Black Horror on the Rhine

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the "instrument of oppression" against Germany, the "most cultured nation" in the world. As part of his critique of Versailles, Nitti wrote that the French had put the most "backward nations" in the Rhineland, declaring some of the "most cultured cities in Europe" that been subjected to "Negro violence" and to "physical and moral trials unknown for centuries in civilized countries". Nitti wrote the occupation of the Rhineland "had no military aim" but rather was an "attempt to force Germany to the point of moral exhaustion". At the same time, Nitti, who was very well worried about the prospect of a Communist revolution in Germany, used the "black horror" stories as a way of creating unity in Germany, urging that all Germans regardless of class should unite in the common struggle against France. As part of his call for European unity, Nitti went out of his way to portray France's African soldiers as an alien body that did not belong in Europe at all, which allowed him to condemn France as the nation responsible for this state of affairs. Nitti wrote the Senegalese were guilty of "any form of violence and crime" as their "yesterday the representatives of cannibalistic races" whom were now occupying the "country of the greatest thinkers in Europe". Throughout his speeches and essays, Nitti drew a contrast between Europeans who constituted civilization vs Africans who represented barbarism. Nitti even went so far as to say he was shocked to see and hear "music gangs of Negroes and Berbers of Africa" play "African music programmes" on the "squares of the occupied cities". Nitti wrote for him it "seemed unbearable" that Germans whose nation was a "cradle of musical genius" to listen to "Negro music". As part of his call to revise Versailles, Nitti urged that the other European nations together with the United States were under the obligation to "save culture ... from the flood of barbarism" as "Germany's fall" would mean "the downfall of one the largest driving forces of humanity". As part of his demand for a pan-Western effort to save Germany, Nitti wrote he could hear the "cry of pain of the German woman", which he wrote was a "most terrible accusation against Christian peoples," who called themselves "civilized and democratic."

1187:("civilizing mission") in Africa whereby any African who was willing to embrace the French language and culture would become French and theoretically the equal of whites, which threatened to upend Morel's beliefs in the essential biological inferiority of blacks. Morel believed that the Africans were committing outrageous crimes against Germans in the Rhineland because the French had empowered them by least theoretically making them into black Frenchmen who were just as much citizens of the republic as anyone else. Precisely because Morel believed in the uncontrolled sexuality of blacks, it was self-evident to him that the "sexually uncontrolled and uncontrollable" Senegalese would run amok in the Rhineland, raping every German female in sight. As part of his call for international solidarity with a Germany alleged to be victimized by the Treaty of Versailles, Morel wrote: "For the working classes the importation of Negro mercenaries by the hundred thousand from the heart of Africa, to fight the battles and execute the lusts of capitalist governments in the heart of Europe is ... a terrific portent. The workers, alike in Britain, France, and Italy will be ill-advised if they allow it to pass in silence because today the victims happen to be German." Morel used the alleged massive sexual violence committed against women in the Rhineland as a call for racial togetherness, writing it was in the interests of all white peoples to assist Germany with revising the terms of Versailles which permitted the "black horror on the Rhine". In the same way, Morel used the "black horror" as a way of attacking France which had caused a "sexual horror on the Rhine" and whose "reign of terror" was a "giant evil" that should inspire "shame into all four corners of the world" and ultimately should "a revision of the Versailles Treaty and the relief for Germany." 1365:(student fraternities) join forces with the town's workers in a demonstration to persuade him to stay. The villain of the novel is the "mulatto" Captain Mustapha Hassan of the French Army; the fact that "half-Arabian" Hassan is a Muslim, the self-proclaimed "black raven of Allah", who is a descendant of Muslim warriors who fought against the Crusades was meant by Kreutzer to show that France is not longer a "civilized" European Christian nation, but has rather become a "mulatto" nation that has rejected the values of the European family of nations. In an important symbolic moment, when Captain Hassan tries to rape Yrsch's daughter and Lampré comes to her defense, Hassan's white chauffeur fires a shot at him with his revolver that instead shoots off a finger of a statue of Christ in front of a church, thereby showing the French have turned their backs on Christian Europe. In another important scene, Lampré confronts his Rhenish separatist father to tell him that he "wants to be German again" rather than associate with the "niggers" of France. Lampré's industrialist father is portrayed as blinded by greed and he has to decide to support Rhenish separatism out of the potential to make millions from working with the French. Ultimately, Lampré's father sees the error of his ways and he too rediscovers his pride in being German again. The Lamprés 1170:

the main "obsession" of all black people, writing about the "instinctive and mysterious" call of racial need which supposedly made all black people obsessed with sex all the time to the exclusion of everything else, declaring that "sexual obsession" was the "elementary racial desire" of black people. In this viewpoint, as long as Africans were left in their "natural savage state", all would be well as Africans were not capable of meeting the sexual self-discipline of Europeans, which is why Morel condemned the efforts of missionaries in Africa. Through Morel had been very forceful in condemning the cruel exploitation of the Congo Free State, Morel believed in imperialism, just not the cruel exploitative imperialism of the Congo Company, writing it was the duty of whites to serve as the "trustees" for blacks and the "great white father" who would protect the "basic human rights" of Africans while at the same time accepting the "infantile" nature of black people who were not the equal in any way of whites.

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relations between the Rhinelanders and the French occupation forces were more tense with references to brawls, property damage and "four cases of death caused by the colored troops", which was less than those that white French troops were accused of. Koller also noted the vague nature of the "black horror" claims and that when it came to specifics, many of the claims of rape by the Senegalese have a "sameness" to not only the accounts of the alleged rapes, but even the same words and phrasing, which led Koller to conclude that the accounts were almost certainly fabricated. On the whole, Koller found that there were isolated cases of rape by "colored" soldiers, but there was nothing to support the claim of a reign of terror in the Rhineland by "colored" forces. The historian Raffael Scheck wrote most German newspapers outside of the Rhineland ran the "Black Horror" stories, but in fact it seems that relations between the "colored" troops and the Rhinelanders were "mostly friendly, sometimes

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lives on his estate outside of an unnamed town in the Rhineland together with his beautiful daughter, whom the Senegalese naturally want to rape. Yrsch complains about the weak Emperor who abdicated and left into exile while leaving his 70 million loyal subjects "in the abyss". Reflecting his nationalistic views, Kreutzer has a French officer say: "The German Army was the moral victor. Only numerical superiority and hunger had finally forced it to its knees. France by itself would have been overrun by Germany in less than four weeks without being able to offer any serious resistance". To humiliate Yrsch, the French demand they be allowed to open a brothel on the grounds of his estate to be operated by his daughter Marlene. The Moroccans serving in the French Army are described as having "a rough-hewn black-brown face; bulging yellowish eyes buried deep under the forehead beneath the steel helmet; the predator teeth dazzlingly bright between the burning red lips".

843:"Why this obscene maniacal outburst about the sex vitality of black men in a proletarian paper?" Rape is rape; the colour of the skin doesn't make it different. Negroes are no more over-sexed than Caucasians; mulatto children in the West Indies and America were not the result of parthenogenesis. If Negro troops had syphilis, they contracted it from the white and yellow races. As for German women, in their economic plight they were selling themselves to anyone. I do not protest because I happen to be a Negro ... I write because I feel that the ultimate result of your propaganda will be further strife and blood-spilling between whites and the many members of my race ... who have been dumped down on the English docks since the ending of the European war ... Bourbons of the United States will thank you, and the proletarian underworld of London will certainly gloat over the scoop of the Christian-Socialist pacifist 558:

way to ensure that African units were stationed as part of the Rhineland occupation force. The French deployed African soldiers to the Rhineland in part as not to ensure that build-up of black troops in France, and partly because the Germans had asked them not to be deployed. Mangin had insisted since the French were the victors, they were not going to be dictated to by the vanquished. For Diagne it was important that his fellow Senegalese be deployed to the Rhineland as a way of showing that they were equal and enjoyed the same respect as white French citizens. In a meeting with Clemenceau, Diagne had insisted that if French civilization was truly universal, then the Senegalese should allowed to march into the Rhineland alongside the rest of the French Army and not be excluded simply because the Germans found them offensive. The Francophile Diagne, who believed in the ideal of France's "

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too "weak" to stand up to France. The same conclusion was reached by the British historian Peter Collar who wrote: "... there existed in Germany a fundamental disagreement over the value of propaganda and the use to which it might be put. To the idealists of the new Republic it offered a way for Germany to advance her cause abroad in the widest sense and to get away from the excesses of the Wilhelmine era ... The Right saw things quite differently. In the far Right, exemplified in party political terms by the DNVP and by some within the Bavarian BVP, there existed a deep desire to return to past authoritarian certainty, a past that was idealised in the imagination. The concepts behind the new Republic were totally alien and were to be opposed at every opportunity." The campaign against the "black horror" was not one campaign coordinated by the

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Senegalese stationed in the Rhineland had sleeping sickness. Love letters between German women and their Senegalese boyfriends were published in French newspapers in an attempt to show that the Senegalese were not the mindless brutes intent upon raping white women as claimed by the German government. The American historian Julia Roos wrote that the debate about the "Black Horror" stories cut across ideological lines; for instance, in France, it was chiefly left-wing groups that felt the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh on Germany who were the most receptive towards promoting "black horror" stories while it was conservatives believing in the justice of Versailles who defended the Senegalese against the "black horror" claims.

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Episcopal church from Washington D.C. said in response: ""It was most unfortunate ... he should take occasion to drag into this place for high and lofty sentiments the slime and venom of the monster, colour prejudice ... Crimes committed by soldiers drunk with the feeling of resentment and the passions of bloody battles have followed all wars; there is no reason for making this invidious distinction and holding up the coloured troops alone to be guilty of such atrocities ... The dusky sons of Ham, whether from Africa or America, have come to Europe are among the bravest of the brave and the noblest of the noble, and I will not be silent while their record is attacked."

1408:, filling him with "shame" for having fought for France. By contrast, Captain Mustapha Hassan is portrayed as a sexual predator with "primitively carved features" and a "brutal" sexuality, an ugly man with beady lips who "bites like an animal" at the sight of Marlene. When Marlene rejects his advances, calling him a "half-civilized savage" with "all the arrogance of her race", he becomes obsessed with raping her in revenge. Lampré vows to protect Marlene, saying she will not be "fair game for this nigger", saying his "conscience as a human being and a man" will not let do otherwise and thereby redeems himself for his "treason" for having fought for France in the Foreign Legion. 722:, Morel had denounced the mandate system of the Treaty of Versailles for the former German colonies Africa, writing that black people could not survive "modern capitalist exploitation". Morel wrote that "French militarists, whose schemes are a menace to the entire world" would use these "Negroes, Malagasies, Berbers and Arabs ... in the interest of a capitalist and militant Order". Specifically, Morel believed the French would use their African troops to put down strikes by the white working-classes in Europe, and the theme of the French Army's Senegalese soldiers as a brutal force upholding capitalism was a recurring one in Morel's articles in 715:

Loose by France On Rhine Disappearance of Young German Girls". Morel wrote France is "thrusting her black savages into the heart of Germany", saying these "primitive African savages, the carriers of syphilis, have become a horror and a terror". As Morel was a man whose left-wing "credentials were unimpeachable" as he had gone to prison for opposing British involvement in the First World War, his articles attracted much attention both in Britain and abroad. Like many other British leftists, Morel was bitterly opposed to the Treaty of Versailles which he denounced as an unjust treaty which he blamed on a revanchist France.

