Befana - Knowledge (XXG)

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Feeling guilty, she eventually decides to find Jesus on her own by following a bright light, also known as the big star in the sky which she believes points the way. She brings along a bag filled with baked goods and gifts for Jesus and a broom to help the new mother clean. Unfortunately despite her best efforts she never finds him. According to this telling, the Befana is still searching after all these centuries for the newborn Messiah. On the eve of the Epiphany, the Befana comes to every house where there is a child and leaves a gift. Although she has been unsuccessful in her search, she still leaves gifts for children everywhere because the Christ Child can be found in all children.

873:È stata interpretata come un’immagine di Madre Natura che, giunta alla fine dell’anno invecchiata e rinsecchita, assume le sembianze di una befana e prima di morire offre dolciumi e regalini che altro non sono, simbolicamente, se non i semi, grazie ai quali riapparirà nelle vesti di giovinetta Natura. Questa Madre Natura non è solo un fenomeno peculiare italiano, ma rivela analogie con la mitologia greco-anatolica e con molte tradizioni germaniche e slave. Allude alla Grande Madre, signora della vita, che regna su animali, rocce, vegetali, evocando l’idea della fecondità, dell’abbondanza, della prosperità: madre del cosmo che governa il ciclo terreno di vita-morte-vita . . . 191:

the Christian holiday name. It has been pointed out that there was "a clear attempt to Christianize the disturbing female character by transforming her into the female personification of the feast." Generally the pre-Christian origin is the one most proposed and the Befana is often said to be a goddess or the remnant of one, though what culture and time period she comes from has been less uniform. Cultures that have been proposed include Roman, Celtic, Neolithic farmers, and Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.

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abandon their former creeds and customs. Macaulay says, "Christianity conquered paganism, but paganism infected Christianity; the rites of the Pantheon passed into her 'worship, and the subtlities of the Academy into her creed'". Many pagan customs were adopted by the new Church. T. Hope, in his 'Essay on Architecture', says: 'The Saturnalia were continued in the Carnival, and the festival with offerings to the goddess Strenia was continued in that of the New Year . . .'

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are destroyed on Twelfth Night." Cattabiani reports that she has been interpreted as "an image of Mother Nature" and the old dying year who sows the seeds, even if just symbolically, for her reappearance "in the guise of young Nature", alluding to a goddess with power over plants, animals, abundance, prosperity, life, and death. Italian anthropologists Claudia and Luigi Manciocco, in their book

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restriction nor the sense that this custom is only for the poor exists nowadays. However the custom does not exist in all parts of the country. It is absent from Sicily where in the past wealthy landowners directly distributed food to the poor in a way that "was humiliating to the recipients", thus negating the need for the Befanata and other, similar begging or exchange rituals.

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the prohibited day(s) vary by location. There are also analogs in Greek, Anatolian, and Slavic mythology and traditions. Pitrè thought the modern Italian custom of carrying and driving the Befana out bears similarity to the ancient Roman custom of leading and driving out a figure called Mamurius Venturius, Old Winter Man, who was clad in animal skins. Historian

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the Belluno Alps with the variants Redosega, Redosola and Redosa; the Sibilia in Pirano, the Donnazza in Borca di Cadore, the Anguana in Cortina d'Ampezzo and the Berola in the province of Treviso, the Vecie or the Strie or the Femenate or the Marangule in Friuli. In Modena she is Barbasa, in Piacenza she is Mara, and the Voecia in Bologna.

