536:, Chomsky summarized his proposed structure of a grammar in the following way: "A grammar contains a syntactic component, a semantic component and a phonological component...The syntactic component consists of a base and a transformational component. The base, in turn, consists of a categorial subcomponent and a lexicon. The base generates deep structures. A deep structure enters the semantic component and receives a semantic interpretation; it is mapped by transformational rules into a surface structure, which is then given a phonetic interpretation by the rules of the phonological component." In this grammar model, syntax is given a prominent, generative role, whereas phonology and semantics are assigned secondary, interpretive roles. This theory of grammar would later come to be known as the "Standard Theory" (ST).
422:(the actual use of language in concrete situation)." A "grammar of a language" is "a description of the ideal speaker-hearer's intrinsic competence", and this "underlying competence" is a "system of generative processes." An "adequate grammar" should capture the basic regularities and the productive nature of a language. Chomsky calls this "descriptive adequacy" of the linguistic theory, in the sense that "it correctly describes its object, namely the linguistic intuitionâthe tacit competenceâof the native speaker. In this sense, the grammar is justified on external grounds, on grounds of correspondence to linguistic fact."
490:
cognitive sciences. According to
Chomsky, a human child's mind is equipped with a "language acquisition device" formed by inborn mental properties called "linguistic universals" which eventually constructs a mental theory of the child's mother tongue. The linguist's main object of inquiry, as Chomsky sees it, is this underlying psychological reality of language. Instead of making catalogs and summaries of linguistic behavioral data demonstrated on the surface (i.e. behaviorism), a Chomsky-an linguist should be interested in using "introspective data" to ascertain the properties of a deeper mental system.
414:, Chomsky lays down the abstract, idealized context in which a linguistic theorist is supposed to perform his research: "Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance." He makes a "fundamental distinction between
574:(1957) in a number of ways. Firstly, the notion of kernel sentences (a class of sentences produced by applying obligatory transformational rules) was abandoned and replaced by the notion of "deep structures", within which negative, interrogative markers, etc. are embedded. This simplified the generation of "surface" sentences, whereas in the previous model, a number of successive optional transformational rules had to be applied on the kernel sentences to arrive at the same result.
448:: that it has to be "sufficiently rich to account for acquisition of language, yet not so rich as to be inconsistent with the known diversity of language." In other words, linguistic theory must be able to describe how any normal human child masters the complexities of his mother tongue at such a young age, and how children all over the world master languages which are enormously different from one another in terms of vocabulary, word order and morpho-syntactic constructions.
347:. There was a lot of methodological conversation that one didn't need to have. One could get right to the substantive issues. So, from that point of view, it was extremely exciting." In 1962, Chomsky gave a paper at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists entitled "The Logical Basis of Linguistic Theory", in which he outlined the transformational generative grammar approach to linguistics. In June 1964, he delivered a series of lectures at the Linguistic Institute of the
339:, a Native American language. J. R. Applegate worked on the German noun phrase. Lees and Klima looked into English pronominalization. Matthews and Lees worked on the German verb phrase. On the nature of the linguistic research at MIT in those days, Jerry Fodor recalls that "...communication was very lively, and I guess we shared a general picture of the methodology for doing, not just linguistics, but behavioral science research. We were all more or less
696:
system may encounter." Jerne called the DNA segments in chromosomes which encode the variable regions of antibody polypeptides a human's inheritable "deep structures", which can account for the innately complex yet miraculously effective fighting capacity of human antibodies against complex antigens. This is comparable to
Chomsky's hypothesis that a child is born with innate language universals to acquire a complex human language in a very short time.
1064:
syntactic deep structure, that transformational rules are fundamentally adequate for the study of grammar, that syntactic categories are independent of the categories of human thought, that language use plays no role in grammar, that syntax is independent of the social and cultural assumptions of speakers, and many other central positions of
Chomskyâs that many of us find inadequate, especially in the light of recent research."
552:(sometimes called Phrase Markers) consisting of nodes and branches, but with empty terminal nodes; these are called "pre-lexical structures". In the second step, the empty terminal nodes are filled with complex symbols consisting of morphemes accompanied by syntactic and semantic features, supplied from the lexicon via lexical insertion rules. The resulting tree diagram is called a "deep structure".
