954:
A group with a high level of role differentiation would be categorized as having many different roles that are specialized and narrowly defined. A key role in a group is the leader, but there are other important roles as well, including task roles, relationship roles, and individual roles. Functional (task) roles are generally defined in relation to the tasks the team is expected to perform. Individuals engaged in task roles focus on the goals of the group and on enabling the work that members do; examples of task roles include coordinator, recorder, critic, or technician. A group member engaged in a relationship role (or socioemotional role) is focused on maintaining the interpersonal and emotional needs of the groups' members; examples of relationship role include encourager, harmonizer, or compromiser.
741:
social groups, collective groups, and categories. It is important to define these four types of groups because they are intuitive to most lay people. For example, in an experiment, participants were asked to sort a number of groups into categories based on their own criteria. Examples of groups to be sorted were a sports team, a family, people at a bus stop and women. It was found that participants consistently sorted groups into four categories: intimacy groups, task groups, loose associations, and social categories. These categories are conceptually similar to the four basic types to be discussed. Therefore, it seems that individuals intuitively define aggregations of individuals in this way.
777:
groups of different races. For this reason, categories can appear to be higher in entitativity and essentialism than primary, social, and collective groups. Entitativity is defined by
Campbell as the extent to which collections of individuals are perceived to be a group. The degree of entitativity that a group has is influenced by whether a collection of individuals experience the same fate, display similarities, and are close in proximity. If individuals believe that a group is high in entitativity, then they are likely to believe that the group has unchanging characteristics that are essential to the group, known as essentialism. Examples of categories are New Yorkers, gamblers, and women.
726:
membership within the group will be satisfying and an individual will be more likely to join the group. If membership in the group is above the comparison level for alternatives but below the comparison level, membership will be not be satisfactory; however, the individual will likely join the group since no other desirable options are available. When group membership is below the comparison level for alternatives but above the comparison level, membership is satisfying but an individual will be unlikely to join. If group membership is below both the comparison and alternative comparison levels, membership will be dissatisfying and the individual will be less likely to join the group.
750:
the group to be an important part of their lives. Consequently, members strongly identify with their group, even without regular meetings. Cooley believed that primary groups were essential for integrating individuals into their society since this is often their first experience with a group. For example, individuals are born into a primary group, their family, which creates a foundation for them to base their future relationships. Individuals can be born into a primary group; however, primary groups can also form when individuals interact for extended periods of time in meaningful ways. Examples of primary groups include family, close friends, and gangs.
714:, comparison level is the standard by which an individual will evaluate the desirability of becoming a member of the group and forming new social relationships within the group. This comparison level is influenced by previous relationships and membership in different groups. Those individuals who have experienced positive rewards with few costs in previous relationships and groups will have a higher comparison level than a person who experienced more negative costs and fewer rewards in previous relationships and group memberships. According to the
1075:, Zajonc concluded that in the presence of others, when action is required, depending on the task requirement, either social facilitation or social interference will impact the outcome of the task. If social facilitation occurs, the task will have required a dominant response from the individual resulting in better performance in the presence of others, whereas if social interference occurs the task will have elicited a nondominant response from the individual resulting in subpar performance of the task.
961:
They are a fundamental aspect of group structure as they provide direction and motivation, and organize the social interactions of members. Norms are said to be emergent, as they develop gradually throughout interactions between group members. While many norms are widespread throughout society, groups may develop their own norms that members must learn when they join the group. There are various types of norms, including: prescriptive, proscriptive, descriptive, and injunctive.
619:. Examples of groups include religious, political, military, and environmental groups, sports teams, work groups, and therapy groups. Amongst the members of a group, there is a state of interdependence, through which the behaviours, attitudes, opinions, and experiences of each member are collectively influenced by the other group members. In many fields of research, there is an interest in understanding how group dynamics influence individual behaviour, attitudes, and opinions.
1230:, rooted in group conflict between the ethnic Hutu and Tutsi). In contrast, intergroup competition can sometimes be relatively harmless, particularly in situations where there is little history of conflict (for example, between students of different universities) leading to relatively harmless generalizations and mild competitive behaviours. Intergroup conflict is commonly recognized amidst racial, ethnic, religious, and political groups.
1012:
the free flow of information. Decentralized communications make it easy to share information directly between group members. When decentralized, communications tend to flow more freely, but the delivery of information may not be as fast or accurate as with centralized communications. Another potential downside of decentralized communications is the sheer volume of information that can be generated, particularly with electronic media.
