:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1746:
1720:conidiogenesis
1715:
1712:
1682:
1681:
1666:
1665:
1648:
1647:
1632:
1631:
1597:
1596:Asexual spores
1594:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1541:Tuber magnatum
1524:
1521:
1462:photosynthesis
1450:Laboulbeniales
1443:osmotic stress
1374:
1371:
1258:Mucoromycotina
1193:Laboulbeniales
1167:hyphae form a
1165:interconnected
1140:Ophiocordyceps
1130:
1127:
1042:Pezizomycotina
989:
986:
985:
984:
925:
902:
899:Laboulbeniales
840:Pezizomycotina
826:
823:
822:
821:
817:Woronin bodies
813:
809:
806:septate hyphae
802:
791:
784:
782:
777:
775:
770:
763:
760:
757:
754:
752:
747:
744:
737:
732:
729:
712:
709:
699:
693:
683:
665:
648:
644:
634:
631:
622:
619:
349:
348:
347:
346:
345:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
314:
313:
312:
302:
301:
300:
299:
298:
297:
296:
291:
286:
276:
271:
266:
261:
259:Orbiliomycetes
256:
251:
249:Lichinomycetes
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
224:Eurotiomycetes
221:
216:
211:
204:Pezizomycotina
198:
197:
193:
192:
175:
171:
170:
165:
161:
160:
155:
151:
150:
145:
141:
140:
127:
126:
118:
117:
109:
108:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
44:
37:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7497:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7472:
7470:
7453:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7434:
7430:
7425:
7421:
7417:
7411:
7407:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7375:
7371:
7366:
7362:
7358:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7301:
7297:
7293:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7262:
7258:
7254:
7248:
7244:
7239:
7235:
7230:
7224:
7220:
7215:
7209:
7205:
7204:
7202:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7187:
7173:
7172:
7167:
7165:
7164:
7159:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6985:
6983:
6981:
6977:
6971:
6968:
6966:
6963:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6902:
6900:
6898:
6894:
6888:
6887:Basidiomycota
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6872:Glomeromycota
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6854:
6852:
6850:
6846:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6834:Stramenopiles
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6775:
6772:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6759:Apusomonadida
6757:
6755:
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6739:
6736:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6696:
6695:Nanoarchaeota
6692:
6689:
6685:
6682:
6681:Euryarchaeota
6678:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6640:
6637:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6629:Spirochaetota
6627:
6625:
6624:Rhodothermota
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6554:Dictyoglomota
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6539:
6538:Cyanobacteria
6535:
6533:
6530:
6528:
6527:Chrysiogenota
6525:
6523:
6522:Chloroflexota
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6502:Calditrichota
6500:
6498:
6497:Caldisericota
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6472:Atribacterota
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6449:
6447:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6428:
6420:
6415:
6413:
6408:
6406:
6401:
6400:
6397:
6386:
6380:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6334:
6330:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6300:
6298:
6296:
6292:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6233:
6229:
6226:
6223:
6218:
6217:Basidiomycota
6214:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6184:Leotiomycetes
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6174:Xylonomycetes
6172:
6171:
6169:
6167:
6163:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6105:
6099:
6098:Pezizomycetes
6096:
6094:
6091:
6090:
6088:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6075:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6053:Pichiomycetes
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6035:
6033:
6031:
6027:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6005:Novakomycetes
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5988:
5984:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5967:
5964:
5963:
5961:
5959:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5946:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5912:
5911:Glomeromycota
5908:
5902:
5901:Mucoromycetes
5899:
5897:
5894:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5885:
5879:
5876:
5875:
5873:
5871:
5867:
5861:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5853:
5849:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5822:
5820:
5816:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5797:
5793:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5779:
5775:
5769:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5761:
5760:Olpidiomycota
5757:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5723:
5719:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5699:
5697:
5693:
5692:
5690:
5688:
5684:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5669:
5667:
5665:
5661:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5647:
5643:
5640:
5635:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5622:
5612:
5609:
5608:
5606:
5604:
5600:
5597:
5593:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5563:
5561:Microsporidia
5559:
5552:
5549:
5546:
5545:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5533:
5527:
5524:
5523:
5521:
5519:
5518:Rozellomycota
5515:
5512:
5510:Rozellomyceta
5508:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5482:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5472:
5471:
5468:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5458:Stramenopiles
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5442:
5439:
5438:
5437:
5434:
5433:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5421:(major groups
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5401:
5397:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5387:fungal orders
5384:
5380:
5373:
5368:
5366:
5361:
5359:
5354:
5353:
5350:
5337:
5334:
5331:
5327:
5325:
5321:
5318:¹traditional
5317:
5316:
5313:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5297:Mantamonadida
5295:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5281:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5266:
5264:
5262:
5258:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5243:
5241:
5239:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5216:
5212:
5210:
5209:
5204:
5202:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5185:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5158:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5127:
5123:
5122:
5120:
5118:
5114:
5104:
5103:
5099:
5097:
5096:Heterolobosea
5094:
5093:
5091:
5089:
5088:Discicristata
5085:
5079:
5078:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5056:
5053:
5049:
5044:
5040:
5001:
5000:
4996:
4994:
4993:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4971:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4945:
4944:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4928:
4927:
4919:
4918:Viridiplantae
4915:
4909:
4908:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4876:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4860:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4847:
4841:
4840:
4839:Microheliella
4836:
4835:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4823:
4820:
4816:
4810:
4806:
4780:
4779:Actinophryida
4777:
4775:
4774:
4770:
4768:
4767:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4715:
4711:
4705:
4704:
4700:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4690:Stramenopiles
4687:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4671:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4659:
4655:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4646:
4640:
4639:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4616:
4610:
4609:
4605:
4603:
4602:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4576:
4572:
4566:
4562:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4542:
4536:
4532:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4446:
4445:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4427:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4405:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4393:Ichthyosporea
4391:
4389:
4388:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4365:
4359:
4348:
4347:
4343:
4341:
4340:Rotosphaerida
4338:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4322:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4302:Apusomonadida
4300:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4289:
4283:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4257:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4227:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4161:Stramenopiles
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4124:(major groups
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4100:
4099:
4095:
4090:
4083:
4078:
4076:
4071:
4069:
4064:
4063:
4060:
4051:
4049:0-13-651589-4
4045:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4003:
3998:
3994:
3992:1-4051-3066-0
3988:
3985:. Blackwell.
3984:
3979:
3975:
3973:0-471-52229-5
3969:
3965:
3960:
3959:
3954:
3945:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3894:
3891:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3842:
3839:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3809:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3751:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3731:(6): 661–86.
3730:
3726:
3719:
3716:
3704:
3700:
3694:
3691:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3589:
3586:
3581:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3557:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3468:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3441:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3410:(2): 98–103.
3409:
3405:
3398:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3375:(2): 265–89.
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3344:
3341:, p. 233
3340:
3335:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3317:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3281:
3278:
3273:
3271:9780986399602
3267:
3263:
3262:
3254:
3251:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3159:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3054:
3051:
3044:
3040:
3039:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2819:
2814:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2760:
2756:
2755:talaromycosis
2752:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2570:rots oranges.