212:. Grimm said she was a "terror to children". Siporin noted her contradictory character and summed it up thus: "She is grandmotherly but witchlike, the target of endless mockery but deeply beloved, ridiculous and dignified, domestic yet a wanderer, weak and dependent yet feared and powerful. She is an old woman played by a young man." 20: 303:

and objects, such as the house itself) or to the Befana, who is effectively held hostage. Alternatively, these threats were not to be taken seriously, akin to teasing and pranks that are part of the fun and festivities of the Befanata rather than actual intimidation. Fitting this atmosphere, the skits performed by the

447:, who presided over the new-year's gifts, 'Strenae', from which, indeed, she derived her name. Her presents were of the same description as those of the Befana—figs, dates, and honey. Moreover her solemnities were vigorously opposed by the early Christians on account of their noisy, riotous, and licentious character". 344:, canceled Epiphany as a national public holiday, along with several other feasts in the schedule, in an attempt to perk up the country’s sagging economy. Until recently, Epiphany had been "more lavishly celebrated than Christmas" and was also known by Italians as "Little Christmas". "Poor Befana, she is a refugee," 819:. . . abita secondo la leggenda nelle caverne delle montagne e una volta all’anno, nella notte fra il 5 e il 6 gennaio, arriva di notte, a cavallo di una magica scopa che inforca al contrario . . . portando piccoli doni ai bambini buoni e, secondo l’interpretazione pedagogica corrente, carbone per i più capricciosi. 587:

Festival of Lights parade. Women, men, and children dressed in Befana costumes and nose sing love songs to serenade the sun to beckon its return. The singing hags gather in the street to give candy to children, to cackle and screech to accordion music, and to sing in every key imaginable as delighted

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was, as they had seen his star in the sky, but she did not know. She provided them with shelter for a night as she was considered the best housekeeper in the village with the most pleasant home. The Magi invited her to join them on the journey to find the Baby Jesus, but she declined, stating she was

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Ma la figura della vecchia che porta i regali non è soltanto romana: è detta, per esempio, la Vecchia a Pavia, la Pifanie a Lario Orientale, la Vecia o la Stria a Mantova, Padova, Treviso e Verona, la Pasquetta a Legnago, a Venezia Marantega o Redodesa, nome che si ritrova anche nelle Alpi bellunesi

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themselves view it as an exchange and one song explicitly states "the Befana doesn’t beg". The songs often, implicitly or explicitly, encourage the people being visited to give generously, typically because if they do not something bad will happen, either to the household (including people, animals,

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A number of customs are associated with her are practiced on the evening of January 5 and the following day, Epiphany (January 6). On the former, groups of men in the Italian countryside travel from house to house collecting food, both for themselves and the Befana in exchange for performing a song,

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Once a year on the night of January 5, she leaves the mountain caves where she is said to live and flies through the air, riding her broom backwards, to bring toys or candy to good children and coal or cinders to naughty children in all of Italy. In many poorer parts of Italy and in particular rural

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In traditional Italian iconography, she is portrayed as having ember eyes, sharp feline teeth, a sharp and cutting tongue, and a sooty face from the chimneys she enters houses through. She is also described as an "ugly, toothless old woman". Grimm described her as a misshapen fairy. She is said wear

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But the figure of the old woman who brings gifts is not only Roman: she is called, for example, the Vecchia in Pavia, the Pifanie in Lario Orientale, the Vecia or Stria in Mantua, Padua, Treviso, and Verona, the Pasquetta in Legnago, in Venice Marantega or Redodesa, a name that is also found in

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simply said she was "an old hag." Steve Siporin thinks "they both missed the mark." After noting that effigies of her are burnt, Marinoni remarks "Of how many things does indeed the dawn of a new year mark the death!" John Forsdyke says she has "become the representative of the evil influences that

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is often noted by scholars, even if just in passing, and the Befana is considered their Italian equivalent. The Befana and Perchta "both bring well-being". There is an evil Befana who punishes girls and women who spin on Epiphany eve, which is prohibited in some places. Perchta does the same though

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In the 20th century, Pitrè noted a custom in which "We carry around the old witch . . . and we chase her". Dolls and effigies of the Befana are commonly made. The former are black and are considered lucky, possibly as a result of their black color. They are ugly in appearance and "made of rags". On

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found it not credible that two separate cultures would personify a feast day as a supernatural figure ("a name in the calendar had caused the invention of a supernatural being") and concluded it was far more likely that the Befana and Perchta were pre-Christian in origin and that they blended with

