Biomolecular condensate - Knowledge (XXG)

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condensate" directly addresses this challenge by making no assumption regarding either the physical mechanism through which assembly is achieved, nor the material state of the resulting assembly. Consequently, cellular bodies that form through liquid–liquid phase separation are a subset of biomolecular condensates, as are those where the physical origins of assembly are unknown. Historically, many cellular non-membrane bound compartments identified microscopically fall under the broad umbrella of biomolecular condensates.

103: 1300:(Dsh or Dvl) protein undergoes clustering in the cytoplasm via its DIX domain, which mediates protein clustering (polymerisation) and phase separation, and is important for signal transduction. The Dsh protein functions both in planar polarity and Wnt signalling, where it recruits another supramolecular complex (the Axin complex) to Wnt receptors at the plasma membrane. The formation of these Dishevelled and Axin containing droplets is conserved across metazoans, including in 562:. With this in mind, the term 'biomolecular condensates' was deliberately introduced to reflect this breadth (see below). Since biomolecular condensation generally involves oligomeric or polymeric interactions between an indefinite number of components, it is generally considered distinct from formation of smaller stoichiometric protein complexes with defined numbers of subunits, such as viral capsids or the proteasome – although both are examples of spontaneous 900: 593: 1638:

amino acid residues are represented by single interaction sites. Compared to more detailed molecular descriptions, residue-level models provide high computational efficiency, which enables simulations to cover the long length and time scales required to study phase separation. Moreover, the resolution of these models is sufficiently detailed to capture the dependence on amino acid sequence of the properties of the system.

251: 211:: "Hence the study of life may be best begun by the study of those physico-chemical phenomena which result from the contact of two different liquids. Biology is thus but a branch of the physico-chemistry of liquids; it includes the study of electrolytic and colloidal solutions, and of the molecular forces brought into play by solution, osmosis, diffusion, cohesion, and crystallization." 1520:. In this case, light-activation removes the dimerizer cage, allowing it to recruit IDRs to multivalent cores, which then triggers phase separation. Light-activation of a different wavelength results in the dimerizer being cleaved, which then releases the IDRs from the core and consequentially dissolves the condensate. This dimerizer system requires significantly reduced amounts of 1326:. These granules separate out from the cytoplasm and form droplets, as oil does from water. Both the granules and the surrounding cytoplasm are liquid in the sense that they flow in response to forces, and two of the granules can coalesce when they come in contact. When (some of) the molecules in the granules are studied (via 1448:

that govern the formation of biomolecular condensates, synthetic condensates can still be engineered to exhibit different behaviors. One popular way to conceptualize condensate interactions and aid in design is through the "sticker-spacer" framework. Multivalent interaction sites, or "stickers", are

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constituted by folded domains connected by intrinsically disordered regions. Current residue-level models are only applicable to the study of condensates of intrinsically disordered proteins and nucleic acids. Including an accurate description of the folded domains in these models will considerably

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Several residue-level models of intrinsically disordered proteins have been developed in recent years. Their common features are (i) the absence of an explicit representation of solvent molecules and salt ions, (ii) a mean-field description of the electrostatic interactions between charged residues

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of interest, thus allowing the condensate to serve as a scaffold for protein release or recruitment. These binding sites can be modified to be sensitive to light activation or small molecule addition, thus giving temporal control over the recruitment of a specific protein of interest. By recruiting

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in 1858. Amorphous substances such as starch and cellulose were proposed to consist of building blocks, packed in a loosely crystalline array to form what he later termed "micelles". Water could penetrate between the micelles, and new micelles could form in the interstices between old micelles. The

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have been extensively used to gain insights into the formation and the material properties of biomolecular condensates. Although molecular models of different resolution have been employed, modelling efforts have mainly focused on coarse-grained models of intrinsically disordered proteins, wherein

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To identify liquid-liquid phase separation and formation of condensate liquid droplets, one needs to demonstrate the liquid behaviors (viscoelasticity) of the condensates. Furthermore, mechanical processes are key to condensate related diseases, as pathological changes to condensates can lead to

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within cells or extracellular secretions. However, unequivocally demonstrating that a cellular body forms through liquid–liquid phase separation is challenging, because different material states (liquid vs. gel vs. solid) are not always easy to distinguish in living cells. The term "biomolecular

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was introduced in the context of intracellular assemblies as a convenient and non-exclusionary term to describe non-stoichiometric assemblies of biomolecules. The choice of language here is specific and important. It has been proposed that many biomolecular condensates form through liquid–liquid

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or from a bioinformatic analysis of crystal structures of folded proteins. Further refinement of the parameters has been achieved through iterative procedures which maximize the agreement between model predictions and a set of experiments, or by leveraging data obtained from all-atom molecular

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Bacteria Ribonucleoprotein Bodies (BR-bodies)- In recent studies it has been shown that bacteria RNA degradosomes can assemble into phase-separated structures, termed bacterial ribonucleoprotein bodies (BR-bodies), with many analogous properties to eukaryotic processing bodies and stress

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is trigger by light activation, phase separation is preferentially induced on the specific genomic region which is recognized by fusion protein. Because condensates of the same composition can interact and fuse with each other, if they are tethered to specific regions of the

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Residue-level models of intrinsically disordered proteins have been validated by direct comparison with experimental data, and their predictions have been shown to be accurate across diverse amino acid sequences. Examples of experimental data used to validate the models are

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C. P. Brangwynne, T. J. Mitchison, and A. A. Hyman, “Active liquid-like behavior of nucleoli determines their size and shape in Xenopus laevis oocytes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, no. 11, pp. 4334–4339,

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Leicher, Rachel; Osunsade, Adewola; Chua, Gabriella N. L.; Faulkner, Sarah C.; Latham, Andrew P.; Watters, John W.; Nguyen, Tuan; Beckwitt, Emily C.; Christodoulou-Rubalcava, Sophia; Young, Paul G.; Zhang, Bin; David, Yael; Liu, Shixin (28 April 2022).