2569:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2493:A disease of
2492:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2415:
2414:Basidiomycota
2411:
2407:
2404:of the tribe
2403:
2399:
2395:
2394:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2341:fungi and as
2340:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2306:cyanobacteria
2303:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2144:Cleistothecia
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2097:
2096:brachymeiosis
2093:
2089:
2085:
2084:recombination
2081:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2034:systems. The
2033:
2029:
2025:
2024:
2023:heterothallic
2020:, whereas in
2019:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1992:recombination
1989:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1889:recombination
1886:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1793:arthroconidia
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1708:scolecospores
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1654:
1650:
1649:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1633:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1586:conidiophores
1583:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1484:, as well as
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1466:Glomeromycota
1463:
1459:
1458:cyanobacteria
1455:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1379:heterotrophic
1372:
1370:
1368:
1367:multinucleate
1365:hyphae), but
1364:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1349:cell membrane
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1262:Basidiomycota
1259:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1223:colony. Some
1222:
1218:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1153:
1146:
1142:
1141:
1135:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:conidiophores
1108:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1073:Deuteromycota
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1038:Euascomycetes
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1022:cleistothecia
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:Pyrenomycetes
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
987:
982:
981:
976:
975:
970:
969:
964:
963:
958:
957:
952:
951:
946:
945:
940:
936:
932:
931:
926:
923:
919:
918:
913:
912:baker's yeast
909:
908:
903:
900:
896:
895:dermatophytic
892:
888:
884:
880:
879:pyrenomycetes
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:Euascomycetes
856:
852:
851:
846:
842:
841:
836:
835:
834:
832:
824:
818:
814:
810:
807:
803:
800:
796:
792:
789:
785:
780:
778:
773:
771:
768:
764:
761:
758:
755:
750:
748:
745:
742:
738:
735:
734:
730:
728:
721:
717:
710:
705:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
687:
682:
679:
675:
672:
667:
664:
661:
654:
650:
646:
643:conidiospores
642:
640:
632:
630:
626:
620:
618:
616:
612:
608:
607:
602:
598:
597:
592:
587:
585:
584:
579:
575:
571:
570:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
536:
531:
530:
525:
520:
518:
514:
513:
508:
504:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
484:physiological
481:
480:morphological
477:
473:
472:Basidiomycota
469:
464:
462:
461:
456:
452:
449:. The fungal
448:
444:
440:
439:bakers' yeast
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
405:
398:
394:
391:
390:Ancient Greek
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
366:Basidiomycota
363:
359:
355:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
319:
318:
315:
311:
308:
307:
306:
303:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
281:
280:
279:
277:
275:
274:Xylonomycetes
272:
270:
267:
265:
264:Pezizomycetes
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
244:Leotiomycetes
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
206:
205:
202:
201:
199:
194:
189:
185:
179:
176:
173:
172:
169:
166:
163:
162:
159:
156:
153:
152:
149:
146:
143:
142:
137:
132:
128:
125:
124:
119:
115:
110:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
41:
33:
30:
19:
7485:Fungus phyla
7198:
7169:
7161:
7083:Orthonectida
7078:Gastrotricha
7053:Nematomorpha
7028:Chaetognatha
7018:Hemichordate
6945:Pteridophyta
6881:
6814:Malawimonada
6688:Korarchaeota
6649:Thermotogota
6634:Synergistota
6609:Nitrospirota
6604:Nitrospinota
6549:Deinococcota
6482:Bacteroidota
6245:Mixiomycetes
6194:Sareomycetes
5975:
5888:Mucoromycota
5702:Coenomycetes
5480:Opisthokonta
5335:
5330:paraphyletic
5225:
5206:
5188:
5157:Malawimonada
5137:Anaeromonada
5132:Anaeramoebae
5124:
5100:
5077:Tsukubamonas
5075:
4997:
4990:
4981:Charophyceae
4968:
4961:
4954:Streptophyta
4941:
4925:
4905:
4901:Rhodelphidia
4859:Palpitomonas
4857:
4837:
4826:Pancryptista
4771:
4764:
4701:
4668:
4656:
4636:
4606:
4601:Foraminifera
4599:
4442:
4385:
4379:Tunicaraptor
4377:
4344:
4318:Opisthokonta
4254:
4183:Opisthokonta
4039:
4020:
4001:
3982:
3963:
3907:
3903:
3893:
3856:
3852:
3841:
3822:
3818:
3808:
3767:
3763:
3753:
3728:
3724:
3718:
3706:. Retrieved
3702:
3693:
3676:
3672:
3666:
3629:
3625:
3600:
3588:
3569:
3559:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3477:
3473:
3467:
3450:
3446:
3440:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3372:
3368:
3365:Pneumocystis
3364:
3358:
3346:
3334:
3326:the original
3316:
3291:
3287:
3280:
3260:
3253:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3175:
3171:
3161:
3153:
3148:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3070:
3066:
3053:
3037:
3029:
3011:beta-glucans
2987:
2979:
2971:
2946:
2925:
2911:
2869:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2817:
2787:
2776:
2770:
2764:
2750:
2744:
2732:
2726:
2714:
2708:
2700:
2692:
2680:
2662:
2646:
2640:
2627:
2607:
2574:
2565:
2552:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2522:
2510:
2502:
2498:
2487:
2477:
2472:
2464:
2460:
2451:
2439:
2433:
2432:, caused by
2423:
2420:Bark beetles
2418:
2391:
2389:
2356:
2336:
2297:
2291:
2273:
2254:
2248:
2244:carbon cycle
2228:detritivores
2217:
2205:
2201:
2185:
2161:
2156:Pseudothecia
2129:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2111:
2106:
2080:dikaryophase
2079:
2073:
2061:
2055:
2046:
2039:
2021:
2011:
2005:
1977:
1959:
1957:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1938:
1932:
1908:
1882:
1881:per nuclei.