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Written records of the Befana and Befanata date to the Middle Ages. Her origins are the subject of speculation by scholars who have variously proposed they lie in paganism, Christianity, or a mix of the two. John B. Smith said she, like her High German counterpart Perchta, is nothing more than the

382:. The old lady character should then represent the "old year" just passed, ready to be burned in order to give place to the new one. In many European countries, the tradition still exists of burning a puppet of an old lady at the beginning of the New Year. In northern Italy, this figure is called 207:

Children must not watch her as she visits and delivers items or they are in serious danger as she does not like to be watched. Another, sanitized version says that if the Befana catches someone watching her, they will receive a playful thump on the shoulder from her broomstick. This aspect of the

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But an 'Essay on the Fine Arts', by E. L. Tarbuck, led me to believe that this custom is a relic of pagan worship, and that the word "Bastrina" refers to the offerings which used to be made to the goddess Strenia. We could hardly expect that the pagans who embraced Christianity could altogether

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and reward the good, punish the bad, and receive offerings. The Befana is a mysterious, contradictory figure of unclear origins. This character is enhanced by the fact that she is overall neglected by scholars but is the subject of much speculation by the ones who do mention her. Pre-Christian,

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lamented in a public speech. "She seeks shelter now on the first Sunday after the feast which was her own.". Despite revolt by the people, who continued to celebrate the holiday as usual, even calling in sick from work and school (or just not showing up), Epiphany remains permanently canceled.

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was to provide those who had little to no food with fat and protein rich foods over the winter to, at least temporarily, ward off hunger and death via starvation, which was ever present in Italy until only the 20th century, in some areas even into the latter half of said century. Neither this

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Another commonly heard Christian legend of the Befana starts at the time of the birth of the Baby Jesus. In this telling, Befana spent her days cleaning and sweeping. One day the Magi came to her door in search of the Baby Jesus. However, she turned them away because she was too busy cleaning.

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season. Sometimes the song requests specific foods from the households, of which meat, especially pork, and eggs are paramount. In Tuscany, the song is the main performance and is always present. Italian folklorists have collected a large number of Befana songs from all over the country which

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also calls her Carcavecchia and the old woman of Christmas, the latter of which is Sicilian. The associated mumming custom also goes by different names in different regions of Italy. In Tuscany it is called the Befanata. It is called the Pasquella in Umbria, Lazio, Marche, Emilia-Romagna, and

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riding a broomstick through the air wearing a black shawl and is covered in soot because she enters the children's houses through the chimney. She is often smiling and carries a bag or hamper filled with candy, gifts, or both. She is not only loved but also feared and mocked, particularly by

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con le varianti Redosega, Redosola e Redosa; la Sibilia a Pirano, la Donnazza a Borca di Cadore, l’Anguana a Cortina d’Ampezzo e la Berola in provincia di Treviso, la Vecie o la Strie o la Femenate o la Marangule nel Friuli. A Modena è la Barbasa, a Piacenza la Mara, la Voecia a Bologna.

408:("A House without Doors") trace the Befana's origins back to Neolithic beliefs and practices. The team of anthropologists also wrote about the Befana as a figure that evolved into a goddess associated with fertility and agriculture. The Befana may be connected to a prehistoric European 582:

In other parts of the world where a vibrant Italian community exists, traditions involving Befana may be observed and shared or celebrated with the wider community. In Toronto, Canada for example, a Befana Choir shows up on the winter solstice each December to sing in the

837:È una figura non solo misteriosa, ma pericolosa se non si rispetta la sua invisibilità: chi incautamente volesse sorprenderla mentre deposita i doni incorrerebbe in gravi pericoli. A Roma, dove familiarmente hanno immaginato la sua casa fra i tetti di piazza Navona . . . 828:È una figura non solo misteriosa, ma pericolosa se non si rispetta la sua invisibilità: chi incautamente volesse sorprenderla mentre deposita i doni incorrerebbe in gravi pericoli. A Roma, dove familiarmente hanno immaginato la sua casa fra i tetti di piazza Navona . . . 77:

takes place on Epiphany eve. Dolls are made of her and effigies are burnt and bonfires are often lit. She brings gifts to good children in some parts of Italy, typically sweets, candies or toys but coal, cinders and garlic to bad children. She is usually portrayed as a

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too busy with her housework. Later, the Befana had a change of heart and tried to search out the Magi and Jesus. That night she was not able to find them, so to this day the Befana is still searching for the Baby Jesus. She leaves all the good children toys and candy (

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is thought to be her official home. Every year there is a big festival held to celebrate the holiday. About 30,000 to 50,000 people attend the festivities. Hundreds of Befanas are present, swinging from the main tower. They juggle, dance, and greet all the children.