800:). For example, one might imagine a young teenager in the United States who tries to balance these desires, not wanting to be ‘just like everyone else,’ but also wanting to ‘fit in’ and be similar to others. One's collective self may offer a balance between these two desires. That is, to be similar to others (those who you share group membership with), but also to be different from others (those who are outside of your group).
835:. Since then, several models for understanding the concept of group cohesion have been developed, including Albert Carron's hierarchical model and several bi-dimensional models (vertical v. horizontal cohesion, task v. social cohesion, belongingness and morale, and personal v. social attraction). Before Lewin and Festinger, there were, of course, descriptions of a very similar group property. For example,
722:
alternatives. This comparison level for alternatives is the standard by which an individual will evaluate the quality of the group in comparison to other groups the individual has the opportunity to join. Thiabaut and Kelley stated that the "comparison level for alternatives can be defined informally as the lowest level of outcomes a member will accept in the light of available alternative opportunities.”
790:). In this way, these comparisons give us a distinct and valued social identity that benefits our self-esteem. Our social identity and group membership also satisfies a need to belong. Of course, individuals belong to multiple groups. Therefore, one's social identity can have several, qualitatively distinct parts (for example, one's ethnic identity, religious identity, and political identity).
36:
597:: which occurs in groups nested in larger groups (e.g. companies). In companies, supportive contexts involves a) reward systems that reward performance and cooperation (e.g. group based rewards linked to group performance), b) an educational system that develops member skills, c) an information and materials system that provides the needed information and raw materials (e.g. computers).
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group members perceive an individual's status to be warranted and deserved, as otherwise they may not have authority within the group. Status differentials may affect the relative amount of pay among group members and they may also affect the group's tolerance to violation of group norms (e.g. people with higher status may be given more freedom to violate group norms).
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members (number of ties between members). Analysing the intermember relations aspect of a group can highlight the degree centrality of each member in the group, which can lead to a better understanding of the roles of certain group (e.g. an individual who is a 'go-between' in a group will have closer ties to numerous group members which can aid in communication, etc.).
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in a way that might jeopardize the group tend to be treated more harshly than the likeable ones in a group, creating a black sheep effect. Full members of a fraternity might treat the incoming new members harshly, causing the pledges to decide if they approve of the situation and if they will voice their disagreeing opinions about it.
926:. There are both positive and negative implications of group influence on individual behaviour. This type of influence is often useful in the context of work settings, team sports, and political activism. However, the influence of groups on the individual can also generate extremely negative behaviours, evident in Nazi Germany, the
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ratio seems attractive. According to Howard Kelley and John
Thibaut, a group may be attractive to us in terms of costs and benefits, but that attractiveness alone does not determine whether or not we will join the group. Instead, our decision is based on two factors: our comparison level, and our comparison level for alternatives.
1190:, intergroup conflict starts with a process of comparison between individuals in one group (the ingroup) to those of another group (the outgroup). This comparison process is not unbiased and objective. Instead, it is a mechanism for enhancing one's self-esteem. In the process of such comparisons, an individual tends to:
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contends that when a person is working in the presence of other people, an interference effect occurs splitting the individual's attention between the task and the other person. On simple tasks, where the individual is not challenged by the task, the interference effect is negligible and performance,
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expanded the study of arousal response (originated by
Triplett) with further research in the area of social facilitation. In his study, Zajonc considered two experimental paradigms. In the first—audience effects—Zajonc observed behaviour in the presence of passive spectators, and the second—co-action
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can be defined as a tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate with others in a particular way. Roles may be assigned formally, but more often are defined through the process of role differentiation. Role differentiation is the degree to which different group members have specialized functions.
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on college campuses, pledges may encounter this type of situation and may outwardly comply with the tasks they are forced to do regardless of their personal feelings about the Greek institution they are joining. This is done in an effort to avoid becoming an outcast of the group. Outcasts who behave
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Primary groups are characterized by relatively small, long-lasting groups of individuals who share personally meaningful relationships. Since the members of these groups often interact face-to-face, they know each other very well and are unified. Individuals that are a part of primary groups consider
571:
Richard
Hackman developed a synthetic, research-based model for designing and managing work groups. Hackman suggested that groups are successful when they satisfy internal and external clients, develop capabilities to perform in the future, and when members find meaning and satisfaction in the group.