1508:, the oligomerization domains bind each other and form a 'core', which also brings multiple IDRs close together because they are fused to the oligomerization domains. The recruitment of multiple IDRs effectively creates a new biopolymer with increased 5515:

D. Bracha, M. T. Walls, M. T. Wei, L. Zhu, M. Kurian, J. L. Avalos, J. E. Toettcher, and C. P. Brangwynne, “Mapping Local and Global Liquid Phase Behavior in Living Cells Using Photo-Oligomerizable Seeds,” Cell, vol. 175, no. 6, pp. 1467–1480.e13,

194:, stating that: "The globulin is dispersed in the solvent as particles which are the colloid particles and which are so large as to form an internal phase", and further contributed to the basic physical description of oil-water phase separation. 1601:

A number of experimental and computational methods have been developed to examine the physico-chemical properties and underlying molecular interactions of biomolecular condensates. Experimental approaches include phase separation assays using

1589:, the linker is broken, and the protein is released from the condensate. Using these design principles, proteins can either be released to, or sequestered from, their native environment, allowing condensates to serve as a tool to alter the 1680:

their solidification. Rheological methods are commonly used to demonstrate the liquid behavior of biomolecular condensates. These include active microrheological characterization by means of optical tweezers and scanning probe microscopy.

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Y. Shin, Y. C. Chang, D. S. Lee, J. Berry, D. W. Sanders, P. Ronceray, N. S.Wingreen, M. Haataja, and C. P. Brangwynne, “Liquid Nuclear Condensates Mechanically Sense and Restructure the Genome,” Cell, vol. 175, no. 6,pp. 1481–1491.e13,

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Dorone, Yanniv; Boeynaems, Steven; Jin, Benjamin; Bossi, Flavia; Flores, Eduardo; Lazarus, Elena; Michiels, Emiel; De Decker, Mathias; Baatsen, Pieter; Holehouse, Alex S.; Sukenik, Shahar; Gitler, Aaron D.; Rhee, Seung Y. (July 2021).

1428:, and have a wide and growing range of applications. Engineered synthetic condensates allow for probing cellular organization, and enable the creation of novel functionalized biological materials, which have the potential to serve as 1516:. When the activation light is stopped, the oligomerization domains disassemble, causing the dissolution of the condensate. A similar system achieves the same temporal control of condensate formation by using light-sensitive 'caged' 1480:

Other tools outside of tuning the sticker-spacer framework can be used to give new functionality and to allow for high temporal and spatial control over synthetic condensates. One way to gain temporal control over the formation and

53:. Unlike many organelles, biomolecular condensate composition is not controlled by a bounding membrane. Instead, condensates can form and maintain organization through a range of different processes, the most well-known of which is 1646:), and (iii) a set of "stickiness" parameters which quantify the strength of the attraction between pairs of amino acids. In the development of most residue-level models, the stickiness parameters have been derived from 1580:

or sequestered to inhibit reactivity. In addition to protein recruitment, condensates can also be designed which release proteins in response to certain stimuli. In this case, a protein of interest can be fused to a

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Schwarz-Romond T, Merrifield C, Nichols BJ, Bienz M (November 2005). "The Wnt signalling effector Dishevelled forms dynamic protein assemblies rather than stable associations with cytoplasmic vesicles".

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H. Zhang, C. Aonbangkhen, E. V. Tarasovetc, E. R. Ballister, D. M.Chenoweth, and M. A. Lampson, “Optogenetic control of kinetochore function,” Nature Chemical Biology, vol. 13, pp. 1096–1101, Aug 2017.

1855:"On the structure of cell protoplasm: Part I. The Structure produced in a Cell by Fixative and Post-mortem change. The Structure of Colloidal matter and the Mechanism of Setting and of Coagulation" 1513: 1462: 1530:

systems can also be modified to gain spatial control over the formation of condensates. Multiple approaches have been developed to do so. In one approach, which localizes condensates to specific

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received the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing a generalized theory of phase transitions with particular applications to describing ordering and phase transitions in polymers. Unfortunately,

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Esposito, Mark; Fang, Cao; Cook, Katelyn C.; Park, Nana; Wei, Yong; Spadazzi, Chiara; Bracha, Dan; Gunaratna, Ramesh T.; Laevsky, Gary; DeCoste, Christina J.; Slabodkin, Hannah (March 2021).

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Pa s. This is about a ten thousand times that of water at room temperature, but it is small enough to enable the LAF-1 droplets to flow like a liquid. Generally, interaction strength (

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Heidenreich M, Georgeson JM, Locatelli E, Rovigatti L, Nandi SK, Steinberg A, et al. (September 2020). "Designer protein assemblies with tunable phase diagrams in living cells".

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Bilic J, Huang YL, Davidson G, Zimmermann T, Cruciat CM, Bienz M, Niehrs C (June 2007). "Wnt induces LRP6 signalosomes and promotes dishevelled-dependent LRP6 phosphorylation".

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Synthetic condensates offer a way to probe cellular function and organization with high spatial and temporal control, but can also be used to modify or add functionality to the

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phase separation, it was left to relative outsiders – agricultural scientists and physicists – to make further progress in the study of phase separating biomolecules in cells.

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Schwarz-Romond T, Fiedler M, Shibata N, Butler PJ, Kikuchi A, Higuchi Y, Bienz M (June 2007). "The DIX domain of Dishevelled confers Wnt signaling by dynamic polymerization".

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P. Ivanov, N. Kedersha, and P. Anderson, “Stress granules and processing bodies in translational control,” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, vol. 11, no. 5, 2019.

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swelling of starch grains and their growth was described by a molecular-aggregate model, which he also applied to the cellulose of the plant cell wall. The modern usage of '

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Joseph, Jerelle A.; Reinhardt, Aleks; Aguirre, Anne; Chew, Pin Yu; Russell, Kieran O.; Espinosa, Jorge R.; Garaizar, Adiran; Collepardo-Guevara, Rosana (22 November 2021).

1371: 1377:) and valence (number of binding sites) of the phase separating biomolecules influence their condensates viscosity, as well as their overall tendency to phase separate. 576:

Mechanistically, it appears that the conformational landscape (in particular, whether it is enriched in extended disordered states) and multivalent interactions between

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Muschol, Martin; Rosenberger, Franz (1997). "Liquid–liquid phase separation in supersaturated lysozyme solutions and associated precipitate formation/crystallization".