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Frank, Roslyn M. (May 2004). "Hunting the European Sky Bears: German 'Straw-bears' and their Relatives as Transformers"/"Die Jagd auf die europäischen Himmelsbären Deutsche 'Strohbären' und ihre Verwandten als Verwandler". In Michael and Barbara Rappenglück (eds.).

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demonstrate great lyrical variety and are very local, though mention of local landmarks is rare. There may be versions of songs sung only to specific people, such as those who are stingy to convince them to be more generous. Traditionally, the men who comprised the

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Twelfth Night in Rome, these dolls are placed in windows by women and children and on Epiphany, "in some Tuscan villages a large effigy of her was burnt." Bonfires are often lit as well. On Epiphany eve, families with children typically leave out a small glass of

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The mystery of the Befana has led to many interpretations and theories over the centuries. The tradition of Befana appears to incorporate several pre-Christian popular elements, adapted to Christian culture and related to the celebration of the

548:, is an orchestral portrayal of this Piazza Navona festival. A common superstition is that at midnight when it turns January 6 the Befana shows herself in a window of Piazza Navona and visitors often go there to observe this. 809:

La Befana, che nell’iconografia tradizionale appare come una vecchia col viso fuligginoso, gli occhi di brace, i denti felini e affilati, la lingua aguzza e tagliente . . . e scende per la cappa del camino nel focolare . .

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Sicily, a stick in a stocking was placed instead of coal. Being a good housekeeper, many say she will sweep the floor before she leaves. To some the sweeping means the sweeping away of the problems of the year.

281:, the Befana and Befano are accompanied by the Count of Buon’Umor, a crier-type character who announces their presence and asks people to host them and to treat them with love as they ask for it. 294:. While scholars have traditionally called this a "begging custom", Steve Siporin disagrees and argues it is an equal exchange (food for entertainment) designed to preserve the dignity of the 2745: 290:"The Befana" ("La Befana"), and sometimes skits and other entertainment like dancing and quips for the houses’ inhabitants. The men who participate in these activities are called 2740: 555:

in Marche where the national Befana festival is held each year, usually between January 2 and 6. A "house of the Befana" is scheduled to be built and the post office has a

399:. Jacob Grimm simply called her a "misshapen fairy" despite drawing parallels between her and Perchta, the latter of whom he considered to be a former heathen goddess. 68:

and thus has many names. She is a part of both popular national culture and traditional folk culture and is akin to other figures who roam about sometime during the

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were the poorest in the village and rich men were severely prohibited from forming their own squads and taking part. This is because the practical function of the

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e i romani nella vigiliadegli Idi menavano per Roma cacciandolo per fuori le mura Mamurio Veturio, il vecchio inverno, sotto forma di un uomo coperto di pelli.

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Christian, and syncretism of the two have all been postulated as explanations of her origins. In some parts of Italy, especially the central regions,

265:, though the exact characters involved vary in time and place. Always present is her husband and male counterpart, the Befano, though in some places 2676: 1672: 1634:

Smith, John B. (August 2004). "Perchta the Belly-Slitter and Her Kin: A View of Some Traditional Threatening Figures, Threats and Punishments".

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parade participants join in the cacophony. Sometimes, the Befanas dance with paradegoers and dust down the willing as they walk by.