1856:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1843:
1831:
1827:
1825:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1803:phragmospore
1802:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1766:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1737:
1731:
1727:
1719:
1717:
1707:
1704:helicospores
1703:
1700:staurospores
1699:
1695:
1692:phragmospore
1691:
1687:
1685:
1675:
1657:
1641:
1625:
1610:
1602:
1599:
1585:
1571:
1563:Reproduction
1550:
1544:
1540:
1526:
1515:
1505:
1489:
1447:
1436:
1430:
1404:
1376:
1360:
1330:
1319:
1294:
1286:Pneumocystis
1284:
1282:
1252:Cladosporium
1250:
1243:Pigmentation
1239:
1228:
1214:
1207:
1196:
1188:
1158:
1144:
1138:
1123:sporodochial
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:Hyphomycetes
1102:
1098:
1096:
1091:
1085:
1050:
1036:, while the
1018:pseudothecia
1002:Discomycetes
994:teleomorphic
991:
980:Pneumocystis
978:
972:
966:
960:
954:
948:
942:
928:
921:
915:
905:
875:discomycetes
858:
848:
838:
828:
788:marine fungi
766:
725:
714:
681:sporodochium
676:
670:
668:
658:
636:
627:
624:
615:cell biology
604:
594:
588:
581:
567:
533:
527:
521:
510:
500:
494:analyses of
492:phylogenetic
468:monophyletic
465:
458:
403:
400:
393:
388:" (from
377:
373:
353:
352:
294:Triblidiales
177:
164:Subkingdom:
121:
29:
7326:iNaturalist
7223:Wikispecies
7138:Brachiopoda
7113:Cycliophora
7058:Onychophora
7033:Kinorhyncha
6955:Ginkgophyta
6950:Cycadophyta
6915:Chlorophyta
6905:Glaucophyta
6599:Myxococcota
6517:Chlorobiota
6512:Chlamydiota
6048:Lipomycetes
5979:(sac fungi)
5578:Microsporea
5379:Opisthokont
5221:Chitinozoan
5147:Parabasalia
4999:Embryophyta
4963:Chlorokybus
4943:Chlorophyta
4891:Glaucophyta
4865:Cryptophyta
4755:Pirsoniales
4722:Bicosoecida
4703:Platysulcus
4676:Perkinsozoa
4658:Apicomplexa
4631:Colponemida
4398:Pluriformea
4267:Archamoebea
4256:Eumycetozoa
3955:Cited texts
3605:Deacon 2005
3593:Deacon 2005
3294:(1): 1–72.
2910:Enzymes of
2798:Ciclosporin
2639:Fungi like
2634:candidiasis
2620:as well as
2534:Species of
2339:mycorrhizal
2298:Chlorophyta
2294:green algae
2224:decomposers
2062:antheridium
2028:mating type
2013:homothallic
1970:chromosomes
1887:may enable
1879:chromosomes
1863:cell nuclei
1858:anastomosis
1828:schizolytic
1696:dictyospore
1688:transversal
1642:Aspergillus
1611:didymospore
1603:amerospores
1502:springtails
1498:tardigrades
1470:mycorrhizal
1411:biopolymers
1362:uninucleate
1353:cytoplasmic
1326:candidiasis
1296:Ascosphaera
1266:Sooty molds
1235:pleomorphic
897:fungi, and
781:mycorrhizal
767:Penicillium
671:Moniliales,
606:Aspergillus
542:. The many
512:Penicillium
503:antibiotics
498:sequences.