521:
467:"subcategorization rules" or "selectional rules"), they deviate from strictly well-formedness. Chomsky calls these grammatically "deviant". The degree and manner of their deviation can be evaluated by comparing their structural description with that of the strictly well-formed sentences. In this way, a theory of "degree of grammaticalness" can eventually be developed.
471:
intonation". Chomsky adds that "acceptability is a concept that belongs to the study of performance, whereas grammaticalness belongs to the study of competence." So, there can be sentences that are grammatical but nevertheless unacceptable because of "memory limitations" or intonational and stylistic factors."
729:
such as deep structures, transformations, autonomy and primacy of syntax, etc. were either abandoned or substantially revised after they were shown to be either inadequate or too complicated to account for, in a simple and elegant way, many idiosyncratic example sentences from different languages. As
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to explain the human immune system, comparing "the variable region of a given antibody molecule" to "a sentence". "The immense repertoire of the immune system then becomes ... a lexicon of sentences which is capable of responding to any sentence expressed by the multitude of antigens which the immune
172:
is widely considered to be the foundational document and a proper book-length articulation of
Chomskyan theoretical framework of linguistics. It presented Chomsky's epistemological assumptions with a view to establishing linguistic theory-making as a formal (i.e. based on the manipulation of symbols
470:
According to
Chomsky, an "acceptable" sentence is one that is "perfectly natural" and "immediately comprehensible" and "in no way bizarre or outlandish". The notion of acceptability depends on various "dimensions" such as "rapidity, correctness, and uniformity of recall and recognition, normalcy of
750:. Chomsky himself addressed these issues at around the same time (early 1970s) and updated the model to an "Extended Standard Theory", where syntax was less autonomous, the interaction between the syntactic and the semantic component was much more interactive and the transformations were cyclical.
466:
For
Chomsky, "grammaticalness is ... a matter of degree." When sentences are directly generated by the system of grammatical rules, they are called "perfectly" or "strictly well-formed" grammatical sentences. When sentences are "derivatively generated" by "relaxing" some grammatical rules (such as
1063:
In Lakoff 1973, Lakoff writes that " have found that many of the most basic assumptions of transformational grammar were inadequate and have rejected them, including the following of
Chomskyâs fundamental assumptions: that syntax is independent of human thought and reasoning, that there exists a
676:(1971), he notes that just like Chomsky's grammar model assumes a set of finite underlying principles that are supposed to adequately explain the variety of sentences in linguistic performance, our sense of justice can be defined as a set of moral principles that give rise to everyday judgments.
712:
is to find and solve information processing problems. First, one must build a computational theory of the problem (i.e. the abstract formulation of the "what" and "why" of the problem). And then one must construct an algorithm that implements it (i.e. the "how" of the problem). Marr likened the
489:
Chomsky writes that "linguistic theory is mentalistic, since it is concerned with discovering a mental reality underlying actual behavior." With this mentalist interpretation of linguistic theory, Chomsky elevated linguistics to a field that is part of a broader theory of human mind, i.e. the
451:
In
Chomsky's opinion, in order for a linguistic theory to be justified on "internal grounds" and to achieve "explanatory adequacy", it has to show how a child's brain, when exposed to primary linguistic data, uses special innate abilities or strategies (described as a set of principles called
292:, in which he emphasized on the fundamentally human characteristic of verbal creativity, which is present even in very young children, and rejected the behaviorist way of describing language in ambiguous terms such as "stimulus", "response", "habit", "conditioning", and "reinforcement".
239:
and a colleague of
Chomsky at MIT's Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), was a strong supporter of Chomsky's ideas of TGG. At first Halle worked on a generative phonology of Russian and published his work in 1959. From 1956 until 1968, together with Chomsky (and also with
27:
493:
The mentalist approach to linguistics proposed by
Chomsky is also different from an investigation of the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying language. It is about abstractly determining the properties and functions of such mechanisms.
386:
can be divided into two distinct parts: Chapter 1 is concerned with the psychological reality of language and the philosophy of language research, and the rest of the chapters deal with specific technical details within generative grammar.
608:. A lexical category such as noun, verb, etc. is represented by a symbol such as N, V. etc. A set of "subcategorization rules" then analyzes these symbols into "complex symbols", each complex symbol being a set of specified "
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to be "effectively the most important foundational document of the field" of transformational generative grammar (TGG), providing "the definitive exposition of the classical theory of TGGâthe so-called Standard Theory".