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and figures who roam during the Christmas season and is called the Italian version of them, though different parts of Italy have

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Abruzzo. It is also known as the Pasquarella in Abruzzo. Both of these latter names are derived from the Italian word for Easter

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There are poems about Befana, which are known in slightly different versions throughout Italy. Here is one of the versions:

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doing the same. One song specifies their number at one hundred. Grimm noted that "some say, she is Herod’s daughter". In

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mention her children, who she is searching for food for either implicitly or explicitly, paralleled in real life by the

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personification of Epiphany invented by medieval Christians who had a tendency to personify feast and fast days while

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tradition may be designed to keep children in their beds. In Rome, her house is said to be among the roofs of the

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Encyclopedia of Spirits: The Ultimate Guide to the Magic of Fairies, Genies, Demons, Ghosts, Gods & Goddesses

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Symbole der Wandlung - Wandel der Symbole. Proceedingsof the Gesellschaft für wissenschaftliche Symbolforschung

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Giglio, Michael. "Taking Flight with Italy’s Holiday Witch." Spiegel Online 12 Dec, 2008. 15 Dec, 2009.<

2982: 2606: 2549: 2094: 1798: 2884: 2656: 2554: 2301: 1904: 1837: 141: 3067: 3022: 2671: 2646: 2611: 2601: 2596: 2574: 2361: 2331: 2286: 2261: 1680: 1388:"The Befana Comes by Night…" Alice Bonvincini Italian American Digital Project n.d. 2 Jan, 2011. < 435:), celebrated at the beginning of the year when Romans used to give each other presents. In the book 468:

The Befana is celebrated throughout all of Italy, and has become a national icon. In the regions of

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In folk tradition, various figures are related to her, comprising a family, and are present in the

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made black with food coloring) as every child has been at least occasionally bad during the year.

3497: 3002: 2616: 2499: 2438: 2433: 2416: 2376: 1884: 1791: 1727: 705: 522:, and other candies are on sale. The feast of the Befana in Rome was immortalized in four famous 120: 96: 92: 53: 1112:"The Legend of ’La Befana’". John D. Calandra Italian American Institute n.d. 12 Dec, 2009. < 1497:

Biondi, Angelo (1981). "La Befana nel soranese e nel pitiglianese". In Roberto Ferretti (ed.).

578:, the national meeting "Raduno Nazionale delle Befane e dei Befani" is held on 5 and 6 January. 123:) and this is the most popular theory. Others posit, however, that the name is a derivative of 3157: 3147: 3007: 2912: 2818: 2763: 2460: 2326: 2306: 2219: 2028: 1955: 1926: 1914: 1777: 1609: 1594: 1524: 1516: 898: 766: 748: 743: 584: 575: 535: 527: 423:

A theory connects the tradition of exchanging gifts to an ancient Roman festivity in honor of

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rags, a headscarf, and carries a broom and a sack or a basket that she keeps her gifts in.

3445: 3325: 3283: 3263: 3248: 2967: 2962: 2942: 2735: 2718: 2708: 2494: 2426: 2386: 2321: 2271: 2204: 1889: 1714: 1702: 1414: 1113: 571: 2162: 2058: 3376: 3238: 3183: 3057: 2987: 2937: 2784: 2504: 2472: 2466: 2356: 2296: 2137: 2105: 2043: 2013: 1943: 730:) was released on December 27, 2018. The Italian-Spanish co-production was directed by 375: 338: 3550: 3514: 3440: 3361: 3299: 2406: 2401: 2281: 2276: 2199: 1921: 1879: 1832: 1784: 1707: 731: 507: 229: 225: 221: 209: 61: 1589:

Pitrè, Giuseppe, cited in Giuseppe Cocchiara (2016) . In Bollati Boringhieri (ed.).

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and a plate with a few morsels of food, often regional or local, for the Befana.

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Vestiges of Ancient Manners and Customs, Discoverable in Modern Italy and Sicily

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The Befana is known by several other names throughout Italy as demonstrated by

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Muthig, John (1978-01-06). "Italians Adjust to Loss of 'Little Christmas'".

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reserved for letters addressed to the Befana, mirroring what happens with

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This Befana appears to be heir at law of a certain heathen goddess called

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Young, Sheila M. (2017). "The Evolution of the Contemporary Blackening".