378:ascomycetes
18:Ascomycetes
7475:Ascomycota
7469:Categories
7416:ascomycota
7229:Ascomycota
7199:Ascomycota
7171:Parakaryon
7133:Entoprocta
7068:Arthropoda
7063:Tardigrada
7043:Priapulida
7038:Loricifera
7023:Echinoderm
6993:Ctenophora
6965:Gnetophyta
6920:Charophyta
6910:Rhodophyta
6882:Ascomycota
6877:Zygomycota
6819:Metamonada
6794:Euglenozoa
6779:Ciliophora
6487:Balneolota
6462:Aquificota
6383:See also:
5976:Ascomycota
5749:Zygomycota
5383:True fungi
5302:Rigifilida
5201:Acritarchs
5126:Barthelona
5117:Metamonada
5102:Euglenozoa
4970:Mesostigma
4926:sensu lato
4907:Rhodophyta
4766:Ochrophyta
4727:Placidozoa
4638:Ciliophora
4608:Radiolaria
4525:Haptophyta
4420:Filasterea
4332:Holomycota
3825:: 100228.
3673:Mycologist
3535:(1): 1–8.
3088:1808/16786
3015:ergosterol
2999:cordycepin
2980:Tuber spp.
2932:Gorgonzola
2781:penicillin
2775:(formerly
2669:, causing
2581:mycotoxins
2425:mycetangia
2400:and other
2364:roundworms
2354:products.
2343:endophytes
2269:wild boars
2256:Gastropoda
2220:ecosystems
2180:apothecium
2138:Perithecia
2118:ascogenous
2114:dinucleate
2066:plasmogamy
2057:ascogonium
2052:trichogyne
2048:Gametangia
1990:by using
1953:ascospores
1873:, such as
1850:parasexual
1833:rhexolytic
1724:Embryology
1552:Nothofagus
1529:Antarctica
1506:Collembola
1486:roundworms
1373:Metabolism
1293:. Asci of
1245:, such as
1217:lichenized
1129:Morphology
1119:synnematal
1057:anamorphic
1044:, and the
1014:perithecia
647:mitospores
580:, such as
562:, and the
560:black knot
552:rice blast
548:apple scab
507:fermenting
476:anamorphic
419:ascospores
354:Ascomycota
188:Caval.-Sm.
178:Ascomycota
174:Division:
35:Ascomycota
7429:100364589
7238:AusLichen
7088:Dicyemida
6960:Pinophyta
6839:Telonemia
6774:Cryptista
6764:Breviatea
6749:Amoebozoa
6744:Alveolata
6725:Eukaryote
6477:Bacillota
5634:Zoosporic
5611:Aphelidea
5475:Amoebozoa
5453:Alveolata
5441:Cryptista
5416:Eukaryota
5142:Fornicata
5048:Excavates
4850:Cryptista
4773:Oomycetes
4750:Developea
4732:Sagenista
4619:Alveolata
4555:Telonemia
4430:Choanozoa
4307:Breviatea
4250:Tubulinea
4237:Amoebozoa
4178:Amoebozoa
4156:Alveolata
4144:Cryptista
4119:Eukaryota
4089:Eukaryote
3966:. Wiley.
3156:., p. 55.
3067:Mycologia
3003:adenosine
2953:soy sauce
2945:In Asia,
2936:Roquefort
2918:Camembert
2687:aflatoxin
2667:alkaloids
2655:patients.
2537:Monilinia
2519:of peach.
2517:leaf curl
2376:alkaloids
2359:commensal
2347:symbiotic
2318:Antarctic
2276:symbiotic
2236:cellulose
2232:molecules
2150:Apothecia
2092:red algae
2075:karyogamy
2070:cytoplasm
1931:Ascus of
1905:aneuploid
1899:state by
1811:conidioma
1771:phialides
1590:dispersed
1533:dispersed
1415:cellulose
1396:parasites
1387:symbionts
1345:cytoplasm
1337:β-glucans
1301:honey bee
1291:pneumonia
1225:dimorphic
1221:symbiotic
1006:apothecia
871:cup fungi
853:, in the
845:ascocarps
799:β-glucans
774:symbiotic
697:acervulus
691:pycnidium
617:studies.