1391:
581:, where the role of meaning was effectively neglected and not considered part of the grammatical model. Chomsky mentions that the semantic component is essentially the same as described in Katz and Postal (1964).
817:
as an inventory of elements and his preoccupation with systems of elements rather than the systems of rules which were the focus of attention in traditional grammar and in the general linguistics of Humboldt."
1054:
For example, in Smith and Wilson 1979: 122, it was argued that âdeep structure can be abandoned, not because it is not deep enough to handle all the facts, but because it is deeper than is necessary.â
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266:. This work was preceded by Lees's doctoral thesis on the same topic, for which he was given a Ph.D. in electrical engineering. Lees was technically the first student of the new TGG paradigm.
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Among the more technical innovations are the use of recursive phrase structure rules and the introduction of syntactic features in lexical entries to address the issue of subcategorization.
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With Morris Halle and others, Chomsky founded the graduate program in linguistics at MIT in 1961. The program immediately attracted some of the brightest young American linguists.
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at RLE, but became convinced by Chomsky's TGG approach and went on to publish, in 1960, probably the very first book of a linguistic analysis based on TGG entitled
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177:, i.e. a domain of inquiry well-defined in its nature and scope. From a philosophical perspective, it directed mainstream linguistic research away from
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615:
Syntactic feature is one of the most important technical innovations of the Aspects model. Most contemporary grammatical theories have preserved it.
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1831:
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323:, a nineteenth-century German linguist. Viertel's English translations of Humboldt's works influenced Chomsky at this time and made him abandon
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All of these activities aided to develop what is now known as the "Standard Theory" of TGG, in which the basic formulations of
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452:"Universal Grammar") and selects the correct grammar of the language over many other grammars compatible with the same data.
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of lexical categories and how this information should be captured in a generalized manner in the grammar. He deems that
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In Chomsky 1970:23, Chomsky writes that "Modern linguistics is much under the influence of Saussure's conception of
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335:. Within the theoretical framework of TGG, G. H. Matthews, Chomsky's colleague at RLE, worked on the grammar of
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315:, were some of the first students of this program. They made major contributions to the nascent field of TGG.
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From Chomsky 1957:106 : "Grammar is best formulated as a self-contained study independent of semantics."
209:, respectively, taking as its main object of study the abstract, inner workings of the human mind related to
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partly as an acknowledgment of this development and partly as a guide for future directions for the field.
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Secondly, the addition of a semantic component to the grammar marked an important conceptual change since
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ushered in the "Second Cognitive Revolutionâthe revival of rationalist philosophy first expounded in the
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computational theory of an information processing problem to the notion of "competence" mentioned in
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Chomsky, Noam (1973), "Conditions on transformations", in Anderson, S.R.; Kiparsky, P. (eds.),
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a response to these problems encountered within the Standard Theory, a new approach called the
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Several of the theoretical constructs and principles of the generative grammar introduced in
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The base in the syntactic component functions as follows: In the first step, a simple set of
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In his Nobel Prize lecture titled "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System", the 1984
331:, and was able to formulate one of the most important theorems of formal linguistics, the
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742:), and was incorporated later in the late 1980s into what is now known as the school of
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compared building a theory of morality to that of the generative grammar model found in
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are not the appropriate device in this regard. As a solution, he borrows the idea of
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views of linguistics. Chomsky also collaborated with visiting French mathematician
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Additionally, Chomsky sets forth another ambitious goal for linguistic theory in
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underwent considerable revision. In 1965, eight years after the publication of
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and elsewhere in the linguistic community where TGG had a favorable reception.
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738:) was invented in the early 1970s by some of Chomsky's collaborators (notably
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that he had introduced in the 1950s with the publication of his first book,
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and hired by Chomsky at RLE in 1957, produced pioneering TGG-based work on
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1435:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
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1325:(1964), "Negation in English", in Jerry Fodor; Jerrold Katz (eds.),
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227:, the nature of linguistic research began to change, especially at
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426:
Language acquisition, universal grammar and explanatory adequacy
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1329:, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, pp. 246â323
228:
154:, Chomsky presented a deeper, more extensive reformulation of
244:
initially), Halle developed a new theory of phonology called
1352:(1977), "Artificial Intelligence — A Personal View",
642:
linguists Ian Roberts and Jeffrey Watumull maintain that
248:. Their collaboration culminated with the publication of
1442:
Modern Linguistics: The Results of Chomsky's Revolution
1267:(1985), "The generative grammar of the immune system",
1194:, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pp. 232â86
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418:(the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language) and
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2117:Distorted Morality â America's War on Terror?