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Three places in Italy are nowadays associated with the Befana tradition:

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and features a 500-year-old Befana who works as a schoolteacher by day.

485: 444: 428: 370: 74: 913:"Viva La Befana". Transparent Language 6 Jan, 2009. 12 Dec, 2009. < 3409: 3366: 3356: 2992: 2870: 2366: 2336: 2068: 1849: 523: 473: 469: 278: 1608:. Madison, United States of America: University of Wisconsin Press. 1571:

Marinoni, A. (January 1916). "Popular Feasts and Legends in Italy".

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Siporin, Steve (2023). "Excerpt from Wayland D. Hand Prize Winner

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Traditionally, all Italian children may expect to find a lump of "

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are suggestive and carnivalesque and Epiphany is the start of the

131:, by Mary E. Rogers (Poe & Hitchcock, 1865) the author notes: 49: 18: 365:. In particular, her resemblance to the female German figures of 3430: 3094: 1812: 1403:

http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,596060,00.html

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Vide Rosini, ed. Dempster. lib. i. c. 13, de Dea Strenia, p. 120

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is said to be her husband. Songs sung as part of the mumming by

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Forsdyke, John (1954). "The 'Harvester Vase' of Hagia Triada".

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Pagan Christmas: Winter Feasts of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush

1470:"'The Santa Clauses' Adds Laura San Giacomo As Christmas Witch" 220:

Christian legend had it that the Befana was approached by the

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The story of the Befana and letters and pictures by children

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Calendario. Le feste, i miti, le leggende e i riti dell'anno

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Noi meniamo in giro la vecchia strega . . . e la inseguiamo,

127:, the gifts associated with the goddess Strina. In the book 1499:

La tradizione della Befana nella Maremma di Grosseto

1100: 544:(English: "Roman Festivals"), the fourth movement, titled 245:) or fruit while the bad children get coal or dark candy ( 1568:. Translated by James Steven Stallybrass. Mineola: Dover. 800:

la vecchia Befana, la Carcavecchia, la vecchia di Natale,

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In 1977, the Italian government, headed at that time by

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The Befana Is Returning: The Story of a Tuscan Festival

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The Befana Is Returning: The Story of a Tuscan Festival

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http://qcpages.qc.edu/calandra/community/commbefa.html/

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is derived from the Italian version of the Greek word

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She comes from the mountains in the deep of the night

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other gift-bringers as well, such as the Three Kings

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old woman who delivers gifts to children throughout