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C. D. Reinkemeier and E. A. Lemke, “Synthetic biomolecular condensates to engineer eukaryotic cells,” Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, vol. 64, pp. 174–181, 2021.

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Dannenhoffer-Lafage, Thomas; Best, Robert B. (20 April 2021). "A Data-Driven Hydrophobicity Scale for Predicting Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation of Proteins".

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M. Yoshikawa and S. Tsukiji, “Modularly Built Synthetic Membraneless Organelles Enabling Targeted Protein Sequestration and Release,” Biochemistry, Oct 2021.

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D. Bracha, M. T. Walls, and C. P. Brangwynne, “Probing and engineering liquid-phase organelles,” Nature Biotechnology, vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1435–1445, 2019.

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Vernon, Robert McCoy; Chong, Paul Andrew; Tsang, Brian; Kim, Tae Hun; Bah, Alaji; Farber, Patrick; Lin, Hong; Forman-Kay, Julie Deborah (9 February 2018).

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Waigh TA, Gidley MJ, Komanshek BU, Donald AM (September 2000). "The phase transformations in starch during gelatinisation: a liquid crystalline approach".

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Aida Naghilou, Oskar Armbruster, Alireza Mashaghi, Scanning probe microscopy elucidates gelation and rejuvenation of biomolecular condensates. (2024)

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Ghosh, A., D. Kota, and H.-X. Zhou, Shear relaxation governs fusion dynamics of biomolecular condensates. Nature Communications, 2021. 12(1): p. 5995.

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Saar, Kadi L.; Qian, Daoyuan; Good, Lydia L.; Morgunov, Alexey S.; Collepardo-Guevara, Rosana; Best, Robert B.; Knowles, Tuomas P. J. (12 May 2023).

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FLOE1 granules: FLOE1 is a prion-like seed-specific protein that controls plant seed germination via phase separation into biomolecular condensates.

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flexibility and physically separate individual interaction modules from one another. Proteins regions identified as 'stickers' usually consist of

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form by a polymerisation process similar to phase separation, except ordered into filamentous networks instead of amorphous droplets or granules.

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An S, Kumar R, Sheets ED, Benkovic SJ (April 2008). "Reversible compartmentalization of de novo purine biosynthetic complexes in living cells".

6394:"Condensates formed by prion-like low-complexity domains have small-world network structures and interfaces defined by expanded conformations" 4840: 2673: 2649: 2625: 1385:

Growing evidence suggests that anomalies in biomolecular condensates formation can lead to a number of human pathologies such as cancer and

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Espinosa, Jorge R.; Joseph, Jerelle A.; Sanchez-Burgos, Ignacio; Garaizar, Adiran; Frenkel, Daan; Collepardo-Guevara, Rosana (June 2020).

1330:), they are found to rapidly turnover in the droplets, meaning that molecules diffuse into and out of the granules, just as expected in a 2175:

Tanaka T, Ishimoto C, Chylack LT (September 1977). "Phase separation of a protein-water mixture in cold cataract in the young rat lens".

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Tanaka T, Benedek GB (June 1975). "Observation of protein diffusivity in intact human and bovine lenses with application to cataract".

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Although intrinsically disordered proteins often play important roles in condensate formation, many biomolecular condensates contain

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tools. Several different systems have been developed which allow for control of condensate formation and dissolution which rely on

6316:"Accurate model of liquid–liquid phase behavior of intrinsically disordered proteins from optimization of single-chain properties" 3054:

Kedersha N, Anderson P (November 2002). "Stress granules: sites of mRNA triage that regulate mRNA stability and translatability".

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as an organizing principle for the compartmentalization of living cells dates back to the end of the 19th century, beginning with

6918:"Nucleosome plasticity is a critical element of chromatin liquid–liquid phase separation and multivalent nucleosome interactions" 6799:

Lebold, Kathryn M.; Best, Robert B. (23 March 2022). "Tuning Formation of Protein–DNA Coacervates by Sequence and Environment".

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via clustering to increase the local concentration of the assembling components, and is analogous to the physical definition of

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bilayers, but they are not classified as biomolecular condensates, as this term is reserved for non-membrane bound organelles.

1091: 175: 25: 6464:"Modeling Concentration-dependent Phase Separation Processes Involving Peptides and RNA via Residue-Based Coarse-Graining" 1618:

analysis of phase-separated droplets. Computational approaches include coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations and

2047: 5853:"Liquid network connectivity regulates the stability and composition of biomolecular condensates with many components" 5559:

Y. Shin and C. P. Brangwynne, “Liquid phase condensation in cell physiology and disease,” Science, vol. 357, Sep 2017.

1547:, condensates can be used to alter the spatial organization of the genome, which can have effects on gene expression. 5731:"Unraveling Molecular Interactions in Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation of Disordered Proteins by Atomistic Simulations" 182:, an organelle within the nucleus, which has subsequently been shown to form through intracellular phase separation. 6392:

Farag, Mina; Cohen, Samuel R.; Borcherds, Wade M.; Bremer, Anne; Mittag, Tanja; Pappu, Rohit V. (13 December 2022).

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Woodruff JB, Hyman AA, Boke E (February 2018). "Organization and Function of Non-dynamic Biomolecular Condensates".

3579:"Protein phase behavior in aqueous solutions: crystallization, liquid–liquid phase separation, gels, and aggregates" 2922:

Schwarz-Romond T, Metcalfe C, Bienz M (July 2007). "Dynamic recruitment of axin by Dishevelled protein assemblies".

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Farr, Stephen E.; Woods, Esmae J.; Joseph, Jerelle A.; Garaizar, Adiran; Collepardo-Guevara, Rosana (17 May 2021).

4099:"Expansion of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins Increases the Range of Stability of Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation" 1386: 5071:"The disordered P granule protein LAF-1 drives phase separation into droplets with tunable viscosity and dynamics" 3437:"Can visco-elastic phase separation, macromolecular crowding and colloidal physics explain nuclear organisation?" 698: 4948:

de Swaan Arons, J.; Diepen, G. A. M. (2010). "Immiscibility of gases. The system He-Xe: (Short communication)".