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pristine charm", blonde hair worn in a "Greek node", "wise eyes", an "elegantly narrow face" with beautiful "curved brows" and a "slim shape" to her body. Marlene von Yrsch is a symbol of not only Germany, but also of the white race in general, marking out the all that was beautiful in the world vs. the hideously deformed bodies of the Senegalese, Moroccan and Indonchinese soldiers serving in the French Army. The mere sight of her causes Lampré to desert from the French Foreign Legion as he sees in her a "woe reminder of the fatherland lost forever" as his mind is flooded with images of his lost

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white and black symbolize the right while the colors red, black and gold symbolize the left. In one scene, a delegation of workers led by a huge union official respectfully pay a visit to Yrsch's estate to ask him to lead them on a struggle against the French, which was Kreutzer's way of showing that Germans needed to defer to their traditional elites to become great again. In paternal relationship, aristocrats like Yrsch understand the problems of the working class, and argue for fair treatment of the workers by their employers, which was Kreutzer's way of saying that in the

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question of racial purity more important than their wages, working conditions and standards of living, and at one point a union official says that every working-class family must be opposed to "mad strikes and Communist agitations" that weaken the unity of the German nation. In this regard, when the union leaders rebuke Lampré's father for his treasonous activities, he ceases to be an "exploitative" capitalist and turns into a "good German capitalist", having a very paternal relationship with his workers whom he takes care of and in their return defer to him.

931:, investigate these stories. General Henry T. Allen, the commander of the American occupation force in Coblenz, together with the diplomat E.L. Dresel, carried out an investigation and reported on 25 June 1920 that almost all of the stories about the "black horror on the Rhine" were baseless. Dresel wrote nearly all of the stories about atrocities were untrue and General Allen praised the "good discipline" of the Senegalese. Both men concluded that the stories about the "black horror on the Rhine" were invented to influence U.S. public opinion. After the 1446:; subsequently an attempt to escape the Rhineland ends with Marlene being killed while Lampré who once rejected German nationalism sees it is too late for him and that his "treason" for having served France can never be fully redeemed. Collar wrote that in Kreutzer's novel, the "Black Horror" was "almost subsidiary in his eyes to a bigger issue-the simple fact that Germany had lost the war. The book was simply the expression of his resentment and fury ... The tenor of the book leaves little doubt that it reflected the views of the extreme right-wing 943:, Lewis Gannett, who went to the Rhineland to investigate the allegations, found them to be mostly false. Gannett found that there had been cases of rape of German women and girls by the Senegalese, but the total number was far smaller than what had been alleged by Morel; that white French troops had also raped German women, a matter that did not interest Morel very much; and that in rape cases "the French have inflicted severe punishment upon all soldiers guilty of transgressing against the civil population". A study done by the British journalist 778:

about "barely restrainable bestiality of the black troops" and depicted the Senegalese in the Rhineland as engaging in a reign of terror against German civilians, raping and killing without mercy. In an appeal to his female readers, Morel asked the question: "is there no obligation laid upon womenhood as such, in a matter of this kind which goes to the very root of any decent instinct the war may have left alive among the white peoples of the earth?" Morel wrote that "black savages" have uncontrolled sexual impulses that "

1340:"It is this national hatred that we need! It must pulsate evenly throughout the German people, uniting them and driving them forward. This hatred of an entire people, despite a lack of weapons, will build an insuperable force and, from a certain moment in time, an irresistible one. It must act everywhere and at every moment against the French interloper. In the long term, no conqueror has ever been able to withstand such hatred and at this time in Germany the conqueror is not even there by virtue of his own power." 151: 368: 891:, stated in the House of Commons that his party "did not consider Senegalese proper troops to garrison German towns" and asked the government to apply pressure on France to pull out the Senegalese. In the spring and summer of 1920, Labour MPs repeatedly raised the issue of the "black horror" in the Rhineland and demanded the government do something to force the French to pull out their African soldiers. In September 1920 at a meeting of the 738:, the German foreign ministry, saw a chance to turn international opinion against France over this issue, and in April 1920 began a sustained propaganda campaign against the French use of "colored" troops. The Federal Foreign Office issued "talking points" to German newspapers, which all through the spring of 1920 ran front-page stories accusing the Senegalese of all sorts of atrocities against German civilians. The stories about the 1073:

Senegalese against German women and girls on the orders of their French officers. In 1921, a film was produced in Munich about the "black horror on the Rhine" that played all over Germany and in the Netherlands. In June 1921, Beveridge gave a speech at the Sagebiel Hall in Hamburg attended by some 50, 000 people during she accused the Senegalese of raping thousands of German women and girls since they had arrived in the Rhineland.

1245:"Victims of the promiscuous passions of the blacks are found half dead in meadows and ditches, their clothes in tatters, their delicate young bodies torn by the brutality of the attacks. Many have bite wounds which show clearly how wildly the black beast has fallen on his victim. I could quote innumerable examples with names and dates; and it must not be forgotten that almost all these men are infected with venereal diseases". 1091:

army and the Germans have no organised means of resistance". A theme of much the "black horror" propaganda was that of a massive contempt for the French who had to use "colored" troops to fight their wars. One of the leading "black horror" propagandists, August Ritter von Eberlein, wrote: "Without her colored troops, France is not in a position in the present tense situation to maintain her militarism and imperialism".

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speeches, Beveridge said: "Your weapons have been taken from you, but there still remains a rope and a tree. Take up the natural arms which our men from the South resort: lynch! Hang every black who assaults a white person!" Collar wrote that Beveridge, who was fluent in German, was a "charismatic orator ... able to whip up her audience into a frenzy". Linking all this together was Bevridge's call for the

355:). He argued that as Germany had a greater population and a higher birth rate than France in the early 20th century this meant that the German Army was always going to be larger than the French Army. He proposed that the French recruited extensively from their African colonies to provide an almost limitless source of manpower that could counter Germany's numerical superiority. Thus the expansion of the 562:" in Africa, had played a key role in the recruitment of soldiers in Senegal to fight for France, and thus had more influence than what his position as a mere Deputy might suggest. The "colored" troops in the Rhineland were conscripts from Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal, Madagascar and French Indochina. At their peak, the "colored" soldiers were 14% of the French occupation force in the Rhineland. 997:, Morel wrote about black men having an uncontrolled, fierce sexuality that made them want to rape white women. Morel wrote: "In ones or twos, sometimes in parties, big, stewart men from the warmer climes, armed with sword-bayonets or knives, sometimes with revolvers, living unnatural lives of restraint, their fierce passions hot within them, roam the countryside". The African-American philosopher 437: 1424:, the working class characters finally learn the SPD is a divisive force that weakens the German people by dividing the working class from the rest of the German people, and it is when the Rhenish working class learn to accept leadership from traditional elites such as the aristocracy and the industrialists that the German people can finally be united as one in the form of the 1267:, saying that the "German spirit, the German science, the German culture, and the German work" were more than enough to defeat France, provided that all Germans stand "faithfully together" and put the nation ahead of "party politics". In a speech in a Munich beerhall, Beveridge declared: "Germans unite-unity is power-only with power can you shake the chains of Versailles!". 1174: 616:, believed that black men had an uncontrolled sexuality that made them want to rape white women with abandon, and throughout his writings on the subject he accused the Senegalese of raping German women on an industrial scale, claiming that thousands upon thousands of German women and girls were raped by the Senegalese on a daily basis. The African-American historian 1237:? Because I come from a nation that ever since it came into being has been threatened by black and yellow problems and the black and yellow peril! ... I appeal to women in the world! I appeal to all men worthy of the name. Help! White women, white boys are in danger everyday, every hour of the day as long as a black is allowed to have power over a white women!" 420:. They saw the colonised subjects as having to find their own path to civilisation and relied on local elites to manage the colonial system on the ground. Both, however, viewed the subject peoples as being in debt to their conquerors, who by dominating them offered the allegedly profound benefits of French culture. Thus, despite the egalitarian ideology of the 1467:, defending the Senegalese and pointing out inaccuracies in the articles by Morel and Beveridge's speeches, for instance, stating that 50,000 Senegalese had not been stationed in the Rhineland, with the total number of "colored" troops in the Rhineland numbering 25,000, of which 4,000 were Senegalese. The pamphlet also quoted from German newspapers such as 887:, which stated that based on his previous service in Africa that he knew about the "sexual proclivities" of Africans "who in default of their own race must have intercourse with European women". Thomson denounced France for training "these savages" who are "being taught to despise the European races". On 14 April 1920, a Labour MP, 1320:), Kreutzer portrayed the Senegalese and Moroccan soldiers as thuggish rapists who violate thousands upon thousands of innocent German girls in the Rhineland, who have all the stereotypical "Aryan" look with fair skin, blonde hair and blue eyes; the hero of the novel repeatedly calls the Senegalese "nigger scum". The preface to 808:

pressure the French government to send all African troops back to Africa and called for an international agreement to ban "the use of any native African troops by any European power". On 27 April 1920, a mass protest meeting was held in London that was organised jointly by all of the main British feminist groups, namely the

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Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on 28 June 1919, the Allies had the right to occupy the Rhineland until 1935, though the last Allied troops were pulled out of the Rhineland in June 1930. German opposition to African troops being permanently stationed in Europe were shared by some in the

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as the evidence shows". Otto Wiefeldt, the German ambassador in Washington asked that his superiors supply him with "current information preferably with sensational details" as he noted that the stories about the "black horror on the Rhine" were winning over American public opinion to a pro-German position.