583:Beauveria
569:Cordyceps
524:pathogens
490:, and by
451:symbionts
447:cup fungi
417:, called
374:sac fungi
284:Lahmiales
154:Kingdom:
148:Eukaryota
7480:Mycology
7424:Tropicos
7352:MycoBank
7300:Fungorum
7250:BioLib:
7243:30016185
7208:Wikidata
7148:Annelida
7143:Mollusca
7123:Phoronid
7118:Nemertea
7093:Rotifera
7073:Flatworm
7048:Nematoda
7013:Chordate
7003:Cnidaria
6998:Placozoa
6829:Rhizaria
6804:Haptista
6784:Cercozoa
6444:Bacteria
5625:Eumycota
5470:Amorphea
5448:Rhizaria
5436:Hacrobia
5426:Excavata
5411:Bacteria
5324:protists
5320:kingdoms
5208:Grypania
5170:Imasidae
5071:Jakobida
4595:Endomyxa
4590:Cercozoa
4582:Rhizaria
4512:Haptista
4444:Animalia
4387:Bicellum
4262:Variosea
4245:Discosea
4223:Amorphea
4173:Amorphea
4151:Rhizaria
4139:Hacrobia
4129:Excavata
4114:Bacteria
3944:37682981
3935:10490986
3904:PLOS ONE
3885:33628175
3800:15554606
3792:19967528
3745:16080390
3658:29619017
3551:16790011
3510:33598792
3502:19541982
3432:16214164
3389:19375633
3308:38469033
3237:17051209
3194:21652303
3097:16389979
3022:See also
2976:truffles
2957:huangjiu
2753:causes
2671:ergotism
2579:contain
2499:Zea mays
2410:termites
2368:bacteria
2234:such as
2164:hymenium
2124:ascocarp
1907:cells.
1867:mycelium
1852:events.
1821:acervuli
1816:pycnidia
1777:basauxic
1546:Cyttaria
1494:rotifers
1490:Nematoda
1480:such as
1478:protists
1423:Collagen
1413:such as
1312:in vitro
1185:ascocarp
1173:mycelium
1103:acervuli
1099:pycnidia
1082:binomial
1046:Neolecta
962:Taphrina
956:Neolecta
883:lorchels
863:truffles
850:Neolecta
831:subphyla
663:phialide
611:genetics
460:Cladonia
435:brewers'
431:truffles
144:Domain:
42:-present
40:Devonian
7214:Q174726
7128:Bryozoa
6824:Provora
6799:Jakobea
6789:Discoba
6735:Protist
6672:Archaea
6425:Extant
6222:basidia
5949:Dikarya
5485:Animals
5406:Archaea
5059:Discoba
4924:Plants
4896:Picozoa
4742:Gyrista
4649:Myzozoa
4502:Provora
4408:Filozoa
4364:Holozoa
4272:Cutosea
4188:Animals
4109:Archaea
3912:Bibcode
3876:7898063
3772:Bibcode
3708:4 March
3649:5871698
3632:: 503.
3482:Bibcode
3474:Science
3412:Bibcode
3245:4302864
3217:Bibcode
3140:6557779
3132:9809012
2982:), and
2940:Stilton
2896:ethanol
2892:sucrose
2888:glucose
2863:genomes
2830:insulin
2515:causes
2393:Xylaria
2380:mammals
2322:deserts
2310:lichens
2282:Lichens
2261:rodents
2251:insects
2214:Ecology
2196:haploid
2088:meiosis
1996:meiosis
1974:diploid
1966:haploid
1949:meiosis
1897:haploid
1865:in the
1732:thallic
1728:blastic
1578:mitotic
1574:conidia
1538:truffle
1482:amoebae
1427:keratin
1407:enzymes
1321:Candida
1316:in vivo
1247:melanin
1169:thallus
1061:conidia
917:Candida
741:lichens
739:98% of
711:Budding
639:conidia
558:fungi,
455:lichens
423:asexual
382:species
370:Dikarya
168:Dikarya
7439:230552
7436:uBio:
7406:212606
7393:439373
7377:NZOR:
7344:610624
7292:1ASCOP
6988:Sponge
6980:Animal
6220:(with
5463:Plants
5400:Domain
5332:groups
4714:Bigyra
4288:Obazoa
4166:Plants
4103:Domain
4046:
4027:
4008:
3989:
3970:
3942:
3932:
3883:
3873:
3798:
3790:
3743:
3656:
3646:
3576:
3549:
3508:
3500:
3430:
3387:
3306:
3268:
3243:
3235:
3209:Nature
3192:
3138:
3130:
3095:
3013:, and
3005:, and
2968:morels
2861:. The
2855:, and
2792:as an
2622:Asthma
2406:Attini
2316:, the
2314:Arctic
2288:Lichen
2240:lignin
2188:zygote
1875:gamete
1607:septum
1584:, the
1582:hyphae
1419:lignin
1357:nuclei
1333:chitin
1304:larvae
1189:ascoma
1161:hyphae
1105:. The
1071:, the
1008:; the
1000:: the
885:, and
812:pores.