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that induce head-to-tail oligomeric or polymeric clustering, might play a role in phase separation of proteins.

6736:"Sequence dependent phase separation of protein-polynucleotide mixtures elucidated using molecular simulations" 1660: 1461:

via short patches of interacting residues patterned along their unstructured chain, which collectively promote

1450: 870: 6529:"Improved predictions of phase behaviour of intrinsically disordered proteins by tuning the interaction range" 3757:"Phase transition of a disordered nuage protein generates environmentally responsive membraneless organelles" 6653:"How do intrinsically disordered protein regions encode a driving force for liquid–liquid phase separation?" 4248:"Glycogen-Surfactant Complexes: Phase Behavior in a Water/Phytoglycogen/Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) System" 1634: 1607: 1603: 1482: 1374: 563: 444: 424: 376: 348: 344: 102: 3019:

Bienz M (October 2014). "Signalosome assembly by domains undergoing dynamic head-to-tail polymerization".

1716:"Kinetic interplay between droplet maturation and coalescence modulates shape of aged protein condensates" 1336: 1322: 1174: 996: 671: 649: 644: 543: 475: 436: 226:

in 1929, suggested that life was preceded by the formation of what Haldane called a "hot dilute soup" of "

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Jawerth, L., et al., Protein condensates as aging Maxwell fluids. Science, 2020. 370(6522): p. 1317-1323.

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droplet. The droplets can also grow to be many molecules across (micrometres) Studies of droplets of the

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Regy, Roshan Mammen; Dignon, Gregory L; Zheng, Wenwei; Kim, Young C; Mittal, Jeetain (2 December 2020).

6588:"A conceptual framework for understanding phase separation and addressing open questions and challenges" 5181:

Aguzzi A, Altmeyer M (July 2016). "Phase Separation: Linking Cellular Compartmentalization to Disease".

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form by mechanisms similar to phase separation, so can also be classified as biomolecular condensates.

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Dignon, Gregory L.; Zheng, Wenwei; Kim, Young C.; Best, Robert B.; Mittal, Jeetain (24 January 2018).

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which might be protein, lipid or nucleic acid. These ideas strongly influenced the subsequent work of

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4490:"A prion-like protein regulator of seed germination undergoes hydration-dependent phase separation" 3641:

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Also in the 1970s, physicists Tanaka & Benedek at MIT identified phase-separation behaviour of

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Beginning in the early 1970s, Harold M Farrell Jr. at the US Department of Agriculture developed a

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Posey AE, Holehouse AS, Pappu RV (2018). "Phase Separation of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins".

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In biology the term 'condensation' is used much more broadly and can also refer to liquid–liquid

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4289:"TGF-β-induced DACT1 biomolecular condensates repress Wnt signalling to promote bone metastasis" 3698:

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particles are also enclosed by a lipid monolayer. The formation of these structures involves

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3869: 3861: 3817: 3776: 3768: 3727: 3719: 3662: 3606: 3598: 3551: 3508: 3458: 3448: 3401: 3340: 3269: 3220: 3164: 3109: 3063: 3028: 2982: 2931: 2883: 2837: 2788: 2728: 2596: 2588: 2550: 2511: 2484: 2449: 2376: 2366: 2314: 2304: 2252: 2242: 2223:"Cytoplasmic phase separation in formation of galactosemic cataract in lenses of young rats" 2192: 2114: 2011: 1962: 1954: 1915: 1874: 1866: 1827: 1751: 1735: 1619: 1582: 1266: 976: 961: 931: 913: 877: 551: 547: 531: 516: 509: 471: 448: 364: 322: 318: 269: 219: 200: 130:, and this legacy is reflected to this day in the description of milk as being composed of ' 54: 3806:"A Liquid-to-Solid Phase Transition of the ALS Protein FUS Accelerated by Disease Mutation" 2769:"A role of Dishevelled in relocating Axin to the plasma membrane during wingless signaling" 2032: 899: 7185: 7168: 5786:

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4751: 4734: 4562: 3700:"Liquid droplet formation by HP1α suggests a role for phase separation in heterochromatin" 2119: 2102: 1904:"Comparative cytological studies, with especial regard to the morphology of the nucleolus" 1512:. This increased valency allows for the IDRs to form multivalent interactions and trigger 1257: 1243: 784: 767: 745: 685: 581: 456: 314: 215: 5729:

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to operate, which is advantageous because high intensity light can be toxic to cells.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2289:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2227:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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are either liquid–liquid or liquid–solid, although there have been reports of

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for a number of purposes. Synthetic biomolecular condensates are inspired by

779:

Membrane protein, or membrane-associated protein, clustering at neurological

367:

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Another example of liquid droplets in cells are the germline P granules in

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In physics, phase separation can be classified into the following types of

49:

and organelle subdomains, which carry out specialized functions within the

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Many examples of biomolecular condensates have been characterized in the