915:, declared in a speech his belief in the truth of Morel's claims, saying that as a white man he was outraged that the French would deploy Senegalese troops in the Rhineland. In August 1920, Morel first used the phrase "the black horror on the Rhine" in one of his pamphlets to describe the alleged atrocities. 1056:; that there had been a total of 13 reported cases of rape of German women by the Senegalese, not the thousands alleged by the CSM. In all 13 cases, the rapists had been sentenced to death after being convicted with the consul noting sharply that the French Army did not tolerate rapists in its ranks. The 1428:

to stand up to France, Germany's ancient archenemy which was responsible for the "black horror on the Rhine". In the novel, the working class march under the "old black-white-red flags" to protest the "black horror" and the expulsion order against the "national hero" Yrsch; in Germany the colors red,

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was so important that any man who did not fight against the "black horror" was not only a "slacker" and "traitor of his country", but also a "traitor against the white race." Beveridge often spoke of her "shame" for the "German race" who was not willing "to protect" the "honour" of its women from the

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wrote: "7, 000, 000 people languish under alien rule and the main artery of the German people flows through the playground of black African hordes ... It was and is the Jews who bring the Negro to the Rhineland, always with the same concealed thought and with the clear goal of destroying by the

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for them. Kreutzer accuses France of seeking to "undermine the nation's health" by allowing African soldiers to "rape and defile" German women, who are portrayed as virtuous, wholesome and chaste symbols of German racial purity, blessed with the sacred task of bearing the next generation of Germans.

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which tried to bring modern work discipline to the Congo in the early 20th century. At the same time, Morel believed that Africans, lacking the self-discipline of whites, had an uncontrolled sexuality. In a 1911 essay after visiting Nigeria, Morel had written the "reproduction" of the black race was

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in January 1920. Ray Beveridge, a German-American woman living in Germany, had given a series of speeches in Hamburg and Munich in February–March 1920 warning of the dangers of miscegenation to "the purity of the German race" caused by the presence of the Senegalese in the Rhineland. E. D. Morel had

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in December 1918. However, their presence which lasted until July 1919 did not cause great upset. Concerns were raised about the subsequent arrival of African troops in the Rhineland, first a regiment from Madagascar, and then the first Senegalese unit in May 1919. General Mangin had gone out of his

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visited the United States in November 1922, Senator Hitchcock confronted Clemenceau over the alleged "black outrages" in the Rhineland. In a speech, Senator Hitchcock declared about the Senegalese: "They are men of an inferior, half-civilized race. They are brutes when stationed among white people,

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in a letter to the State Department written in early 1921 accused Senegalese soldiers of rape, attempted rape, "immoral crimes against boys" and of forcing German officials in the Rhineland to open brothels for their benefit. The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom issued a statement

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was founded to defend the reputation of the Senegalese. French Army doctors published statistics showing that there was not an abnormally high rate of syphilis among the Senegalese and the German claim that the Africans had brought sleeping sickness to the Rhineland could not be true as none of the

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At the end of the novel, Lampré marries Marlene and becomes a killing machine, saying no-one will ever threaten his "German sanctuary again", and his "soul is finally at peace" as he takes up the task of killing Senegalese and Moroccans with gusto. He and his bride enjoy a brief moment of happiness

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Nitti, a liberal Italian politician was known for his calls for a "United States of Europe", believing that only when all of the nations of Europe become one would all of the problems of modern Europe be solved. In this regard, Nitti was strongly opposed to the Treaty of Versailles, which he called

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wrote: "The war increased the German's respect for, and his dislike of the English, but has done nothing to diminish his belief in his own superior sturdiness compared with the French. This will continue subconsciously and subcutaneously whatever happens-even though France possesses an overpowering

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by using Senegalese troops. During World War I, the presence of Africans fighting in the French Army had in the word of the British historian Barbara Bush had made "trans-racial sex between white women and black men of all classes an obsession with white men". The stationing of Senegalese troops in

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Much of the fury that the "colored" troops generated in Germany was due to the way that they inverted the normal racial hierarchy with black, brown and Asian men holding power over white Germans. A recurring theme of German complaints against the Senegalese was that Germany had now been "colonized"

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approved of Morel's article and asked that France pull all African troops out of the Rhineland at once. On 12 April 1920, Lansbury wrote again on the subject, saying if the French did not send the Senegalese back to Africa at once, "we shall have savages used to blackleg, and to coerce, the workers

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on 10 April his "indictment of the colored outrages" in the Rhineland, which attracted much attention. Morel described the Senegalese soldiers during the First World War as "primitive African barbarians ... stuffed their haversacks with eye-balls, ears and heads of the foe". Morel went on to write

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on 11 November 1918, the Allies had the right to occupy the Rhineland, and during the negotiations the Germans had specifically demanded that no African troops be included in the French occupation force. However, as the terms of the armistice were dictated to the Germans, this was of little import.

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was widely believed in both Germany and abroad. For most Germans, the French occupation of the Ruhr was a sufficiently "heinous crime against the peace" that there was no need to embellish it with "black horror" stories. At the same time, the last American occupation troops had been withdrawn from

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spark to spread". In the novel, the bodies of German women represent both literally and symbolically the tormented German nation attacked by African "savages" with the female body serving as a symbol of German racial purity. Significantly, the children born to German mothers and Senegalese fathers

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Wigger stated that writers on both sides were equally racist, but there was a difference between those as Morel and Nitti whose main interest was in revising the terms of Versailles in Germany's favor, and those like Kreutzer and Beveridge whose main interest was in proving the Weimar Republic was

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In Morel's own mind, he was an anti-racist who was fighting for the Africans. Morel believed that Africans were far closer to nature than Europeans and as such, the Africans had "the uneducated soul of the savage" and were not up to the demands of modern industrial society. As such, Morel believed

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ran an article in October 1920 titled "France Creates Hell West of the Rhine", accusing the Senegalese soldiers of committing "numberless outrages against women and girls". The Canadian historian Peter Campbell noted that the "fascinating aspect" was that there were no letters to the editor of the

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their main priority. Nelson described the pamphlets handed out by the German diplomats—some of which were written by "cranks", and which verged on the pornographic in their depiction of fair German girls being raped by brutish Africans—as presenting a long list of rapes said to be committed by the

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found that between 1918 and 1921 there had been a total of 72 creditable allegations of criminal conduct made against "colored troops" in the Rhineland, and of which only 9 concerned allegations of rape. Baker's study also listed 96 allegations of criminal conduct which had been judged "doubtful"

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on 9 April 1920, there was a cover story reporting on the occupation of Frankfurt by Morel whose title read: "Frankfurt runs red with blood French Blood Troops Use Machine-guns on Civilians". The next day another front-page article by Morel had the title: "Black Scourge In Europe Sexual Horror Let

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Lampré rejects his French lover, a licentious dancer and a "worldly little animal" whose "soulless chirping voices" and overt sexuality he finds repulsive for the more wholesome and German figure of Marlene von Yrsch. Marlene von Yrsch is blessed with all the beauty of her "race", having a "girly

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of 1919, which had seen widespread racial violence, especially race riots, across the United States causing hundreds of deaths, most of them African-American, white American public opinion was very sensitive to stories about "uppity" blacks getting out of hand, and was inclined to sympathize with

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There they have become a terror and a horror unimaginable to the countryside, raping girls and women—for well known physiological reasons, the raping of a white woman by a negro is nearly always accompanied by serious injuries and not infrequently has fatal results; spreading syphilis, murdering

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which was under siege during the German attack. As one German writer put it, "It is not the French fighting at Reims. France has entrusted the protection of the ancient city of coronation to black and brown soldiers. It is true that the defence of Reims does not cost a drop of French blood, it is

1668:

denounced France for "contributing to the dehumanization of Europe by the means of blacks, just as had done by introducing Jewish emancipation 140 years ago". The "black horror on the Rhine" story featured prominently in Nazi anti-French propaganda and throughout the Third Reich with a recurring

1356:

featured an ape-like black man wearing the uniform of a French Army private holding a half-naked white woman with a lascivious expression on his face. The hero of the novel is Baron von Yrsch, an aristocrat, former Prussian Army general, war hero and a friend of the former Emperor Wilhelm II who

1673:

ordered a major media campaign to bring back memories of the "Black Horror on the Rhine" as a reason to hate France, saying at a conference that he wanted journalists to run stories that it had been "a cultural and racial disgrace ... to bring Negroes to the Rhineland" and to remind German

1437:

can Germany recover from the defeat of 1918, and throughout the novel Germans are of all classes are seen as victimized by the French and their "colored" troops. Wigger suggested that Kreutzer was using his racism as a way of uniting all Germans together as the working class characters find the

1132:

s pamphlets claimed the Senegalese were raping 100 women/per day in the Rhineland and the Malagasy had caused epidemics of tuberculosis, dysentery, syphilis, malaria, Malta fever, leprosy, Phagedänismus and parasitic worms in the Rhineland. Appealing to the medical ignorance of its readers, the

960:

The German historian Christian Koller in an exhaustive study of complaints made by the Rhinelanders against "colored" French occupation forces found that most of the complaints were of a petty nature, such as playing unauthorized football games in parks. Most of the complaints about violence by

807:

s headlines read: "Brutes in French Uniforms. Danger to German women from 30,000 Blacks. Brothels not enough". The Central Committee of Women's Co-operative Guild in a statement expressed its "horror and indignation" at the use of Senegalese troops in the Rhineland, asked the British government

1617:" into the world and threatening German racial purity. From the viewpoint of the Rhinelanders the obsession with relationships between German women and non-white French soldiers was highlighting an aspect of the French occupation that was not to their advantage, and many of the groups like the 108:. The majority of colonial African soldiers were accused of committing rape and mutilation against the German population by government propaganda and newspapers, despite a lack of complaints in the region itself. The campaign reached its peak between 1920 and 1923, but did not stop until 1930. 1638:

in 1924 led to an improvement in Franco-German relations, and Berlin had less interest in pursuing "black horror" stories. In January 1925, the French pulled out of the northern Rhineland and by this time there were hardly any "colored" troops by the Rhine. Despite this, the Canadian feminist

1262:

in her hysterical extremes". Collar called Beveridge the most extreme of all the speakers on the theme of the "black horror", describing her as the preferred spokeswoman of the "extreme right" in Germany with her speeches being "nothing less than an incitement to racial hatred". In one of her

870:

on 22 April 1920, Morel wrote the African soldiers were the "passively obedient instrument of capitalist society" and a threat to the working classes of the nations of Europe. Reflecting his opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, Morel blamed the "black horror" on the French who deliberately

582:(Protectors of the Rhenish People) was founded with the purpose of seeking to turn public opinion against French support for the Rhenish separatism, and who hit upon the idea of using alleged crimes committed by blacks serving in the French Army as the best way to do so. Closely allied to the 1360:

Another supporting character is Lampré, the son of a Rhineland industrialist and a Rhenish separatist who initially collaborates with the French, but sees the error of his ways when confronted with the "black horror" and in the climax of the novel saves Yrsch's daughter from being raped by a

1155:

who used the "black horror" stories primarily as a weapon for attacking the Treaty of Versailles, and a "conservative racism" that embraced figures such as the German writer Guido Kreutzer and the American actress Ray Beveridge mainly found within Germany that used the "black horror" stories

1040:

In October 1920, a debate took place at a conference of Protestant clergymen at the World Ecumenical Conference in Geneva, when a Lutheran pastor from Germany asked the conference to condemn the "black horror". The African-American Reverend John R. Hawkins, representing the African Methodist

965:

involved Moroccans, usually brawls in the streets, and Koller found that complaints about sexual violence from the Senegalese were "rare", with the mayor of Worms actually wanting the "well disciplined" Senegalese to stay rather than be replaced by the more combative Moroccans. In Wiesbaden,

824:

committed by the Senegalese. At the meeting, Morel asked: "that in the interests of good feeling between all the races of the world and the security of all women, this meeting calls upon the League of Nations to prohibit the importation into Europe for warlike purposes of troops belonging to

1633:

groups opposed to the Weimar Republic used the "black horror" stories as a way of attacking the Weimar Republic as an "emasculated" state incapable of standing up to France; such attacks especially resonated with right-wing men. The end of the Ruhr crisis in September 1923 together with the

1303:

for Adolf Hitler". At the time, Beveridge had said in a speech that Hitler together with General Erich Ludendorff were her "German heroes". Beveridge later on in the 1930s renounced her U.S. citizenship to become a German citizen, joined the NSDAP, and was a well known "admirer of Hitler"."