1205:, Cambridge, MA: MIT Working Papers in Linguistics
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904:
2087:Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media
1202:50 Years Later: Reflections on Chomsky's Aspects
1147:"The Algebraic Theory of Context-Free Languages"
396:Competence vs. performance: descriptive adequacy
382:noted in his review of the book, the content of
1315:An Integrated Theory of Linguistic Descriptions
686:Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology
481:Mentalism (psychology) § The new mentalism
1716:New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind
612:", grammatical properties with binary values.
524:The grammar model discussed in Noam Chomsky's
278:. In 1959, Chomsky wrote a critical review of
1502:
1111:"A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior"
734:(as opposed to the interpretive semantics in
8:
2022:Chomsky's Universal Grammar: An Introduction
19:
2107:Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times
691:used Chomsky's generative grammar model in
1676:The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory
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353:Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar
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2137:Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land
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303:, both graduates of the Ph.D. program at
270:, a graduate of the Masters program from
1832:The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many
1454:"Mechanical Translation Research at MIT"
1185:, Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter
1152:, in P. Braffort; D. Hirschberg (eds.),
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498:The structure of grammar: deep structure
432:Language acquisition § Generativism
1167:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1154:Computer Programming and Formal Systems
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351:(these were later published in 1966 as
136:(known in linguistic circles simply as
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264:The Grammar of English Nominalizations
1545:Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
1440:Smith, Neil; Wilson, Deirdre (1979),
1317:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press
1239:, New York: Oxford University Press,
864:
862:
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1746:American Power and the New Mandarins
1313:Katz, Jerrold; Postal, Paul (1964),
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504:Deep structure and surface structure
173:and rules) discipline comparable to
2127:Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause
1852:Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship
1737:The Responsibility of Intellectuals
1598:Current Issues in Linguistic Theory
1444:, Indiana: Indiana University Press
1183:Current Issues in Linguistic Theory
746:, at odds with Chomskyan school of
596:, Chomsky discusses the problem of
221:After the publication of Chomsky's
156:transformational generative grammar
2058:The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky
1686:Lectures on Government and Binding
1289:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb03709.x
14:
1156:, North Holland, pp. 118â161
456:Grammaticality and acceptability
333:Chomsky-SchĂŒtzenberger hierarchy
20:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
2040:Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent
1953:9-11: Was There An Alternative?
1608:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1481:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1394:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1164:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1016:Gallego and Ott 2015 : 211
777:Gallego and Ott 2015 : 249
631:linguist Tim Stowell considers
526:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
133:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1882:Requiem for the American Dream
1766:Counter-Revolutionary Violence
1192:A festschrift for Morris Halle
148:, first published in 1965. In
1:
2147:Is the Man Who Is Tall Happy?