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105: 28: 6752:10.1093/nar/gkaa1099 6714:CD-CODE Encyclopedia 6533:Open Research Europe 4786:(23–24): 1619–1634. 2066:"The Origin of Life" 2048:"The Origin of Life" 1563:networks to include 1351: 1149:biological membranes 761:Synaptonemal complex 7220:2018Natur.555..300D 6934:2021NatCo..12.2883F 6746:(22): 12593–12603. 6410:2022NatCo..13.7722F 6332:2021PNAS..11811696T 6012:10.7554/eLife.31486 5944:2018PLSCB..14E5941D 5869:2020PNAS..11713238E 5863:(24): 13238–13247. 5636:2022NaRes..15.9809H 5468:2021BpJ...120.5169T 5456:Biophysical Journal 5360:2019PLSCB..15E7028C 5087:2015PNAS..112.7189E 4997:1966JChPh..44.2322D 4608:1997JChPh.107.1953M 4293:Nature Cell Biology 4265:10.1271/bbb.61.2063 4060:(1747): 4666–4684. 3955:10.1038/nature10879 3947:2012Natur.483..336L 3724:10.1038/nature22822 3716:2017Natur.547..236L 3659:2009Sci...324.1729B 3595:2008BpJ....94..570D 3583:Biophysical Journal 3548:2008FaDi..139...21S 3536:Faraday Discussions 3505:2007SMat....3..680S 3406:10.1038/nature03109 3398:2004Natur.432..492S 3337:1999JChPh.111.4800S 3161:1995FEBSL.361..135W 3106:2008Sci...320..103A 2979:2007Sci...316.1619B 2785:2003CBio...13..960C 2725:2001Natur.412..385D 2694:/www.nobelprize.org 2585:1993PhT....46k..87D 2363:1991PNAS...88.5660B 2301:1987PNAS...84.7079T 2239:1979PNAS...76.4414I 2189:1977Sci...197.1010T 2008:1912RSPSA..86..610H 1824:1899Sci....10...33W 1732:2022NatSR..12.4390G 1644:Debye–Hückel theory 1614:(FRAP), as well as 1506:wavelength of light 1446:binding specificity 1312:, and human cells. 724:Nuclear condensates 690:sickle cell disease 682:protein aggregation 636:Germline P-granules 453:colloidal chemistry 389:confocal microscopy 286:proteins from lens 7134:10.1038/nrm.2017.7 5228:(6357): eaaf4382. 4357:Developmental Cell 4009:10.1038/nrm.2017.7 3068:10.1042/bst0300963 2936:10.1242/jcs.002956 2930:(Pt 14): 2402–12. 2836:(Pt 22): 5269–77. 1720:Scientific Reports 1631:Molecular dynamics 1494:protein expression 1440:Design and control 1434:therapeutic agents 1363: 905: 737: 601: 307: 256: 162:who described the 156:William Bate Hardy 148: 108: 31: 7214:(7696): 300–302. 7085:(23): 4666–4684. 6807:(12): 2407–2419. 6598:(12): 2201–2214. 6195:(16): 4046–4056. 5741:(41): 9009–9016. 5676:(14): 8988–9009. 5630:(11): 9809–9817. 5581:(11): 1004–1005. 5462:(23): 5169–5186. 5005:10.1063/1.1727043 4842:978-0-12-815649-0 4456:10.1002/wrna.1599 4351:(February 2019). 3710:(7662): 236–240. 3653:(5935): 1729–32. 3321:(10): 4800–4806. 2973:(5831): 1619–22. 2842:10.1242/jcs.02646 2675:978-0-85404-120-6 2651:978-0-85404-742-0 2627:978-0-521-30666-9 2593:10.1063/1.2809100 1990:Hardy WB (1912). 1657:radii of gyration 1426:synthetic biology 1263: 1262: 650:Glycogen granules 571:self-organisation 548:phase transitions 472:phase transitions 319:phase transitions 7263: 7241: 7231: 7198: 7188: 7163: 7145: 7112: 7102: 7059: 7053: 7047: 7044: 7038: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7018: 6978: 6972: 6971: 6961: 6913: 6907: 6906: 6896: 6847: 6841: 6840: 6796: 6790: 6789: 6779: 6731: 6725: 6724: 6722: 6720: 6705: 6699: 6698: 6688: 6648: 6642: 6641: 6623: 6583: 6577: 6576: 6566: 6548: 6524: 6518: 6517: 6507: 6459: 6448: 6447: 6437: 6389: 6380: 6379: 6369: 6343: 6311: 6305: 6304: 6294: 6261:(5): 3134–3144. 6246: 6237: 6236: 6184: 6175: 6174: 6164: 6137:10.1002/pro.4094 6131:(7): 1371–1379. 6116: 6107: 6106: 6096: 6056: 6043: 6042: 6032: 6014: 5990: 5984: 5983: 5973: 5955: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5906: 5880: 5848: 5842: 5841: 5831: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5750: 5726: 5720: 5719: 5709: 5670:Chemical Reviews 5661: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5598: 5566: 5560: 5557: 5551: 5548: 5539: 5535: 5526: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5487: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5422: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5381: 5371: 5354:(10): e1007028. 5339: 5333: 5330: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5294: 5262: 5256: 5255: 5237: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5153: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5108: 5098: 5066: 5060: 5059: 5049: 5039: 5015: 5009: 5008: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4928: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4820: 4814: 4813: 4803: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4754: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4720: 4702: 4678: 4669: 4668: 4658: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4616:10.1063/1.474547 4602:(6): 1953–1962. 4591: 4585: 4584: 4574: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4517: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4467: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4400: 4391: 4390: 4380: 4344: 4335: 4334: 4324: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4267: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4218: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4177: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4128: 4118: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4077: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4020: 3988: 3977: 3976: 3966: 3941:(7389): 336–40. 3926: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3894: 3888: 3887: 3877: 3860:(7): 1686–1697. 3845: 3836: 3835: 3825: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3784: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3735: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3670: 3638: 3625: 3624: 3614: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3556:10.1039/b713076g 3531: 3525: 3524: 3513:10.1039/b618126k 3488: 3477: 3476: 3466: 3456: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3383: 3374: 3365: 3364: 3345:10.1063/1.479243 3330: 3328:cond-mat/9904426 3310: 3304: 3303: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3172: 3140: 3134: 3133: 3089: 3080: 3079: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3016: 3007: 3006: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2919: 2908: 2907: 2888:10.1038/nsmb1247 2871: 2862: 2861: 2824: 2815: 2814: 2796: 2764: 2755: 2754: 2736: 2734:10.1038/35086662 2704: 2698: 2697: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2638: 2632: 2631: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2602:2060/19900017655 2565: 2559: 2558: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2406: 2395: 2394: 2384: 2374: 2342: 2333: 2332: 2322: 2312: 2280: 2271: 2270: 2260: 2250: 2218: 2209: 2208: 2183:(4307): 1010–2. 2172: 2163: 2162: 2142: 2133: 2132: 2122: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2070: 2061: 2055: 2054: 2052: 2043: 2037: 2036: 2031:Leduc S (1911). 