1094:

The fear of sexuality of black men was especially felt very strongly by white feminists and throughout the 1920s, feminist publications in the United States and the United Kingdom presented the "black horror on the Rhine" stories as true. An interesting exception was when Canadian newspaper

512:

from fighting in Europe for Germany. During the war, German propaganda had often attacked the French for deploying African soldiers to fight in Europe, claiming that black men were innately savage and barbaric and it was unacceptable for the French to use Senegalese soldiers in Europe as it

906:

ran a front-paper cover story "The Black Scourge Is Now Ravaging Europe". The article began that the following story "was a revelation so horrible that only the strongest sense that it is our duty to let the public know what is being done would induce us to publish it". On 10 May 1920, the

1228:

right, which she claimed were the only men capable of "standing up" to France. Beveridge, who was well known for her exaggerated claims and a speaking style that sought to appeal to the worse prejudices in her audience, often spoke about the "mindless blacks" with "enormous sex drives and

265:. Hindenburg's view of the Senegalese was typical of German views of the Senegalese, and many German soldiers were reluctant to surrender to the Senegalese as they believed that they would be eaten by them, as racist propaganda portrayed the Senegalese as cannibals from "darkest Africa". 1674:

people that the French once again had colored soldiers fighting for the republic. During the offensive in June 1940 along the river Somme and during the pursuit into central France, the Wehrmacht killed thousands of Senegalese taken prisoner to avenge the "black horror on the Rhine".

1022:

issued a statement approving of Morel's articles and declared: "The incredible blindness of statesmen who without realizing it are turning Europe over to the black and yellow continents, which they are armed with their own hands, is itself the unconscious instrument of Destiny".

1536:

government in Berlin that the "black horror" propaganda had been too successful, charging that the picture of the Rhineland overrun by Senegalese soldiers looting, raping and killing with impunity, had destroyed the tourist trade. For this reason, the Rhenish mayors asked the

1001:

visited the Rhineland to investigate Morel's claims and found them mostly baseless. Locke also interviewed the soldiers of the French Army, which he praised as a multi-racial force when skin color did not matter, and stated the morale of the Senegalese was holding up well.

411:

viewpoint. Many of the assimilationists saw the culture and civilisation of France as something far superior to what they regarded as the barbaric customs of their non-European subjects. Another political current, the associationists advocated something along the lines of

1462:

In response to stories about the "black horror on the Rhine", the French government published pamphlets to rebut the "calumnies" while several French newspapers in editorials accused the Germans of engaging in racism In 1921, the French government published a pamphlet,

395:. This gave rise to the demand that by serving in the French Army, colonial subjects should gain full French citizenship. However, whilst military service provided a very clear expression of political allegiance to the state, French society had developed the idea of the 1607:

government started to downplay the Black Horror propaganda, which had ruined tourism in the Rhineland, causing much resentment in a largely Catholic region that at very least wanted to break away from Protestant majority Prussia. Furthermore, many of those on the

1311:

German writer Guido Kreutzer used the "black horror on the Rhine" as a way of attacking both what he saw as the "unjust" Treaty of Versailles and even more so the Weimar Republic, which was too "weak" to stand up to France. In his very popular 1921 novel

1564:, a French conservative well known for his views about upholding the Treaty of Versailles, became the French premier in 1922, there was a revival of the "black horror on the Rhineland" stories both in Germany and abroad. In Washington, Democratic Senator 956:

claimed that the sex between "colored" soldiers in the French Army and German women in the Rhineland was mostly consensual, writing: "German women were chiefly responsible for the mingling of colored and white blood which has taken place by the Rhine".

865:

Morel's article received much attention and 50,000 Swedish women signed a petition which was presented at the French Embassy in Stockholm asking the French to withdraw their "savage" Senegalese soldiers from the Rhineland. In an article in

1395:

are all born "physically and morally degenerate" and are not considered to be German. Furthermore, all of the women raped by the Senegalese cease to be German the moment they are raped, and it is made clear that there is no place in the

232:

had played a significant role in toppling the Kaiser and obliging the German state to accept the armistice. Likewise, the African soldiers of the French Army had played a significant role in the defeat of the Imperial German Army in the

1141:

wrote the worse aspect of the Treaty of Versailles was the stationing of the Senegalese in the Rhineland. Angell accused the French of putting "cannibals from the African forests" into the "cultured" university towns of the Rhineland.

1150:

The motivations of the "black horror" writers differed greatly. The German sociologist Iris Wigger divided the writers into two types; a "liberal racism" that embraced writers such as E. D. Morel and the former Italian Prime Minister

1580:

to lose interest in the "black horror on the Rhine" story. Poincaré deliberately used only white troops in occupying the Ruhr to avoid more "black horror" stories, through the claim that a Senegalese regiment had been stationed in

1592:

daß die Verwendung farbiger Truppen niederster Kultur als Aufseher über eine Bevölkerung von der hohen geistigen und wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung der Rheinländer eine herausfordernde Verletzung der Gesetze europäischer Zivilisation

1351:

as a way of attacking the Weimar Republic which is portrayed as a weak and ineffective in face of the "black horror on the Rhine", and called for Germans to embrace a "strongman" leader who would rule as a dictator. The cover of

1381:

as a way of reinforcing traditional gender roles as German women are portrayed as weak and passive, unable to protect themselves from the rampaging Senegalese and Moroccans, needing the "manly" German men to protect them. Using

253:: "Where there were no tanks our enemy sent black waves against us. Waves of black Africans! Woe to us when these waves reached our lines and massacred or worse, tortured our defenseless men!" Notwithstanding this remark by the 1249:

Beveridge's speeches were well attended and are described in contemporary newspaper reports as being greeted with huge applause, but others involved in the "black horror" campaign like Margarete Gärtner, the chairwoman of the

1048:(CSM) in an editorial on 28 October 1920 wrote: "France has gone even further than an eye-for-eye and has outplayed Germany at its worse, in a way so terrible that it is impossible to indulge in details". Two weeks later, the 342:

as they were concerned it would divert the Republic from objectives related to regaining Alsace-Lorraine. Nevertheless, French officers repeatedly ignored orders, as they led the French Army on various campaigns in Africa.

1647:

wrote "the power of France rests upon a black basis", which she called "one of the most menacing and sinister facts in history", going to condemn the French for training the Senegalese "to subdue and enslave white people".

1211:

more as "fellow travelers in the propaganda war rather than a driving force". Racism was so pervasive in Europe at the time that the "black or colored man was generally considered by the white European to be his inferior".

871:

committed this "supreme outrage" of sending these "tens of thousands of savage men" to the Rhineland. Morel predicated the "black horror" would cause another world war, writing that the average German boy was thinking: "

1415:

as a way of attacking the Social Democrats as group of working class characters in the Rhineland in the novel ultimately abandoned the SPD as they find it is only right-wing leaders like Yrsch who can create the

1373:

represent the elegantly cosmopolitan and Francophile Catholic middle classes of the Rhineland who often resented Prussian militarism as crude and overbearing, seeing themselves as a more civilized type of German.

1104:

expressing either approval or disapproval; which he noted was odd given the way in which the article appealed to the prejudices in the most base way, suggesting that the largely white, working-class readers of

1669:

image in posters showing French Army soldiers as a stereotyped Africans molesting blonde Aryan women. On 29 May 1940, in part of the preparations for an offensive scheduled for 5 June, the Propaganda Minister

1509:

condemning the "black horror on the Rhine" that was signed by all 25 of its white members of its central committee, and the only one who refused to sign was the lone African-American on the central committee,

1612:

right made much of the fact there were consensual sexual relationships between mostly lower-class women in the Rhineland and "colored" French Army soldiers, attacking these women for bringing the so-called

604:, a leading British radical liberal and an advocate of the viewpoint that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh on Germany. Much of Morel's writing on the issue was based on reports provided to him by the 1018:, wrote to President Wilson that: "thoughtful persons in America and throughout the world are horrified by the victimization of German women and girls by half-savage African troops". The French writer 758:, in a note to the Allied governments wrote: "if we should suffer from the occupation, we will accept the inferior discipline ... among your white troops if only you will rid us of this black plague!" 1595:" ("the use of troops of the lowest culture over the population of the highest spiritual and economic importance in the Rhineland is a challenging violation of the laws of European civilization"). 1568:

in a speech on the Senate floor asked the administration of President Warren G. Harding "suggest to France the substitution of white troops for black on the Rhine". When the former French premier

787:

inoffensive civilians, often getting completely out of control; the terrible barbaric incarnation of a barbarous policy, embodied in a so-called peace treaty which puts the clock back 2,000 years.

1504:, issued resolution condemning France for the "black horror on the Rhine", and which called the Senegalese "semi-civilized, useless and oft-times brutal defamers of women". The American feminist 1165:

that blacks being creatures of "strong emotions" needed to be protected from "modern civilization" which they were allegedly not capable of handling, which explained his campaigning against the

1344:

In this regard, Reventlow complained that the German people were far too disunited at present, and needed to become united by hating the French, which was why he recommended reading the novel.

1586:

the Rhineland in January 1923, which meant that courting American public opinion was less important. In a speech given in Darmstadt on 13 February 1923, the Social Democratic German president

1064:

greatly increased its propaganda with pamphlets detailing the alleged war crimes committed by the Senegalese being published in English, Dutch, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. The

726:

in 1919 and 1920. Given Morel's views of the Senegalese and his opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, he was predisposed to believe any horror story that might come out of the Rhineland.