1657:Conditions on Transformations
391:The goal of linguistic theory
349:Linguistic Society of America
144:written by American linguist
1638:The Sound Pattern of English
1366:10.1016/0004-3702(77)90013-3
1343:The New York Review of Books
1233:Harris, Randy Allen (1993),
1216:The sound pattern of Russian
251:The Sound Pattern of English
1143:SchĂŒtzenberger, Marcel-Paul
1095:, The Hague/Paris: Mouton,
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568:model or ST differed from
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329:Marcel-Paul SchĂŒtzenberger
31:Cover of the first edition
1648:Remarks on Nominalization
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1412:10.1017/s0022226700012998
1327:The structure of language
606:features use in phonology
24:
16:1965 book by Noam Chomsky
2182:Valeria Wasserman (wife)
1842:World Orders Old and New
1479:Google books preview of
1390:Matthews, P. H. (1967),
765:See Gallego and Ott 2015
516:Transformational grammar
2207:ChomskyâFoucault debate
2049:The Anti-Chomsky Reader
1666:Reflections on Language
1354:Artificial Intelligence
710:artificial intelligence
708:wrote that the goal of
700:Artificial intelligence
640:University of Cambridge
343:, and all more or less
2239:1965 non-fiction books
1822:Letters from Lexington
1706:The Minimalist Program
1461:Mechanical Translation
1400:Journal of Linguistics
1181:Chomsky, Noam (1970),
1161:Chomsky, Noam (1965),
1109:Chomsky, Noam (1959),
748:generative linguistics
546:phrase structure rules
529:
508:Phrase structure rules
286:(1957) in the journal
2234:Books by Noam Chomsky
2067:The Kingdom of Speech
1913:Middle East Illusions
1789:Manufacturing Consent
1696:Knowledge of Language
1618:Cartesian Linguistics
1219:, The Hague: Mouton,
744:cognitive linguistics
540:The base subcomponent
523:
475:Emphasis on mentalism
402:Linguistic competence
158:(TGG), a new kind of
122:Cartesian linguistics
1862:Hegemony or Survival
1779:The Fateful Triangle
1756:For Reasons of State
1588:Syntactic Structures
1337:(February 8, 1973),
1236:The Linguistics Wars
1092:Syntactic Structures
732:generative semantics
650:", in particular by
579:Syntactic Structures
571:Syntactic Structures
558:Syntactic Structures
556:Comparison with the
380:Peter Hugoe Matthews
378:As British linguist
366:, Chomsky published
364:Syntactic Structures
360:Syntactic Structures
321:Wilhelm von Humboldt
246:generative phonology
224:Syntactic Structures
211:language acquisition
165:Syntactic Structures
109:Syntactic Structures
1812:Deterring Democracy
1802:Necessary Illusions
1560:Political positions
1432:A Theory of Justice
1281:1985Sci...229.1057J
673:A Theory of Justice
260:translation project
21:
1923:Imperial Ambitions
662:Moral philosopher
610:syntactic features
588:Syntactic features
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440:Levels of adequacy
406:Levels of adequacy
374:Overview of topics
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1997:
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1963:Making the Future
1628:Language and Mind
1537:Chomsky hierarchy
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989:Chomsky 1965: 193
598:subcategorization
436:Universal grammar
175:physical sciences
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160:syntactic theory
117:Followed by
104:Preceded by
79:Publication date
59:Natural language
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602:rewriting rules
590:
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311:, a Ph.D. from
284:Verbal Behavior
268:Edward S. Klima
235:, a student of
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140:) is a book on
88:Media type
80:
32:
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12:
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2017:
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1473:External links
1471:
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1406:(1): 119â152,
1387:
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1335:Lakoff, George
1331:
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1275:(4): 847â852,
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883:, pp. 4â5
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689:Niels K. Jerne
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237:Roman Jacobson
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183:constructivism
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2188:Aviva Chomsky
2185:
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2175:Carol Chomsky
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2015:
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1986:(2015), with
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1792:(1988), with
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1769:(1973), with
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1253:on 2021-03-28
1252:
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1246:9780195098341
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1211:Halle, Morris
1208:
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1102:9783110172799
1098:
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1087:Chomsky, Noam
1084:
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955:
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943:
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844:Matthews 1967
841:
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741:
740:George Lakoff
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648:Enlightenment
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550:tree diagrams
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42:
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28:
23:
2229:Syntax books
2145:
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2125:
2115:
2105:
2095:
2085:
2065:
2056:
2047:
2038:
2029:
2020:
2011:
1983:On Palestine
1981:
1971:
1961:
1951:
1941:
1931:
1921:
1911:
1901:
1880:
1870:
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1636:
1626:
1616:
1607:
1606:
1596:
1586:
1572:bibliography
1530:Bibliography
1518:Noam Chomsky
1480:
1464:
1460:
1441:
1431:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1357:
1353:
1342:
1326:
1314:
1272:
1268:
1255:, retrieved
1251:the original
1235:
1215:
1201:
1191:
1182:
1163:
1153:
1121:(1): 26â58,
1118:
1114:
1091:
1080:Bibliography
1073:Chomsky 1973
1069:
1059:
1050:
1039:
1030:
1021:
1012:
1003:
994:
985:
976:
971:, p. 10
969:Chomsky 1965
954:Chomsky 1965
949:
942:Chomsky 1965
937:
930:Chomsky 1965
915:, p. 11
913:Chomsky 1965
896:Chomsky 1965
881:Chomsky 1965
876:
869:Chomsky 1965
854:Chomsky 1965
849:
840:
831:
822:
814:
809:
804:Chomsky 1959
800:
791:
782:
761:
735:
726:
724:
714:
703:
692:
683:
671:
667:
661:
643:
638:
632:
627:
619:Significance
614:
593:
591:
583:
578:
576:
569:
565:
563:
557:
543:
533:
531:
525:
492:
486:
484:
469:
465:
450:
445:
443:
419:
415:
411:
409:
383:
377:
367:
363:
359:
357:
352:
317:John Viertel
301:Jerrold Katz
294:
287:
283:
263:
249:
233:Morris Halle
222:
220:
207:generativism
193:and towards
169:
163:
150:
149:
146:Noam Chomsky
137:
132:
131:
130:
120:
107:
41:Noam Chomsky
2130:(2003) (TV)
2078:Filmography
2004:works about
1894:Collections
1579:Linguistics
1427:Rawls, John
1392:"Review of
1375:1721.1/5776
1350:Marr, David
871:, p. 4
856:, p. 3
826:Yngve 1956.