2028: 2022: 2021: 2019: 2002:(591): 610–635. 1987: 1981: 1980: 1970: 1953:(4–5): 251–337. 1938: 1932: 1931: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1882: 1865:(2): 158–210.1. 1850: 1844: 1843: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1776: 1770: 1769: 1759: 1711: 1620:circuit topology 1583:scaffold protein 1372: 1370: 1369: 1364: 1267:phase separation 1016:Dispersed phase 1010: 977:phase separation 962:phase separation 932:phase separation 914:phase separation 878:phase separation 552:DNA condensation 532:phase separation 517:phase separation 510:phase transition 476:phase separation 449:phase separation 365:phase separation 323:phase separation 284:gamma-crystallin 270:phase separation 220:Alexander Oparin 201:phase separation 55:phase separation 7273: 7272: 7266: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7201: 7166: 7115: 7072: 7068: 7066:Further reading 7063: 7062: 7054: 7050: 7045: 7041: 7036: 7032: 6980: 6979: 6975: 6915: 6914: 6910: 6849: 6848: 6844: 6798: 6797: 6793: 6733: 6732: 6728: 6718: 6716: 6707: 6706: 6702: 6650: 6649: 6645: 6585: 6584: 6580: 6526: 6525: 6521: 6461: 6460: 6451: 6391: 6390: 6383: 6313: 6312: 6308: 6248: 6247: 6240: 6186: 6185: 6178: 6125:Protein Science 6118: 6117: 6110: 6071:(11): 732–743. 6058: 6057: 6046: 5992: 5991: 5987: 5938:(1): e1005941. 5925: 5924: 5920: 5850: 5849: 5845: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5728: 5727: 5723: 5663: 5662: 5653: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5542: 5536: 5529: 5524: 5520: 5514: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5449: 5448: 5444: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5341: 5340: 5336: 5331: 5327: 5321: 5317: 5312: 5308: 5264: 5263: 5259: 5215: 5214: 5210: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5081:(23): 7189–94. 5068: 5067: 5063: 5017: 5016: 5012: 4982: 4981: 4977: 4947: 4946: 4942: 4898: 4897: 4893: 4863: 4862: 4858: 4843: 4822: 4821: 4817: 4773: 4772: 4768: 4732: 4731: 4727: 4721: 4680: 4679: 4672: 4636: 4635: 4631: 4593: 4592: 4588: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4486: 4485: 4481: 4437: 4436: 4432: 4402: 4401: 4394: 4346: 4345: 4338: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4245: 4244: 4240: 4196: 4195: 4191: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4047: 4046: 4042: 3990: 3989: 3980: 3928: 3927: 3920: 3896: 3895: 3891: 3847: 3846: 3839: 3803: 3802: 3798: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3640: 3639: 3628: 3576: 3575: 3571: 3533: 3532: 3528: 3490: 3489: 3480: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3392:(7016): 492–5. 3381: 3376: 3375: 3368: 3312: 3311: 3307: 3284: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3235: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3100:(5872): 103–6. 3091: 3090: 3083: 3062:(Pt 6): 963–9. 3053: 3052: 3048: 3018: 3017: 3010: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2921: 2920: 2911: 2873: 2872: 2865: 2826: 2825: 2818: 2773:Current Biology 2766: 2765: 2758: 2706: 2705: 2701: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2640: 2639: 2635: 2628: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2543:Starch - Stärke 2536: 2535: 2531: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2421:(10): 1911–21. 2408: 2407: 2398: 2344: 2343: 2336: 2295:(20): 7079–83. 2282: 2281: 2274: 2220: 2219: 2212: 2174: 2173: 2166: 2144: 2143: 2136: 2113:(9): 1195–206. 2100: 2099: 2095: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2068: 2063: 2062: 2058: 2050: 2045: 2044: 2040: 2030: 2029: 2025: 1989: 1988: 1984: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1778: 1777: 1773: 1713: 1712: 1703: 1698: 1686: 1677: 1628: 1599: 1553: 1540:oligomerization 1532:genomic regions 1502:oligomerization 1442: 1415:stress granules 1395: 1383: 1349: 1348: 1318: 1279: 1258:cranberry glass 1255: 1233: 1213: 1178: 1130: 1106: 1081: 1055: 1041: 1033: 973:liquid crystals 964:(LLPS) to form 937:liquid crystals 910: 897: 843: 803:colloid nodules 794: 785:tight junctions 776: 768:heterochromatin 746:Nuclear speckle 726: 686:amyloid fibrils 645:Starch granules 617: 590: 582:protein domains 528:liquid crystals 493:) that undergo 457:polymer physics 385: 338:liquid crystals 315:polymer physics 272:model for milk 254:Micelle caseine 248: 216:primordial soup 140: 100: 98:Micellar theory 95: 79:liquid crystals 41:are a class of 23: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7271: 7270: 7267: 7259: 7258: 7248: 7247: 7243: 7242: 7199: 7164: 7128:(5): 285–298. 7113: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7048: 7039: 7030: 6973: 6908: 6863:(5): 463–471. 6842: 6791: 6726: 6700: 6643: 6592:Molecular Cell 6578: 6519: 6474:(2): 669–678. 6449: 6381: 6306: 6238: 6176: 6108: 6044: 5985: 5918: 5843: 5798:(1): 525–537. 5778: 5721: 5651: 5610: 5561: 5552: 5540: 5527: 5518: 5508: 5499: 5442: 5413:(12): 166837. 5393: 5334: 5325: 5315: 5306: 5277:(10): 959–68. 5257: 5208: 5189:(7): 547–558. 5173: 5136:(9): 939–945. 5120: 5061: 5030:(5): 3479–84. 5010: 4975: 4940: 4911:(6): 420–435. 4891: 4856: 4841: 4815: 4766: 4725: 4687:Nature Methods 4670: 4629: 4586: 4557:(1): 465–494. 4537: 4479: 4430: 4392: 4363:(4): 429–444. 4336: 4299:(3): 257–267. 4279: 4258:(12): 2063–8. 4238: 4209:(4): 799–811. 4189: 4160:(3): a023598. 4140: 4089: 4040: 4003:(5): 285–298. 3978: 3918: 3912:10.1101/809210 3889: 3837: 3816:(5): 1066–77. 3796: 3767:(5): 936–947. 3761:Molecular Cell 3747: 3690: 3626: 3569: 3526: 3499:(6): 680–684. 3478: 3427: 3366: 3305: 3282: 3256: 3233: 3207: 3192: 3155:(2–3): 135–9. 3135: 3081: 3046: 3027:(10): 487–95. 3008: 2957: 2909: 2863: 2816: 2756: 2699: 2681: 2674: 2657: 2650: 2633: 2626: 2608: 2560: 2529: 2494: 2467: 2432: 2396: 2357:(13): 5660–4. 2334: 2272: 2210: 2164: 2134: 2093: 2074: 2056: 2038: 2023: 1982: 1933: 1914:(1): 265–582. 1894: 1845: 1818:(237): 33–45. 1798: 1771: 1700: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1692: 1685: 1682: 1676: 1673: 1627: 1624: 1598: 1595: 1578:reaction rates 1552: 1549: 1451:conformational 1441: 1438: 1432:platforms and 1394: 1391: 1382: 1379: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1340:protein LAF-1 1317: 1314: 1278: 1277:Wnt signalling 1275: 1261: 1260: 1250: 1226: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1167: 1127:Liquid crystal 1119: 1099: 1095: 1094: 1076: 1047: 1038: 1035: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1022: 1018: 1017: 1014: 950:liquid crystal 912:Liquid–liquid 909: 906: 896: 893: 889:liquid crystal 859:lipid droplets 853:enclosed by a 842: 835: 834: 833: 827: 817: 810: 793: 790: 789: 788: 775: 772: 764: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 734:nuclear bodies 725: 722: 721: 720: 717: 713: 706: 697:, such as the 692: 678: 675: 668: 664:formation and 659: 652: 647: 642: 633: 628: 626:Stress granule 623: 616: 613: 597:Stress granule 589: 586: 384: 381: 247: 244: 224:J.B.S. Haldane 205:Stephane Leduc 166:(then called ' 139: 136: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89:within cells. 