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Ravenna and Rome. Although the
Byzantine emperors initially intended to defend Italy with seasoned Eastern troops and barbarian contingents from the Balkans, the increasing military pressures on the Arab and Slavic fronts led imperial authorities to leave Italy to the defence of locally-recruited troops. Eventually, imperial policy of self-reliance in Italy led to the rise of a new Italian military aristocracy who also dominated civilian offices; these aristocrats were drawn from landholders in Italy who often leased their lands from the Church of Rome or of Ravenna. Moreover, apart from their strong economic partnership with the Italian landholders, the Papacy also came to provide most public services from entertainment, public health and water supply to the judicial system. Meanwhile, the Byzantine emperors' aggressive promotion of
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struck an alliance with the rebellious southern
Lombard duchies against King Liutprand, and began asserting Papal territorial claims over the Duchy of Rome (and later, Ravenna as well) separately from the claims of the Byzantine Empire. As a result of this "Italianization" process of Byzantine Italy,
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and
Theodimus, rector of Papal patrimonies in Campania, to drive the Lombards out of the Duchy. Romuald agreed to receive a payment from the Pope to leave the city, but from then on the Popes began to regard Cumae like their own patrimonies. This was the first instance of the Papacy mobilizing their
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Lombards. Pope
Stephen, unable to dissuade the rapidly expanding Lombards, therefore sought protection from the Frankish Kingdom. Pope Stephen's alliance with the Franks realigned the Papacy away from Byzantium and toward Germanic northern Europe, thus laying the foundations for the creation of the
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The
Lombards began the invasion of Northern Italy on Easter Monday, 568. The Lombards chose this date to ensure that the migrations were to be undertaken through the guidance of their gods. The Lombards migrated into Italy whilst fighting meagre resistance from the Byzantine border forces known as
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Apart from the
Hellenized south (Naples, Calabria and Sicily), the Lombards had overrun Italy within the first generation except for Venice and Istria in the northeast, and Rome, Ravenna and the Pentapolis in Central Italy. Perugia served as the last remaining channel connecting the major centers
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The fall of the
Exarchate of Ravenna led Pope Stephen II to request Emperor Constantine V for military aid to drive the Lombards out. However, Constantine, who was committed to reconquering Byzantine territory elsewhere, only sent envoys to the Lombards and ordered the Pope to negotiate with the
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of the
Lombards, either seeing the opportunity for gain or sympathetic to the anti-Iconoclast effort, declared himself an ally of the Pope and attacked the remaining Imperial cities, some of which welcomed him as a liberator.
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With the decline of
Byzantine defenses in Italy, the Papacy played an increasingly assertive role in resisting against the Lombards, such as calling on the Venetians to repel the Lombards from Ravenna in 738/739.
286:, decided to make Italy pay a greater share of the defense against the Lombards. Leo dramatically increased Imperial taxation on all estates in Italy, including Papal properties, which
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also tried to attack Rome but failed against determined resistance from Rome and
Lombards. The loss of Byzantine control over Rome was exacerbated by Leo's new policy of
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the Papacy would define their territory as a "holy republic" of "peculiar people" who were the pope's "flocks", distinct from the Byzantine Empire.
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for his refusal to compromise on doctrine) alienated the Italian military aristocracy and revealed the fragility of Italian loyalty to the Empire.
192:. The conflicts ended in a Byzantine defeat, as the Lombards were able to secure large parts of Northern Italy at first, eventually conquering the
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own defenses and establishing ownership of formerly public Imperial land. In 722/723,
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of Rome Marinus plotted but failed to assassinate Pope Gregory, and the Emperor's
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In 717/718, towards the end of the Byzantine-Lombard conflict, Lombard Duke
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Moorhead, John (2005). "Ostrogothic Italy and the Lombard Invasions". In
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was left to organize a counter-offensive, calling on help from Duke
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The Republic of St. Peter The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825
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The Republic of St. Peter The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825
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The Republic of St. Peter The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825
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The Republic of St. Peter The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825
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The Republic of St. Peter The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825
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The Republic of St. Peter The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825
254:(for example, in their humiliation, torture and fatal exile of
502:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 41–44, 48, 58.
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Laury Sarti, Stefan Esders, Yaniv Fox, Yitzhak Hen (2019).
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Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe Society in Transformation
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were a protracted series of conflicts which occurred from
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The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1, c.500–c.700
213:. The Lombards managed to annex Northern Italy quickly.
591:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 73–75.
477:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 28–31.
452:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 25–26.
427:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 9–13.
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402:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 2–7.
552:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 335–336.
282:, having successfully repelled the Arabs in the
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527:. Princeton University Press. p. 372.
180:. The wars began primarily because of the
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720:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
737:The Times Complete History of the World
641:. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 12–14.
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687:The Lombards: The Ancient Longobards
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184:inclinations of the Lombard king
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668:"Alboino, re dei Longobardi"
525:The Formation of Christendom
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691:. Oxford:
328:References
300:Iconoclasm
149:Callinicus
755:ignored (
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349:Citations
265:captured
241:Aftermath
153:Eutychius
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64:568 – 750
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