3423: 3392: 3339: 3313: 3292: 3171: 3116: 3103: 2901: 2796: 2707: 2538: 2260: 2181: 2092: 1969: 1823: 1454:) is "a classical name for a northern wind", from 1099:"LA VERA STORIA." La Befana n.d. 13 Dec, 2009. < 716:The Italian-language Christmas fantasy comedy film 91:A popular belief is that her name derives from the 298:precisely so they are not reduced to begging. The 119:(Greek, επιφάνεια = appearance, surface; English: 1593:. Turin, Italy: Gruppo editoriale Mauri Spagnol. 1244: 1242: 1205: 1203: 1166: 1164: 1136: 1134: 1124: 1122: 1086: 1084: 1082: 1007: 1005: 915:http://www.transparent.com/italian/tag/la-befana/ 64:. The Befana is a widespread tradition among all 1543:Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 1390:http://www.i-italy.org/16375/befana-comes-night 441: 431:(in Italian a Christmas gift used to be called 157: 133: 931:"Italian Christmas tradition of "La Befana"." 927: 925: 923: 1735: 484:where the Epiphany held the most importance. 56:(the night of January 5) in a similar way to 8: 963: 961: 959: 957: 955: 953: 951: 949: 709:, 1996 animated film, released in the US as 1559:Society for the Scientific Study of Symbols 1355:D. Augustine de Civit. Dei, lib. iv. c. 16. 1306: 1304: 1294: 1292: 1290: 155:"old woman" (vecchia) or "witch" (strega): 3113: 1742: 1728: 1720: 846:Itinerancy is a key feature of the custom. 357:She has long been noted to resemble other 1072: 1070: 1068: 1066: 236:. They asked for directions to where the 151:, some of them dialectal variants of the 1625:TFH: The Journal of History and Folklore 1056: 1054: 1052: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1044: 981:Pitrè cited in Cocchiara (2016) , p. 264 1428:"Poesie: Giovanni Pascoli: "La befana"" 977: 975: 973: 886: 783: 1534:"Epiphany is Not a Fable, Pope Says". 640:Another version is given in a poem by 3072:Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus 688:In snow and frost and the north wind! 684:Look how tired she is! All wrapped up 232:, a few days before the birth of the 107:). Many people believe that the name 39: 7: 3541:Witchcraft in folklore and mythology 627:With her shoes all tattered and torn 480:, her figure is associated with the 23:A wooden puppet depicting the Befana 1538:. 1978-01-09. Retrieved 2024-03-04. 416:and which dates as far back as the 933:Italian-Link.com n.d. 15 Dec, 2009 692:Here comes, here comes the Befana! 631:She comes dressed in the Roman way 173:borrowed straight from the Hebrew 14: 1673:"Christmas in Abruzzo: La Befana" 1584:Catholic News Service – Newsfeeds 1536:Catholic News Service – Newsfeeds 719:The Legend of the Christmas Witch 676:Here comes, here comes the Befana 3493: 3492: 2948:Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 2843:Old Santeclaus with Much Delight 1468:Rice, Lynette (August 5, 2022). 530:by the 19th century Roman poet 496:" in their stockings (actually 2928:Bronner's Christmas Wonderland 2857:Christmas Day in the Workhouse 2240:Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer 2019:Legend of the Christmas Spider 1504:Cacopardo, Augusto S. (2016). 1458:, meaning "from the mountains" 1197:Siporin 2023, pp. 103, 105-108 518:and the Epiphany, where toys, 1: 2879:Christmas television specials 2778:The New Oxford Book of Carols 1865:Annunciation to the shepherds 1659:10.1080/0015587X.2017.1327633 1591:Storia del folklore in Europa 1511:Cattabiani, Alfredo (2008) . 1179:Siporin 2023, pp. 100, 90, 92 553:province of Pesaro and Urbino 2933:Christmas and holiday season 1566:Teutonic Mythology: Volume I 1561:. Germany. pp. 141–166. 967:Cattabiani 1988, pp. 108-114 711:How the Toys Saved Christmas 671:The English translation is: 653:Vien dai monti a notte fonda 618:The English translation is: 439:(1823), John J. Blunt says: 390:Interpretations and theories 1515:. Milan, Italy: Mondadori. 