706:

into the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland, which led the French to occupy Frankfurt on 6 April 1920 as a reprisal, saying that they would not leave Germany's business capital until the

1052:

retracted the editorial after receiving a letter from the French consul in Koblenz who showed that the total number of Senegalese in the Rhineland were 5000, not the 50,000 alleged by the

682:

Initially, there were only a few complaints from the German side about the presence of the Senegalese in the Rhineland, and not until April 1920 when the French used Moroccan soldiers to

1520:

had received leaked copies of the reports by Allen and Dresel, which he read out on the Senate floor "as act of justice and comity to a friendly nation ". Liberal American journals like

1433:

the German people would all be united together as a one big happy family. The novel repeatedly hammers home the point that only if the German people are united as one in the form of the

596:

articulated "fantastical visions of imperialism and cultural decline", as the mass rapes alleged to be committed by the Senegalese became a metaphor for Franco-German relations. The

1029: 970:

friendly for the critics" as some Rhenish women gave birth to illegitimate children with African, Berber, Arab and Asian features, disparaged through the term "Rhineland Bastards".

1336:. Reventlow wrote that Jesus Christ had taught all Christians to love their neighbor, which he took to mean all Germans should love the Rhinelanders and hate the French, writing: 1229:

unrestrained passion" who allegedly would attack "white women, white girls, white youth, often old people and even children". Beveridge usually began her speeches with the remark:

710:

left the demilitarized zone. One of the French Army units involved in occupying Frankfurt was a Moroccan company that fired into a crowd of demonstrators. Under the front-page of

1137:

maintained that it was possible to contract leprosy solely by being in the presence of a black man without even touching him. Author and historian Norman Angell in his 1921 book

809: 1037:, Stoddard promptly issued his approval, warning of the "extreme fecundity" of blacks and that "black blood, once entering a human stock, seems never to really bred out again". 1454:

was clearly but one element in the array of grievances against France. Incitement of public hatred leading to a war of revenge in the indefinite future was much in evidence".

1660:

bastardization of the white race they hate". In a 1928 speech, Hitler ranted against the "de-Germanization, Negrification and Judaization of our people". In his 1930 book

742:("the black shame") appeared frequently in the German press in the spring of 1920, running what Nelson called hysterical stories with "astonishing" frequency. The German 648:, resigned when faced with the Allied ultimatum that it should be signed with none of the changes the German government had requested. His was succeeded as Chancellor by 1274:(the collective "racial body" of the German people) pure, and as such German women as the bearers of the next generation of Germans were the most important part of the 695:

on 27 March 1920 about the French who "thrust barbarians—barbarians belonging to a race inspired by Nature with tremendous sexual instincts into the heart of Europe".

3788:"Von Wilden aller Rassen niedergemetzelt" Die Diskussion um die Verwendung von Kolonialtruppen in Europa zwischen Rassismus, Kolonial- und Militärpolitik (1914–1930) 1068:

attached so much importance to the promoting the "Black Horror on the Rhine" stories that the German embassies in Lima and Santiago were ordered to make publicizing

686:

that a hysterical campaign against the French use of "colored" soldiers began in Germany. The issue of the deployment of "colored" troops was first discussed in the

1625:

government saw its own "Black Horror" propaganda boomerang. Since Germany had been more or less disarmed by the Treaty of Versailles, it was not possible for the

1204: 1528:

ran several articles debunking the claims of "the black horror on the Rhine", showing that there were relatively few cases of rape by the Senegalese soldiers.

30: 1532:

in an article on 25 June 1921 wrote about "a horrid lack of horrors on the Rhine". By 1921, many mayors in the Rhineland were complaining in letters to the

1208: 743: 214: 862:

and criticized Morel for "his so-called physiological facts", which are "one of the great sources for racial hatred and should never be given currency".'

4041: 1254:, regarded Beveridge as a liability as she was prone to making exaggerated and false claims in her speeches that were easily rebutted by the French. The 347:, a career officer in the French Army with campaign experience in Africa, set out to resolve these conflicting imperialist strategies in his 1910 book 747: 505:

and the colonies. Diagne was a prominent supporter of the policy of assimilation, and helped recruit numerous Africans into French military service.

119:

Along with phrases like "the black scourge" and "black horror", these terms were used by campaigners in different countries beyond Germany, such as

1087: 899:

were handed to the delegates so that they learn about the "injustices" of Versailles and the "horrors" faced by the working class of the Rhineland.

77: 1121:" (Mr. Morel's kind of protection is a little reminiscent of the precepts of the Society for the Protection of Animals: 'Be good to the animals'). 1299:, Beveridge came out in support for the National Socialists, declaring it "an enormous honor" to mobilise, together with her German husband, "the 4051: 3691: 1119:

le genre de protection de M. Morel rappelle un peu le precepte que fait afficher la Society protectrice des animaux: 'Soyez bons pour les betes'

290:

were lionized as heroic and were depicted as still feeling loyal to Germany. This allowed both the right-wing parties and the government of the

42:

one. The verse text reads: The one is from Senegal / The other is called Dolezal / The Negro steals in the Rhineland / The Czech in Prague and

880: 4001: 1827:

M. M. Knight. French Colonial Policy—the Decline of "Association". The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Jun., 1933), pp. 208–224

3996: 3940: 3976: 4016: 1220:

Ray Beveridge, a conservative Germanophile American actress and an ardent racist, used the "black horror" story as a call for a right-wing

813: 508:

Although Germany had also recruited soldiers in its African colonies both before and during World War I, the Allied blockade prevented any

936:

those who claimed to be threatened by blacks. The U.S. government did not choose to make Dresel's and Allen's reports public at the time.

1390:" (national comrades) in the Rhineland, rediscover their "national source of strength" by uniting against the common foe, and allow "the 923:

In the United States, so many letters had been received by outraged citizens that President Wilson in June 1920 asked Secretary of State

888: 287: 3776: 3729: 3701: 4006: 3914: 3809:

Hitler's Black Victims: The Historical Experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi Era

3795: 3750: 973:

In the summer of 1920, Morel visited the Rhineland to investigate the matter himself, and in August 1920, he published his pamphlet

633: 469: 372: 170: 237:. This battle which was a decisive victory for the Allies, saw the French Army using a massed tank attack alongside forces of its 3740: 1689: 1203:, Bavarian, and Prussian governments together with a number of private groups. With the notable exceptions of the Communists and 1181:

Morel was very anti-French not only because of his opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, but because of the nature of France's

3713:

The "Black Horror on the Rhine": Idealism, Pacifism, and Racism in Feminism and the Left in the Aftermath of the First World War

494:. In theory, this policy was intended to provide a measure of racial equality in the French colonial empire, though in reality 258: 3893: 3818: 683: 408: 761: 620:

accused Morel of leading "one of the most racist political campaigns to be launched in the first half of the 20th century".

193:, where they joined local workers and soldiers to establish a Workers and Soldiers' Council, along the lines of the Russian 1492:

However, the French efforts were in vain. On the night of 28 February 1921, a protest rally attended by 12,000 was held in

628: 1361:"mulatto" French Army officer by killing him. When the collaborating mayor orders Yrsch out of the town, thousands of the 817: 550: 3904: 1278:. In Beveridge's mind, the alleged sexual crimes against German women were bad enough, but even worse by threatening the 546: 449: 1060:

seeing that the stories about the "black horror on the Rhine" were effective in gaining international sympathy for the

675:. The success of the Putsch would open up a possibility of a recommencement of the First World War, a fact not lost on 472:". The policy stipulated that indigenous subjects in France's colonial empire would be granted the same rights held by 751: 517: 67: 3956: 359:

could be seen as complementing rather than competing with the desire to oblige Germany to return the lost territory.

1450:

circles, for whom defeat had come as a crushing blow and for whom the new Republic was an abomination. For them the

3981: 234: 155: 39: 3828:

Nelson, Keith (December 1970). "The "Black Horror on the Rhine": Race as a Factor in Post-World War I Diplomacy".

4021: 820:, the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries and the Fabian Women's Group to condemn France for the alleged 465: 392: 4026: 4011: 993:

of the French Socialist Party; four Socialist members of the Italian parliament; and General C. B. Thomson. In

908: 1033:, warning of a black-Asian threat against what he called "World-wide White Supremacy". Upon reading Morel's 1027:, a professor at Harvard, an avowed eugenist and white supremacist, had just published his best-selling book 4036: 4031: 1651:

However, the "black horror on the Rhine" did much to shape German views of both the French and Africans. In

1329: 1152: 668: 283: 174: 1015: 735: 664: 578: 473: 356: 335: 299: 262: 63: 35: 1493: 1241:

An avowed white supremacist, Beveridge sought to impute the worse about black men, saying in one speech:

928: 653: 645: 588: 477: 421: 269: 218: 396: 173:. The German Army had already experienced a series of mutinies, particularly since the failure of the 4046: 3966: 3461: 1505: 1501: 892: 699: 311: 295: 254: 202: 1224:("people's community"), urging the German people to reject the Weimar republic and rally around the 1207:, every political group in Germany endorsed the "black horror" campaign though Collar described the 1561: 1510: 1011: 832: 641: 640:

There was political turmoil in Germany when it came to signing the Versailles Treaty. In June 1919

554: 502: 425: 339: 315: 246: 1715: 367: 62:

and elsewhere concerning allegations of widespread crimes, especially sexual crimes, committed by

3845: 1569: 1183: 559: 534: 530: 498: 490: 461: 453: 331: 240: 169:

on 3 November 1918, German revolutionaries visited numerous cities across Germany announcing the

93: 3933:

The 'Black Horror on the Rhine' Intersections of Race, Nation, Gender and Class in 1920s Germany

1128:

led by Heinrich Distler. Known for its enthusiastic hyperbole and its usually false claims, the

1479:, which all ran stories testifying to the good behavior of the "colored" troops. In Paris, the 1420:

that will allow Germany to stand up to France. Reflecting Kreutzer's conservative politics, in

221:

the same day. The MSPD actively opposed the revolution and worked with the army to establish a

150: 3936: 3910: 3889: 3814: 3791: 3772: 3746: 3725: 3697: 1614: 1565: 1517: 998: 953: 876: 660: 613: 384: 380: 139: 96:

propaganda in opposition to these events. The colonial troops referred to were soldiers from

1541:

government stop the "black horror" propaganda which had ruined the tourism in the Rhineland.