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7269: 7268: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7251: 7239: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7070: 7065: 7058: 7052: 7049: 7043: 7040: 7034: 7031: 7026: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6977: 6974: 6969: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6912: 6909: 6904: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6846: 6843: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6795: 6792: 6787: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6730: 6727: 6715: 6711: 6704: 6701: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6647: 6644: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6582: 6579: 6574: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6520: 6515: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6458: 6456: 6454: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6388: 6386: 6382: 6377: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6310: 6307: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6183: 6181: 6177: 6172: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6104: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6049: 6045: 6040: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5989: 5986: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5922: 5919: 5914: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5844: 5839: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5782: 5779: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5725: 5722: 5717: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5660: 5658: 5656: 5652: 5646: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5624:Nano Research 5621: 5614: 5611: 5606: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5565: 5562: 5556: 5553: 5547: 5545: 5541: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5522: 5519: 5512: 5509: 5503: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5446: 5443: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5397: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5338: 5335: 5329: 5326: 5319: 5316: 5310: 5307: 5302: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5261: 5258: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5212: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5174: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5152: 5151:11573/1435875 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5124: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5065: 5062: 5057: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5014: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4985:J. Chem. Phys 4979: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4944: 4941: 4936: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4895: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4860: 4857: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4816: 4811: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4770: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4677: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4649:(2): 403–14. 4648: 4644: 4640: 4633: 4630: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4590: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4541: 4538: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4483: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4347:Schaefer KN, 4343: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4280: 4275: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4239: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4193: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4093: 4090: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3893: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3797: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3751: 3748: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3589:(2): 570–83. 3588: 3584: 3580: 3573: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3527: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3428: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3373: 3371: 3367: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3309: 3306: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3283:9780123645968 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3234:9780123645968 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3208: 3203: 3196: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3136: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3013: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2882:(6): 484–92. 2881: 2877: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2779:(11): 960–6. 2778: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2719:(6845): 385. 2718: 2714: 2710: 2703: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2685: 2682: 2677: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2658: 2653: 2647: 2643: 2637: 2634: 2629: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2609: 2603: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2573:Physics Today 2570: 2564: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2530: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2510:(6): 315–21. 2509: 2505: 2498: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2468: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2448:(2): 165–76. 2447: 2443: 2436: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2233:(9): 4414–6. 2232: 2228: 2224: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2153:(6): 449–56. 