657:Come è stanca! la circonda 551:The town of Urbania in the 3574: 3531:Female legendary creatures 1845:Adoration of the Shepherds 990:Cacopardo 2016, pp. 240-61 747:featured Befana played by 129:Domestic Life in Palestine 16:Figure in Italian folklore 3488: 3089:WWE Tribute to the Troops 2850:A Visit from St. Nicholas 2771:The Oxford Book of Carols 2347:Feast of the Seven Fishes 1910:Massacre of the Innocents 1759: 999:Siporin 2023, pp. 112-113 661:Neve e gelo e tramontana! 623:The Befana comes by night 605:Con le scarpe tutte rotte 460:Befana of Campomarino di 412:that was practiced among 2891:Apollo 8 Genesis reading 1696:Befana, an academic view 1257:Siporin 2023, pp. 92, 99 1101:http://www.la-befana.it/ 1090:Siporin 2022, p. 144-173 609:Col vestito alla romana 532:Giuseppe Gioachino Belli 3556:Christmas gift-bringers 3053:Small Business Saturday 2923:Black Friday (shopping) 2918:Black Friday (partying) 2412:Nine Lessons and Carols 2342:Events and celebrations 1604:Siporin, Steve (2022). 1586:. Retrieved 2024-03-04. 1564:Grimm, Jacob (2004a) . 728:La Befana vien di notte 601:La Befana vien di notte 359:Christmas gift-bringers 267:Saint Anthony the Abbot 195:Appearance and behavior 2697:Post-War United States 1450:Tramontana (English - 1346:Frank 2004, pp. 161-63 1337:Siporin 2022, p. 17-40 1298:Forsdyke 1954, pp. 1-9 727: 696: 669: 665:Viene, viene la Befana 649:Viene, viene la Befana 638: 616: 465: 449: 162: 138: 104: 31:and folk customs, the 24: 2746:Hit singles in the US 2741:Hit singles in the UK 2302:Carols by Candlelight 2230:Santa Claus' daughter 1838:Adoration of the Magi 741:Christmas miniseries 673: 646: 635:Long live the Befana! 620: 613:Viva, Viva La Befana! 598: 459: 249:), onions or garlic. 22: 3521:Christmas characters 3038:Santa's Candy Castle 2362:Google Santa Tracker 1328:Siporin 2022, p. 174 1310:Marinoni 1916, p. 72 1275:Siporin 2023, p. 100 1236:Siporin 2023, p. 114 1218:Siporin 2023, p. 102 1209:Siporin 2023, p. 106 1188:Siporin 2023, p. 103 1170:Siporin 2022, p. 191 1128:Siporin 2023, p. 108 1076:Muthig 1978, pp. 2-3 1029:Siporin 2023, p. 112 1020:Siporin 2023, p. 109 1011:Siporin 2023, p. 104 452:Contemporary customs 406:Una casa senza porte 224:, also known as the 3546:Witchcraft in Italy 3043:Santa Claus Village 2958:Christmas Mountains 2864:Journey of the Magi 1870:Baptism of the Lord 1417:retrieved 2010-1-04 1266:Siporin 2023, p. 91 1248:Siporin 2023, p. 90 1227:Siporin 2023, p. 99 1149:Siporin 2023, p. 93 1140:Siporin 2023, p. 95 1038:Smith 2004, pp. 3-4 285:Traditional customs 164:Italian folklorist 105:Festa dell'Epifania 87:Names and etymology 3526:Christmas in Italy 3153:Twelve-dish supper 3003:Jews and Christmas 2953:Christmas Lectures 2682:American Civil War 2417:NORAD Tracks Santa 1793:Saint Nicholas Day 1713:2017-01-23 at the 1701:2017-08-15 at the 1573:The Sewanee Review 1474:Deadline Hollywood 1415:DI FILASTROCCHE.IT 1284:Young 2017, p. 254 1158:Biondi 1981, p. 67 1060:Grimm 1883, p. 282 706:La freccia azzurra 466: 257:Associated figures 142:Alfredo Cattabiani 41:[beˈfaːna] 25: 3508: 3507: 3484: 3483: 3148:Thirteen desserts 3068:Virginia O'Hanlon 2913:Advent Conspiracy 2827:Films (Christmas, 2819:A Christmas Carol 2764:Carols for Choirs 2307:Cavalcade of Magi 2287:Boar's Head Feast 1956:Star of Bethlehem 1927:Nativity of Jesus 1915:flight into Egypt 1800:St. Stephen's Day 1614:978-0-29933-730-8 1599:978-88-339-7450-7 1529:978-88-04-58419-3 903:978-0-06-135024-5 749:Laura San Giacomo 744:The Santa Clauses 585:Kensington Market 576:province of Parma 536:Ottorino Respighi 528:Romanesco dialect 418:Upper Paleolithic 3563: 3536:Italian folklore 3500: 3496: 3495: 3331:Redcurrant sauce 3120: 3114: 3109: 3083:Winter festivals 2833:Christmas horror 2800: 2711: 2542: 2397:Meals and feasts 2317:Christmas jumper 2264: 2235:Santa's reindeer 2187: 2133:Father Christmas 2097: 2054:Santa's workshop 1975: 1937:in later culture 1815: 1808: 1801: 1794: 1787: 1780: 1773: 1766: 1753: 1744: 1737: 1730: 1721: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1679:. 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