795:chitin
686:stroma
603:, and
601:yeasts
554:, the
445:, and
427:morels
415:spores
358:phylum
190:(1998)
7452:21891
7447:WoRMS
7413:PPE:
7357:90031
7331:48250
7305:90031
7253:14900
6897:Plant
6849:Fungi
6769:CRuMs
6086:Other
5636:fungi
5490:Fungi
5284:CRuMs
4346:Fungi
4193:Fungi
3796:S2CID
3506:S2CID
3304:S2CID
3241:S2CID
3154:et al
3152:Kirk
3136:S2CID
3063:(PDF)
3045:Notes
2907:beer.
2876:bread
2659:Ergot
2583:like
2562:molds
2495:maize
2302:algae
2259:) to
2192:ascus
2018:clone
1984:fungi
1941:ascus
1698:. In
1454:algae
1341:septa
1308:pupae
1299:fill
1277:morel
935:basal
867:ergot
751:ascus
556:ergot
404:askós
397:ἀσκός
392:
386:ascus
362:Fungi
356:is a
184:Berk.
158:Fungi
7370:4890
7365:NCBI
7339:ITIS
7313:GBIF
7287:EPPO
7279:5577
7261:BOLD
6935:Moss
6427:life
5336:bold
4541:TSAR
4044:ISBN
4025:ISBN
4006:ISBN
3987:ISBN
3968:ISBN
3940:PMID
3881:PMID
3788:PMID
3741:PMID
3710:2019
3654:PMID
3574:ISBN
3547:PMID
3498:PMID
3428:PMID
3385:PMID
3266:ISBN
3233:PMID
3190:PMID
3128:PMID
3093:PMID
2961:sake
2959:and
2938:and
2922:Brie
2920:and
2898:and
2884:wine
2882:and
2880:beer
2731:and
2713:and
2653:AIDS
2463:and
2304:and
2267:and
2265:deer
2208:asci
2008:mate
1915:and
1848:and
1335:and
1314:and
1306:and
1181:asci
1177:mold
1115:i.e.
1101:and
1090:and
1053:asci
947:(or
927:The
914:and
904:The
837:The
797:and
613:and
572:are
488:taxa
437:and
47:PreꞒ
7274:EoL
4815:CAM
4571:SAR
3930:PMC
3920:doi
3871:PMC
3861:doi
3827:doi
3780:doi
3733:doi
3729:109
3681:doi
3644:PMC
3634:doi
3537:doi
3533:260
3490:doi
3478:324
3455:doi
3420:doi
3377:doi
3296:doi
3225:doi
3213:443
3180:doi
3120:doi
3083:hdl
3075:doi
2974:),
2890:or
2677:").
2238:or
1919:).
1508:).
1492:),
1456:or
1417:or
1398:or
1215:In
1125:).
1032:or
1016:or
939:DNA
877:),
496:DNA
482:or
376:or
7471::
7449::
7426::
7403::
7390::
7367::
7354::
7341::
7328::
7318:95
7315::
7302::
7289::
7276::
7266:34
7263::
7240::
7225::
7210::
5381::
3938:.
3928:.
3918:.
3908:18
3906:.
3902:.
3879:.
3869:.
3859:.
3857:11
3855:.
3851:.
3821:.
3817:.
3794:.
3786:.
3778:.
3768:97
3766:.
3762:.
3739:.
3727:.
3701:.
3677:19
3675:.
3652:.
3642:.
3628:.
3624:.
3612:^
3568:.
3545:.
3531:.
3527:.
3504:.
3496:.
3488:.
3476:.
3451:47
3449:.
3426:.
3418:.
3408:90
3406:.
3383:.
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