1500:

where France was condemned for the "black horror on the Rhine". A Republican Representative,

1124:

One group founded in Munich in September 1921 to campaign against the "black horror" was the

3870: 3837: 3693:

International Relations and the Labour Party: Intellectuals and Policy Making from 1918-1945

1665: 1621:

that at first promoted the stories chose to downplay them as the 1920s went on. Finally the

1166: 1024: 924: 912: 464:

which had been granted the right to send deputies to the Chamber of Deputies following the

138:, was mostly used in the English-speaking world. Children of mixed parentage were known as 3722:

The Propaganda War in the Rhineland: Weimar Germany, Race and Occupation After World War I

1670: 1587: 1082: 944: 856: 796: 617: 485: 323: 291: 276:". In the latter campaign, the native African NCOs and enlisted men who had fought in the 210: 198: 178: 154:"To the heroes of the Black Army": Monument to Senegalese soldiers of the French army who 755: 189:

By the evening of 6 November, two hundred German revolutionaries had reached the city of

782:" (emphasis in the original). Despite his claim not to hate black people, Morel wrote: 1695: 1640: 1173: 1019: 962: 676: 526: 481: 417: 344: 217:(MSPD) for the Kaiser to abdicate. This the Kaiser did on 9 November, and Ebert became 124: 59: 3977:

Racist coins created after World War I : The Watch on the Rhine / The Black Shame

3990: 3849: 3807: 1751:

African Kaiser: General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck and the Great War in Africa 1914-1918

1497: 1282:

threatened the very existence of the "German race". For Beveridge, the purity of the

457: 445: 413: 407:, this created what were considered insurmountable problems by those who defended an 399:

by which particularly French Muslims would have a distinct status, being governed by

327: 128: 34:"Brutality, Bestiality, Equality". German postcard sent in January 1923, depicting a 3961: 3886:

Hitler's African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940

1683: 1656: 1110: 990: 828: 649: 388: 278: 109: 1258:

in a report stated that Beveridge was harming the German side as she "outdoes the

436: 1549: 1513:, who refused to sign a statement that was a "direct appeal to race prejudice". 1010:

The claims made by the German government did influence American public opinion.

859: 672: 601: 522: 400: 268:

Ironically, German propaganda demonizing nonwhite colonial soldiers serving the

166: 135: 55: 1698: – Response of some white people to racial progress of other ethnic groups 3971: 3875: 3858: 1635: 1086:

the Rhineland had tapped into these fears. The British ambassador to Germany,

932: 319: 206: 105: 1442:

as they "raved and kissed" by the banks of the river Rhine and sing the song

403:

administered by local religious authorities. As the norms of Islam permitted

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was a concept of the nation linked to citizenship and military service. The

229: 101: 1552:

was one of the major promoters of the "Black Shame" in the United Kingdom.

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by Africans. A German writer, Alfred von Wrochem, in his best-selling book

17: 545:

The first non-European troops to arrive in Germany were soldiers from the

452:

provided a champion for the demand of citizenship rights being granted to

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However, the French occupation of the Ruhr on 11 January 1923 caused the

1109:

did not approve of the anti-black message. In France, a French Socialist

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that no African soldiers be used as occupation troops in the Rhineland.

428:– the development of French colonies created a quite different reality. 66:

and other African soldiers serving in the French Army during the French

3859:"Racialism on the Left: E.D. Morel and the 'Black Horror on the Rhine'" 3742:

Race and War in France: Colonial Subjects in the French Army, 1914–1918

1386:

language, Kreutzer called for all Germans to feel for their "tormented

989:

featured endorsed by the former German chancellor Prince Max of Baden;

194: 190: 97: 440:

Blaise Diagne, Senegalese champion of citizenship for military service

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The French Empire Between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society

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who had arrived in London several months earlier, wrote a letter to

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and 59 which were found to be "unjustified". The German journalist

46:/ Each in his way looks out for / France's honor, glory and praise. 1582: 1172: 760: 627: 435: 366: 182: 158: 149: 29: 1117:

that Morel claimed that he wanted to protect the Africans, but: "

592:, which was founded in early 1920. The articles published by the 516:

Under the terms of the armistice which ended the fighting on the

322:

developed in France which sought to regain the lost territory of

209:'s plan to instigate a civil war, but rather joined the call of 113: 43: 1270:

As part of her appeal, Beveridge spoke of the need to keep the

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gathered significant Army officers around him and launched the

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of the French Army as they marched into Frankfurt 6 April 1920

272:

was spread simultaneously with that of "The Cult of the Loyal

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Die Schwarze Schmach: Der Roman des geschändeten Deutschlands

363:

Political dilemma of citizenship for French colonial soldiers

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government, but several different campaigns launched by the

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had attacked the French for undermining belief in worldwide

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had sold out and by April 1921 there had been 8 editions of

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faced being disbanded. Rather than submit to this, General

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primarily as a weapon for attacking the Weimar Republic.

3395: 3393: 3332: 3330: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3240: 3238: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 2588: 2586: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2222: 2220: 2165: 2163: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2084: 2082: 2057: 2055: 2053: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1871: 1869: 1716:"Troupes De Marine: Les coloniaux sauvent REIMS en 1918" 902:

On 30 April 1920, the left-wing Canadian newspaper, the

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On 1 August 1919, an ultra-nationalist group called the

3464:. The International Encyclopedia of the First World War 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3047: 3045: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3013: 3011: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2813: 2811: 2786: 2784: 2747: 2745: 2681: 2679: 2642: 2640: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2335: 2333: 1898: 1896: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1733: 1731: 1729: 754:

and guard the Goethe House!" The Foreign Minister, Dr.

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in a speech complained that "Senegalese Negroes occupy

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In early April 1920, Germany violated the terms of the

2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 1686:– similar ethnoreligious panic in 17th century England 1030:

The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy

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in the Rhineland. At the time of the Munich Beerhall

3715:. Social History. Vol. XLVII. pp. 471–496. 1332:

who praised the novel as a much needed call for the

855:which was published on 17 April 1920 came from the 181:played a significant role in defending the city of 3806: 3769:Black Shame: African Soldiers in Europe, 1914-1922 810:Women's International League for Peace and Freedom 791:In a letter (editorial) written by the editor of 780:must be satisfied upon the bodies of white women! 769:on 10 April 1920 titled "Black Scourge in Europe" 1113:wrote on 16 March 1921 edition of the newspaper 134:The term "black horror on the Rhine", coined by 116:for bringing the Senegalese into the Rhineland. 773:Morel had published in the left-wing newspaper 3455: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3447: 873:Boys these men raped your mothers and sisters 800:of all European countries". On the same day, 8: 1692: – Period of increased racism in the US 1318:The Black Shame A Novel of Disgraced Germany 927:, to have the American ambassador in Paris, 261:in attacks on French Colonial Troops in the 238: 1209:Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany 1079:The Colonization of the Rhineland by France 215:Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany 2425: 1291:(alien body) that was now threatening the 460:, the four oldest colonial settlements in 294:to stir up support for demanding that the 177:which was brought to a halt in July 1918. 92:") were terms used by right-wing press as 3888:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3874: 652:. The terms of the treaty meant that the 326:which had been ceded to the newly formed 3967:Die Schwarze Schmach ("the black shame") 3631: 3554: 3511: 3496: 2990: 2616: 2604: 2565: 2553: 2541: 2491: 2476: 2461: 2410: 2395: 2301: 2289: 2274: 2262: 2250: 2238: 2226: 2211: 2184: 2169: 2154: 2130: 2088: 2073: 2061: 2044: 2032: 1978: 1961: 1946: 1927: 816:, the Federation of Women Teachers, the 424:– which would theoretically exclude any 1815: 1791: 1779: 1707: 977:. Within a month, all 5, 000 copies of 3982:The Interconnections of Discrimination 3972:No Second "Black Horror on the Rhine"? 3863:International Review of Social History 3674: 3662: 3650: 3619: 3604: 3592: 3573: 3542: 3523: 3484: 3438: 3423: 3411: 3399: 3384: 3372: 3360: 3348: 3336: 3321: 3309: 3297: 3285: 3273: 3261: 3244: 3229: 3208: 3187: 3175: 3163: 3148: 3136: 3124: 3109: 3090: 3075: 3063: 3051: 3036: 3017: 3002: 2978: 2966: 2954: 2942: 2930: 2918: 2906: 2894: 2882: 2870: 2858: 2846: 2834: 2817: 2802: 2790: 2775: 2763: 2751: 2736: 2724: 2712: 2697: 2685: 2670: 2658: 2646: 2631: 2592: 2577: 2529: 2510: 2446: 2378: 2366: 2345: 2324: 2196: 2142: 2109: 2009: 1990: 1902: 1887: 1875: 1860: 1848: 1836: 1803: 1767: 1737: 1481:Comité d'Assistance aux Troupes Noires 947:published in the July 1921 edition of 879:politician and former general officer 444:The election of Senegalese politician 1465:La campagne contre les troupes noires 691:written in a letter to the editor of 36:Senegalese soldier of the French army 7: 1477:Deutsche pazifistische Monatsschrift 814:National Federation of Women Workers 513:"endangered" European civilization. 257:, the highly armed German Army used 3790:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. 1629:to go to war with France, and the 1516:The Francophile Republican Senator 644:, the first democratically elected 1645:The British Columbia Federationist 1097:The British Columbia Federationist 895:, free copies of Morel's pamphlet 839:, which was not published, asking: 391:was introduced in 1793 during the 25: 4042:Events that led to courts-martial 634:3rd Moroccan Tirailleurs Regiment 373:7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment 255:Chief of the German General Staff 1690:Nadir of American race relations 851:Another letter to the editor of 27:Racial panic in interwar Germany 3962:"Black Horror" and "White Race" 3909:. Manchester University Press. 600:was in very close contact with 529:and the British Prime Minister 338:, opposed participation in the 245:(colonial army). Field Marshal 201:, Deputy Chief of Staff of the 197:. When reports of this reached 1488:Reception in the United States 1107:British Columbia Federationist 1102:British Columbia Federationist 904:British Columbia Federationist 875:" (emphasis in the original). 468:as part of a policy known as " 462:France's West African colonies 1: 3830:The Journal of Modern History 3767:Galen Last, Dick van (2015). 3711:Campbell, Peter (June 2014). 306:French use of colonial troops 282:under the command of General 186:Negroes who are sacrificed." 3997:Anti-black racism in Germany 3813:. London: Psychology Press. 3739:Fogarty, Richard S. (2008). 1662:The Myth of the 20th Century 1205:Independent Social Democrats 919:Investigations of the claims 624:Responses to the Kapp Putsch 547:Siamese Expeditionary Forces 310:Following the defeat of the 4017:Occupation of the Rhineland 3460:Roos, Julia (28 May 2015). 752:the University of Frankfurt 586:was the woman's group, the 501:continued to exist both in 379:One of the products of the 330:. Thus politicians such as 68:occupation of the Rhineland 4068: 3786:Koller, Christian (2001). 818:Women's Co-operative Guild 541:Non-European troops arrive 525:, and both U.S. President 454:France's colonial soldiers 450:French Chamber of Deputies 249:wrote in his 1920 memoirs 235:Second Battle of the Marne 4052:Germany–Senegal relations 3876:10.1017/s0020859000000419 3857:Reinders, Robert (1968). 3805:Lusane, Clarence (2002). 3690:Ashworth, Lucien (2007). 1054:Christian Science Monitor 1050:Christian Science Monitor 1046:Christian Science Monitor 663:had created to crush the 533:asked the French Premier 456:. Diagne represented the 432:Election of Blaise Diagne 393:French Revolutionary Wars 205:, he no longer supported 52:Black Horror on the Rhine 4007:History of the Rhineland 4002:France–Germany relations 3884:Scheck, Raffael (2006). 1599:Continuing preoccupation 1330:Count Ernst zu Reventlow 909:Prime Minister of Sweden 883:published an article in 831:, a Jamaican writer and 448:in February 1914 to the 314:by the Prussians in the 179:French colonial soldiers 3957:The Horror on the Rhine 3903:Thomas, Martin (2007). 2909:, p. 72 & 114. 1720:www.troupesdemarine.org 1469:Sozialistische Republik 1411:Finally, Kreutzer used 1153:Francesco Saverio Nitti 1035:The Horror on the Rhine 1006:International reception 995:The Horror on the Rhine 987:The Horror on the Rhine 985:. The third edition of 983:The Horror on the Rhine 979:The Horror on the Rhine 975:The Horror on the Rhine 897:The Horror on the Rhine 284:Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck 175:German spring offensive 70:between 1918 and 1930. 3771:. London: Bloomsbury. 3724:. London: I.B.Tauris. 3720:Collar, Peter (2013). 3462:"Die Schwarze Schmach" 1473:Der Christliche Pilger 1342: 1247: 1239: 1178: 961:"colored" soldiers in 849: 789: 770: 736:Federal Foreign Office 730:Height of the campaign 720:The Black's Man Burden 665:revolutionary movement 637: 584:Rheinische Volkspflege 579:Rheinische Volkspflege 567:Rheinische Volkspflege 523:English-speaking world 441: 376: 357:French colonial empire 318:in 1871, a current of 300:German colonial empire 239: 162: 47: 3935:. London: Macmillan. 3931:Wigger, Iris (2017). 1749:Robert Gaudi (2017), 1643:in a 1925 article in 1619:Rheinische Frauenliga 1494:Madison Square Garden 1338: 1252:Rheinische Frauenliga 1243: 1231: 1184:mission civilisatrice 1176: 1139:The Fruits of Victory 929:Hugh Campbell Wallace 841: 784: 764: 654:counter-revolutionary 646:Chancellor of Germany 631: 606:Rheinische Frauenliga 598:Rheinische Frauenliga 594:Rheinische Frauenliga 589:Rheinische Frauenliga 571:Rheinische Frauenliga 491:mission civilisatrice 439: 422:French Third Republic 389:military conscription 370: 288:East African Campaign 270:Third French Republic 219:Chancellor of Germany 156:successfully defended 153: 33: 1506:Harriet Connor Brown 1502:Frederick A. Britten 1422:Die Schwarze Schmach 1413:Die Schwarze Schmach 1379:Die Schwarze Schmach 1354:Die Schwarze Schmach 1349:Die Schwarze Schmach 1324:was written by the 1322:Die Schwarze Schmach 1014:, the leader of the 893:Trade Union Congress 825:primitive peoples." 700:Treaty of Versailles 673:Kapp–Lüttwitz Putsch 669:Walther von Lüttwitz 416:as practised by the 312:Second French Empire 203:Imperial German Army 80:Die schwarze Schmach 73:Die schwarze Schande 1444:Lovers by the Rhine 1377:Kreutzer also used 1216:Racism on the right 1070:Die schwarze Schand 1012:Dudley Field Malone 881:Christopher Thomson 833:industrial unionist 765:Morel's article in 740:Die schwarze Schand 642:Philipp Scheidemann 503:Metropolitan France 340:scramble for Africa 336:Radical Republicans 316:Franco-Prussian War 247:Paul von Hindenburg 3526:, p. 621-622. 3499:, p. 488-489. 3441:, p. 619-620. 3178:, p. 166-167. 3127:, p. 167-168. 2969:, p. 176-177. 2957:, p. 127-129. 2945:, p. 126-127. 2885:, p. 250-251. 2873:, p. 258-259. 2634:, p. 113-114. 2556:, p. 485-486. 1890:, p. 612-613. 1863:, p. 609-610. 1839:, p. 607-608. 1794:, p. 254-256. 1615:Rhineland Bastards 1570:Georges Clemenceau 1530:The New York Times 1179: 1160:Racism on the left 1016:Farmer–Labor Party 771: 638: 612:and member of the 560:civilizing mission 535:Georges Clemenceau 531:David Lloyd George 499:racial segregation 474:citizens of France 442: 377: 332:Georges Clemenceau 298:return the former 241:Troupes coloniales 163: 140:Rhineland Bastards 94:German nationalist 90:the Black Disgrace 48: 3942:978-0-230-34361-0 1566:Gilbert Hitchcock 1518:Henry Cabot Lodge 1435:Volksgemeinschaft 1431:Volksgemeinschaft 1426:Volksgemeinschaft 1418:Volksgemeinschaft 1397:Volksgemeinschaft 1334:Volksgemeinschaft 1265:Volksgemeinschaft 1222:Volksgemeinschaft 999:Alain LeRoy Locke 954:Maximilian Harden 868:The Labour Leader 718:In his 1919 book 661:Weimar government 381:French Revolution 171:German Revolution 16:(Redirected from 4059: 4022:Race and society 3946: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3899: 3880: 3878: 3853: 3824: 3812: 3801: 3782: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3735: 3716: 3707: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3577: 3571: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3527: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3473: 3472: 3470: 3469: 3457: 3442: 3436: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3397: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3351:, p. 90-91. 3346: 3340: 3334: 3325: 3324:, p. 84-90. 3319: 3313: 3307: 3301: 3300:, p. 97-98. 3295: 3289: 3283: 3277: 3276:, p. 96-97. 3271: 3265: 3259: 3248: 3242: 3233: 3227: 3212: 3206: 3191: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3113: 3107: 3094: 3093:, p. 84-85. 3088: 3079: 3078:, p. 83-84. 3073: 3067: 3061: 3055: 3049: 3040: 3034: 3021: 3015: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2934: 2928: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2856: 2850: 2849:, p. 66-67. 2844: 2838: 2832: 2821: 2815: 2806: 2805:, p. 64-65. 2800: 2794: 2788: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2766:, p. 61-63. 2761: 2755: 2749: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2715:, p. 55-56. 2710: 2701: 2695: 2689: 2683: 2674: 2673:, p. 52-53. 2668: 2662: 2661:, p. 51-52. 2656: 2650: 2644: 2635: 2629: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2607:, p. 11-12. 2602: 2596: 2590: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2533: 2527: 2514: 2508: 2495: 2489: 2480: 2474: 2465: 2459: 2450: 2444: 2429: 2423: 2414: 2408: 2399: 2393: 2382: 2376: 2370: 2364: 2349: 2343: 2328: 2322: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2215: 2209: 2200: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2173: 2167: 2158: 2152: 2146: 2140: 2134: 2128: 2113: 2107: 2092: 2086: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2048: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2013: 2007: 1994: 1988: 1982: 1976: 1965: 1959: 1950: 1944: 1931: 1925: 1906: 1900: 1891: 1885: 1879: 1873: 1864: 1858: 1852: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1828: 1825: 1819: 1813: 1807: 1806:, p. 60-65. 1801: 1795: 1789: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1765: 1754: 1753:, pages 419-422. 1747: 1741: 1735: 1724: 1723: 1712: 1666:Alfred Rosenberg 1603:After 1921, the 1562:Raymond Poincaré 1526:The New Republic 1452:Schwarze Schmach 1363:Burschenschaften 1235:Schwarze Schmach 1167:Congo Free State 1025:Lothrop Stoddard 925:Bainbridge Colby 913:Hjalmar Branting 885:The Daily Herald 853:The Daily Herald 837:The Daily Herald 806: 802:The Daily Herald 793:The Daily Herald 775:The Daily Herald 767:The Daily Herald 724:The Daily Herald 712:The Daily Herald 684:occupy Frankfurt 632:The band of the 476:as long as they 397:statut personnel 371:Soldiers of the 244: 223:liberal republic 213:, leader of the 21: 4067: 4066: 4062: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4056: 4027:1921 in Germany 4012:1920 in Germany 3987: 3986: 3953: 3943: 3930: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3902: 3896: 3883: 3856: 3827: 3821: 3804: 3798: 3785: 3779: 3766: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3738: 3732: 3719: 3710: 3704: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3673: 3669: 3661: 3657: 3649: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3580: 3572: 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2426:Galen Last 2015 2424: 2417: 2409: 2402: 2394: 2385: 2377: 2373: 2365: 2352: 2344: 2331: 2323: 2308: 2300: 2296: 2288: 2281: 2277:, p. 9-10. 