624:Linguistics
420:performance
309:Paul Postal
297:Jerry Fodor
256:Robert Lees
242:Fred Lukoff
203:rationalism
179:behaviorism
142:linguistics
2223:Categories
2190:(daughter)
1988:Ilan Pappé
1467:(2): 44â45
1257:2016-09-12
1034:Jerne 1985
795:Klima 1964
786:Halle 1959
754:References
706:David Marr
664:John Rawls
658:Philosophy
512:Parse tree
502:See also:
479:See also:
460:See also:
430:See also:
416:competence
400:See also:
325:Saussurian
217:Background
187:empiricism
1420:145643559
1360:: 37â48,
1044:Marr 1977
721:Criticism
548:generate
345:mentalist
305:Princeton
254:in 1968.
195:mentalism
72:MIT Press
68:Publisher
2169:(father)
2002:Academic
1739:" (1967)
1728:Politics
1659:" (1973)
1650:" (1970)
1452:(1956),
1429:(1971),
1384:14308105
1213:(1959),
1145:(1963),
1115:Language
1089:(1957),
680:Medicine
341:nativist
289:Language
276:negation
199:nativism
83:May 1965
47:Language
2199:Related
2013:Chomsky
1307:2410261
1277:Bibcode
736:Aspects
727:Aspects
715:Aspects
693:Aspects
668:Aspects
652:Leibniz
644:Aspects
633:Aspects
594:Aspects
566:Aspects
534:Aspects
487:Aspects
446:Aspects
412:Aspects
384:Aspects
368:Aspects
337:Hidatsa
272:Harvard
170:Aspects
151:Aspects
138:Aspects
55:Subject
50:English
2159:Family
2150:(2013)
2140:(2004)
2120:(2003)
2110:(2002)
2100:(2001)
2090:(1992)
1976:(2012)
1973:Occupy
1966:(2012)
1956:(2011)
1946:(2010)
1936:(2007)
1926:(2005)
1916:(2003)
1906:(1996)
1885:(2017)
1875:(2006)
1865:(2003)
1855:(1997)
1845:(1994)
1835:(1993)
1825:(1993)
1815:(1991)
1805:(1989)
1782:(1983)
1759:(1973)
1749:(1969)
1719:(2000)
1709:(1995)
1699:(1986)
1689:(1981)
1679:(1975)
1669:(1975)
1641:(1968)
1631:(1968)
1621:(1966)
1611:(1965)
1601:(1964)
1591:(1957)
1570:Select
1418:
1382:
1305:
1298:554270
1295:
1243:
1223:
1171:
1135:411334
1133:
1099:
815:langue
528:(1965)
514:, and
438:, and
307:, and
124:
111:
62:syntax
37:Author
1457:(PDF)
1416:S2CID
1380:S2CID
1150:(PDF)
1131:JSTOR
670:. In
560:model
96:Pages
91:Print
1303:PMID
1241:ISBN
1221:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1097:ISBN
629:UCLA
564:The
404:and
313:Yale
299:and
205:and
189:and
1408:doi
1370:hdl
1362:doi
1293:PMC
1285:doi
1123:doi
532:In
485:In
410:In
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282:'s
229:MIT
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