2152: 2148: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2097: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2078: 2075: 2067: 2060: 2057: 2049: 2042: 2039: 2034: 2027: 2024: 2018: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1986: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1898: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1802: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1775: 1772: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1695: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1683: 1681: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1565:binding sites 1562: 1558: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1430:drug delivery 1427: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1315: 1313: 1311: 1310: 1305: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1290: 1284: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1259: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1232: 1231: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1181:pigmented ink 1177: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1129: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1113:shaving cream 1110: 1109:whipped cream 1105: 1104: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1079:Solid aerosol 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1054: 1053: 1048: 1045: 1039: 1036: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1013:Medium/phase 1011: 1008: 1006: 1001: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 967: 963: 958: 953: 951: 947: 943: 939: 938: 934:can generate 933: 929: 925: 924: 919: 915: 907: 901: 894: 892: 890: 886: 883: 879: 875: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 855:lipid bilayer 852: 848: 840: 836: 832: 828: 826: 822: 818: 815: 811: 808: 804: 800: 799:thyroglobulin 796: 795: 791: 786: 782: 778: 777: 773: 771: 769: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 738: 735: 730: 723: 718: 714: 711: 707: 704: 700: 696: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 676: 673: 669: 667: 663: 660: 657: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 618: 614: 612: 610: 606: 598: 594: 587: 585: 583: 579: 574: 572: 568: 567:self-assembly 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 522: 518: 513: 511: 507: 502: 500: 496: 495:self assembly 492: 488: 483: 482:experiments. 481: 477: 473: 468: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 401:carbohydrates 398: 394: 390: 382: 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 341: 339: 335: 331: 329: 324: 320: 316: 312: 311:Athene Donald 303: 299: 297: 293: 289: 285: 280: 278: 276: 271: 268: 263: 261: 252: 245: 243: 241: 240:Sidney W. Fox 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 212: 210: 206: 202: 199: 195: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 144: 137: 135: 133: 129: 125: 120: 118: 113: 104: 97: 92: 90: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 27: 22: 7211: 7207: 7176: 7172: 7125: 7121: 7082: 7078: 7051: 7042: 7033: 6990: 6986: 6976: 6925: 6921: 6911: 6860: 6856: 6845: 6804: 6800: 6794: 6743: 6739: 6729: 6717:. Retrieved 6713: 6703: 6660: 6656: 6646: 6595: 6591: 6581: 6536: 6532: 6522: 6471: 6467: 6401: 6397: 6323: 6319: 6309: 6258: 6254: 6192: 6188: 6128: 6124: 6068: 6064: 6002: 5998: 5988: 5935: 5931: 5921: 5860: 5856: 5846: 5795: 5791: 5781: 5738: 5734: 5724: 5673: 5669: 5627: 5623: 5613: 5578: 5574: 5564: 5555: 5521: 5511: 5502: 5459: 5455: 5445: 5410: 5406: 5396: 5351: 5347: 5337: 5328: 5318: 5309: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5225: 5221: 5211: 5186: 5182: 5176: 5133: 5129: 5123: 5078: 5074: 5064: 5027: 5023: 5013: 4988: 4984: 4978: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4908: 4904: 4894: 4872:(2): 81–94. 4869: 4865: 4859: 4824: 4818: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4745:(1): 39–58. 4742: 4738: 4728: 4690: 4686: 4646: 4642: 4632: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4554: 4550: 4540: 4497: 4493: 4482: 4450:(6): e1599. 4447: 4443: 4433: 4411:(1): 42–49. 4408: 4404: 4360: 4356: 4296: 4292: 4282: 4255: 4251: 4241: 4206: 4202: 4192: 4157: 4153: 4143: 4109:(20): 4705. 4106: 4102: 4092: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4000: 3996: 3938: 3934: 3902: 3892: 3857: 3853: 3813: 3809: 3799: 3764: 3760: 3750: 3707: 3703: 3693: 3650: 3646: 3586: 3582: 3572: 3539: 3535: 3529: 3496: 3492: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3389: 3385: 3318: 3314: 3308: 3265: 3259: 3216: 3210: 3201: 3195: 3152: 3149:FEBS Letters 3148: 3138: 3097: 3093: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3024: 3020: 2970: 2966: 2960: 2927: 2923: 2879: 2875: 2833: 2829: 2776: 2772: 2716: 2712: 2702: 2693: 2684: 2665: 2660: 2641: 2636: 2617: 2611: 2576: 2572: 2563: 2546: 2542: 2532: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2483:(1–2): 133. 2480: 2476: 2470: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2418: 2414: 2354: 2350: 2292: 2288: 2230: 2226: 2180: 2176: 2150: 2146: 2110: 2106: 2096: 2087: 2083: 2077: 2064:Haldane JB. 2059: 2041: 2026: 1999: 1995: 1985: 1950: 1946: 1936: 1911: 1907: 1897: 1862: 1858: 1848: 1815: 1811: 1801: 1784: 1780: 1774: 1723: 1719: 1678: 1665: 1653: 1640: 1629: 1604:bright-field 1600: 1554: 1526: 1479: 1443: 1423: 1396: 1384: 1341: 1335: 1321: 1319: 1307: 1301: 1289:signalosomes 1286: 1282: 1280: 1271:gas vesicles 1264: 1252: 1247: 1228: 1210: 1200: 1189:precipitates 1169: 1164: 1157:lipoproteins 1121: 1117:Gas vesicles 1101: 1078: 1066:condensation 1049: 1002: 956: 954: 940:rather than 935: 921: 920:known as an 911: 844: 839:lipoproteins 801:colloid and 783:, cell-cell 765: 695:Signalosomes 662:Corneal lens 654:Frodosomes ( 602: 575: 514: 506:condensation 504:In physics, 503: 499:condensation 486: 484: 479: 469: 429:paraspeckles 413:signalosomes 387:Advances in 386: 352: 342: 326: 308: 295: 281: 273: 264: 257: 213: 208: 196: 149: 115: 109: 69:into either 38: 35:biochemistry 32: 6928:(1): 2883. 6404:(1): 7722. 4991:(6): 2322. 3493:Soft Matter 2549:(12): 417. 1787:: 376–381. 1726:(1): 4390. 1616:rheological 1606:imaging or 1591:biochemical 1587:irradiation 1528:Optogenetic 1522:laser light 1487:optogenetic 1483:dissolution 1467:polypeptide 1459:biopolymers 1399:synthesized 1298:Dishevelled 1074:hair sprays 1032:Dispersion 997:suspensions 874:lipoprotein 756:Paraspeckle 677:Purinosomes 621:Lewy bodies 544:suspensions 461:cytoplasmic 433:purinosomes 373:biopolymers 232:coacervates 134:micelles'. 128:biomolecule 112:Carl Nägeli 73:emulsions, 67:biopolymers 7256:Organelles 4956:(8): 806. 4693:(2): 139. 3905:: 809210. 3447:(15): 15. 2579:(11): 87. 2090:: 849–856. 2046:Oparin A. 1696:References 1622:analysis. 1567:for other 1561:condensate 1518:dimerizers 1403:endogenous 1316:P granules 1303:Drosophila 1234:Examples: 1214:Examples: 1211:Solid foam 1193:aggregates 1179:Examples: 1175:suspension 1141:hand cream 1137:mayonnaise 1131:Examples: 1082:Examples: 1056:Examples: 1044:immiscible 985:aggregates 847:organelles 751:Cajal body 680:Misfolded 441:aggregates 437:inclusions 425:assemblies 290:cells and 288:epithelial 168:protoplasm 87:aggregates 65:and other 47:organelles 19:See also: 7179:: 39–58. 7007:0959-440X 6993:: 63–70. 6950:2041-1723 6885:1545-9993 6877:1545-9985 6829:1520-6106 6821:1520-5207 6768:0305-1048 6760:1362-4962 6677:0959-440X 6663:: 41–50. 6638:249488875 6612:1097-2765 6555:2732-5121 6496:1549-9618 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