2273: 2269: 2261: 2257: 2249: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2225: 2218: 2210: 2203: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2176: 2168: 2161: 2153: 2149: 2141: 2137: 2129: 2116: 2108: 2095: 2087: 2080: 2072: 2068: 2060: 2051: 2043: 2039: 2031: 2016: 2008: 1997: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1968: 1960: 1953: 1945: 1934: 1926: 1909: 1901: 1894: 1886: 1882: 1874: 1867: 1859: 1855: 1847: 1843: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1814: 1810: 1802: 1798: 1790: 1786: 1778: 1774: 1766: 1757: 1748: 1744: 1736: 1727: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1680: 1671:Joseph Goebbels 1601: 1588:Friedrich Ebert 1558: 1547: 1490: 1460: 1458:French response 1218: 1162: 1148: 1083:white supremacy 1008: 949:Current History 945:J. Ellis Barker 939:A reporter for 921: 889:Josiah Wedgwood 804: 797:George Lansbury 732: 702:by sending the 626: 618:Clarence Lusane 574: 549:who arrived in 543: 488:as part of the 466:1848 revolution 434: 409:assimilationist 387:or forced mass 365: 353:The Black Force 324:Alsace-Lorraine 308: 292:Weimar Republic 263:battle of Reims 211:Friedrich Ebert 199:Wilhelm Groener 148: 86:the Black Shame 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4065: 4063: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4037:1921 in France 4034: 4032:1920 in France 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3989: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3952: 3951:External links 3949: 3948: 3947: 3941: 3928: 3915: 3900: 3894: 3881: 3854: 3842:10.1086/244041 3836:(4): 606–627. 3825: 3819: 3802: 3796: 3783: 3778:978-1472532138 3777: 3764: 3751: 3736: 3731:978-1784536695 3730: 3717: 3708: 3703:978-1845115586 3702: 3696:. I.B.Tauris. 3685: 3682: 3680: 3679: 3677:, p. 3-4. 3667: 3665:, p. 103. 3655: 3653:, p. 626. 3636: 3634:, p. 492. 3624: 3622:, p. 625. 3609: 3597: 3595:, p. 624. 3578: 3576:, p. 623. 3559: 3547: 3545:, p. 622. 3528: 3516: 3514:, p. 490. 3501: 3489: 3487:, p. 620. 3474: 3443: 3428: 3426:, p. 222. 3416: 3414:, p. 221. 3404: 3389: 3377: 3365: 3353: 3341: 3326: 3314: 3312:, p. 113. 3302: 3290: 3278: 3266: 3249: 3234: 3213: 3192: 3190:, p. 167. 3180: 3168: 3166:, p. 166. 3153: 3151:, p. 116. 3141: 3139:, p. 168. 3129: 3114: 3095: 3080: 3068: 3066:, p. 128. 3056: 3041: 3022: 3007: 3005:, p. 216. 2995: 2983: 2981:, p. 129. 2971: 2959: 2947: 2935: 2933:, p. 126. 2923: 2911: 2899: 2897:, p. 251. 2887: 2875: 2863: 2851: 2839: 2822: 2807: 2795: 2780: 2768: 2756: 2741: 2729: 2717: 2702: 2690: 2675: 2663: 2651: 2636: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2595:, p. 140. 2582: 2580:, p. 137. 2570: 2558: 2546: 2544:, p. 473. 2534: 2532:, p. 250. 2515: 2513:, p. 619. 2496: 2481: 2479:, p. 482. 2466: 2464:, p. 485. 2451: 2449:, p. 618. 2430: 2428:, p. 183. 2415: 2413:, p. 480. 2400: 2398:, p. 479. 2383: 2371: 2350: 2329: 2327:, p. 617. 2306: 2304:, p. 488. 2294: 2292:, p. 483. 2279: 2267: 2255: 2243: 2241:, p. 6-7. 2231: 2216: 2201: 2189: 2187:, p. 478. 2174: 2159: 2157:, p. 484. 2147: 2135: 2133:, p. 477. 2114: 2112:, p. 616. 2093: 2078: 2076:, p. 3-4. 2066: 2049: 2037: 2014: 2012:, p. 615. 1995: 1993:, p. 614. 1983: 1981:, p. 476. 1966: 1964:, p. 475. 1951: 1949:, p. 474. 1932: 1930:, p. 472. 1907: 1892: 1880: 1878:, p. 611. 1865: 1853: 1851:, p. 609. 1841: 1829: 1820: 1818:, p. 282. 1808: 1796: 1784: 1782:, p. 235. 1772: 1770:, p. 607. 1755: 1742: 1740:, p. 608. 1725: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1699: 1696:White backlash 1693: 1687: 1679: 1676: 1641:Rose Henderson 1600: 1597: 1578:Auswärtige Amt 1557: 1554: 1546: 1545:United Kingdom 1543: 1489: 1486: 1459: 1456: 1347:Kreutzer used 1307:Likewise, the 1256:Auswärtige Amt 1217: 1214: 1161: 1158: 1147: 1144: 1088:Lord D'Abernon 1066:Auswärtige Amt 1058:Auswärtige Amt 1020:Romain Rolland 1007: 1004: 920: 917: 748:Hermann Müller 731: 728: 625: 622: 573: 564: 542: 539: 527:Woodrow Wilson 482:French culture 433: 430: 385:levée en masse 364: 361: 349:La force noire 345:Charles Mangin 307: 304: 165:Following the 147: 144: 125:United Kingdom 60:Weimar Germany 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4064: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3918: 3916:9780719077555 3912: 3908: 3907: 3901: 3897: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3816: 3811: 3810: 3803: 3799: 3797:3-515-07765-0 3793: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3754: 3752:9780801888243 3748: 3745:. JHU Press. 3744: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3699: 3695: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3671: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3632:Campbell 2014 3628: 3625: 3621: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3607:, p. 38. 3606: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3557:, p. 61. 3556: 3555:Ashworth 2007 3551: 3548: 3544: 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3512:Campbell 2014 3508: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3497:Campbell 2014 3493: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3463: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3405: 3402:, p. 98. 3401: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3387:, p. 93. 3386: 3381: 3378: 3375:, p. 92. 3374: 3369: 3366: 3363:, p. 89. 3362: 3357: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3342: 3339:, p. 90. 3338: 3333: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3315: 3311: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3291: 3288:, p. 97. 3287: 3282: 3279: 3275: 3270: 3267: 3264:, p. 96. 3263: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3247:, p. 95. 3246: 3241: 3239: 3235: 3232:, p. 85. 3231: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3211:, p. 88. 3210: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3181: 3177: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3112:, p. 84. 3111: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3057: 3054:, p. 72. 3053: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3039:, p. 74. 3038: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3023: 3020:, p. 76. 3019: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2996: 2993:, p. 16. 2992: 2991:Reinders 1968 2987: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2972: 2968: 2963: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2948: 2944: 2939: 2936: 2932: 2927: 2924: 2921:, p. 77. 2920: 2915: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2864: 2861:, p. 70. 2860: 2855: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2840: 2837:, p. 69. 2836: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2823: 2820:, p. 66. 2819: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2796: 2793:, p. 65. 2792: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2778:, p. 64. 2777: 2772: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2757: 2754:, p. 60. 2753: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2739:, p. 59. 2738: 2733: 2730: 2727:, p. 57. 2726: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2700:, p. 54. 2699: 2694: 2691: 2688:, p. 53. 2687: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2652: 2649:, p. 52. 2648: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2626: 2622: 2619:, p. 12. 2618: 2617:Reinders 1968 2613: 2610: 2606: 2605:Reinders 1968 2601: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2571: 2568:, p. 19. 2567: 2566:Reinders 1968 2562: 2559: 2555: 2554:Campbell 2014 2550: 2547: 2543: 2542:Campbell 2014 2538: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2494:, p. 21. 2493: 2492:Reinders 1968 2488: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2477:Campbell 2014 2473: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2462:Campbell 2014 2458: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2411:Campbell 2014 2407: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2396:Campbell 2014 2392: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2381:, p. 96. 2380: 2375: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2348:, p. 74. 2347: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2302:Campbell 2014 2298: 2295: 2291: 2290:Campbell 2014 2286: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2275:Reinders 1968 2271: 2268: 2264: 2263:Reinders 1968 2259: 2256: 2252: 2251:Reinders 1968 2247: 2244: 2240: 2239:Reinders 1968 2235: 2232: 2228: 2227:Reinders 1968 2223: 2221: 2217: 2214:, p. 17. 2213: 2212:Reinders 1968 2208: 2206: 2202: 2199:, p. 50. 2198: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2185:Campbell 2014 2181: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2170:Reinders 1968 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2155:Campbell 2014 2151: 2148: 2145:, p. 73. 2144: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2131:Campbell 2014 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2089:Reinders 1968 2085: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2074:Reinders 1968 2070: 2067: 2063: 2062:Reinders 1968 2058: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045:Reinders 1968 2041: 2038: 2034: 2033:Reinders 1968 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1984: 1980: 1979:Campbell 2014 1975: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1962:Campbell 2014 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1947:Campbell 2014 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1928:Campbell 2014 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1905:, p. 80. 1904: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1881: 1877: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1746: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1708: 1702: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1598: 1596: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1556:Story revives 1555: 1553: 1551: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1498:New York City 1495: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1436: 1432: 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Morel 58:aroused in 56:moral panic 18:Black shame 3991:Categories 3895:0521857996 3820:0415932955 3468:2018-04-16 1703:References 1653:Mein Kampf 1636:Dawes Plan 1522:The Nation 1328:activist 1115:Foi et Vie 941:The Nation 933:Red Summer 857:Africanist 822:war crimes 708:Reichswehr 704:Reichswehr 693:The Nation 659:which the 555:Palatinate 426:color line 320:revanchism 259:poison gas 251:Mein Leben 207:Wilhelm II 146:Background 127:, and the 106:Madagascar 64:Senegalese 3850:144070894 688:Reichstag 657:Freikorps 553:, in the 334:, of the 230:Rhineland 228:Thus the 102:Indochina 3869:: 1–28. 1678:See also 1631:völkisch 1610:völkisch 1448:völkisch 1392:völkisch 1384:völkisch 1326:völkisch 1309:völkisch 1301:Chiemgau 1226:völkisch 1130:Notbund' 610:pacifist 551:Neustadt 496:de facto 486:language 405:polygamy 3684:Sources 1590:said: " 1260:Notbund 1135:Notbund 1126:Notbund 510:Askaris 480:to the 418:British 375:in 1917 195:soviets 191:Cologne 112:blamed 98:Senegal 3939: 3922:10 May 3913: 3892: 3848: 3817: 3794: 3775: 3749: 3728: 3700: 1406:Heimat 1297:putsch 812:, the 274:Askari 123:, the 121:Canada 104:, and 88:" or " 54:was a 3846:S2CID 3758:9 May 1627:Reich 1623:Reich 1605:Reich 1583:Essen 1560:When 1539:Reich 1534:Reich 1201:Reich 1197:Reich 1062:Reich 963:Worms 805:' 183:Reims 159:Reims 40:Czech 3937:ISBN 3924:2018 3911:ISBN 3890:ISBN 3815:ISBN 3792:ISBN 3773:ISBN 3760:2018 3747:ISBN 3726:ISBN 3698:ISBN 1524:and 1475:and 1371:fils 1369:and 1367:pere 1044:The 744:MSPD 734:The 569:and 484:and 114:Jews 50:The 44:Eger 3871:doi 3838:doi 1593:ist 1496:in 968:too 76:or 3993:: 3867:13 3865:. 3861:. 3844:. 3834:42 3832:. 3639:^ 3612:^ 3581:^ 3562:^ 3531:^ 3504:^ 3477:^ 3446:^ 3431:^ 3392:^ 3329:^ 3252:^ 3237:^ 3216:^ 3195:^ 3156:^ 3117:^ 3098:^ 3083:^ 3044:^ 3025:^ 3010:^ 2825:^ 2810:^ 2783:^ 2744:^ 2705:^ 2678:^ 2639:^ 2624:^ 2585:^ 2518:^ 2499:^ 2484:^ 2469:^ 2454:^ 2433:^ 2418:^ 2403:^ 2386:^ 2353:^ 2332:^ 2309:^ 2282:^ 2219:^ 2204:^ 2177:^ 2162:^ 2117:^ 2096:^ 2081:^ 2052:^ 2017:^ 1998:^ 1969:^ 1954:^ 1935:^ 1910:^ 1895:^ 1868:^ 1758:^ 1728:^ 1718:. 1664:, 1655:, 1471:, 911:, 795:, 679:. 302:. 225:. 142:. 131:. 100:, 84:(" 3945:. 3926:. 3898:. 3879:. 3873:: 3852:. 3840:: 3823:. 3800:. 3781:. 3762:. 3734:. 3706:. 3471:. 1722:. 1613:" 1316:( 847:. 351:( 20:)

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Knowledge

Black Horror on the Rhine

Index