403:
Conversely, a struggling group can devolve to an earlier stage, if unable to resolve outstanding issues at its present stage. Schutz referred to these group dynamics as "the interpersonal underworld," group processes which are largely unseen and un-acknowledged, as opposed to "content" issues, which
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considers the way a person approaches social situations. It predicts that self-confident individuals with a positive outlook will show performance gains through social facilitation, whereas a self-conscious individual approaching social situations with apprehension is less likely to perform well due
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assumes that individuals can control how they are perceived by others. He suggests that people fear being perceived as having negative, undesirable qualities and characteristics by other people, and that it is this fear that compels individuals to portray a positive self-presentation/social image of
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describe the flow of information within the group and they are typically described as either centralized or decentralized. With a centralized pattern, communications tend to flow from one source to all group members. Centralized communications allow standardization of information, but may restrict
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are goals or ideas that serve as guiding principles for the group. Like norms, values may be communicated either explicitly or on an ad hoc basis. Values can serve as a rallying point for the team. However, some values (such as conformity) can also be dysfunction and lead to poor decisions by the
960:
are the informal rules that groups adopt to regulate members' behaviour. Norms refer to what should be done and represent value judgments about appropriate behaviour in social situations. Although they are infrequently written down or even discussed, norms have powerful influence on group behaviour.
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Bogart and Ryan surveyed the development of new members' stereotypes about in-groups and out-groups during socialization. Results showed that the new members judged themselves as consistent with the stereotypes of their in-groups, even when they had recently committed to join those groups or existed
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A social group is characterized by a formally organized group of individuals who are not as emotionally involved with each other as those in a primary group. These groups tend to be larger, with shorter memberships compared to primary groups. Further, social groups do not have as stable memberships,
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Groups can vary drastically from one another. For example, three best friends who interact every day as well as a collection of people watching a movie in a theater both constitute a group. Past research has identified four basic types of groups which include, but are not limited to: primary groups,
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that states that people will join and remain in a group that can provide them with the maximum amount of valuable rewards while at the same time, ensuring the minimum amount of costs to themselves. However, this does not necessarily mean that a person will join a group simply because the reward/cost
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within a group. Status can be determined by a variety of factors and characteristics, including specific status characteristics (e.g. task-specific behavioural and personal characteristics, such as experience) or diffuse status characteristics (e.g. age, race, ethnicity). It is important that other
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are the connections among the members of a group, or the social network within a group. Group members are linked to one another at varying levels. Examining the intermember relations of a group can highlight a group's density (how many members are linked to one another), or the degree centrality of
881:
of an individual, members of the in-group may experience different private beliefs about the group's activities but will publicly express the opposite—that they actually share these beliefs. One member may not personally agree with something the group does, but to avoid the black sheep effect, they
785:
The social group is a critical source of information about individual identity. We naturally make comparisons between our own group and other groups, but we do not necessarily make objective comparisons. Instead, we make evaluations that are self-enhancing, emphasizing the positive qualities of our
776:
Categories are characterized by a collection of individuals who are similar in some way. Categories become groups when their similarities have social implications. For example, when people treat others differently because of certain aspects of their appearance or heritage, for example, this creates
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can create conflict. For example, Fischer & Ferlie found initially positive dynamics between a clinical institution and its external authorities dramatically changed to a 'hot' and intractable conflict when authorities interfered with its embedded clinical model. Similarly, underlying the 1999
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whereby he suggested people associate social situations with an evaluative process. Cottrell argued this situation is met with apprehension and it is this motivational response, not arousal/elevated drive, that is responsible for increased productivity on simple tasks and decreased productivity on
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theorized that "the bodily presence of another rider is a stimulus to the racer in arousing the competitive instinct...". This dynamogenic factor is believed to have laid the groundwork for what is now known as social facilitation—an "improvement in task performance that occurs when people work in
814:
In the social sciences, group cohesion refers to the processes that keep members of a social group connected. Terms such as attraction, solidarity, and morale are often used to describe group cohesion. It is thought to be one of the most important characteristics of a group, and has been linked to
689:
Joining a group is determined by a number of different factors, including an individual's personal traits; gender; social motives such as need for affiliation, need for power, and need for intimacy; attachment style; and prior group experiences. Groups can offer some advantages to its members that
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A group's structure is the internal framework that defines members' relations to one another over time. Frequently studied elements of group structure include roles, norms, values, communication patterns, and status differentials. Group structure has also been defined as the underlying pattern of
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within a more broadly defined group. For example, one could define U.S. residents (‘Americans’) as a group, but could also define a more specific set of U.S. residents (for example, 'Americans in the South'). For each of these groups, there are distinct dynamics that can be discussed. Notably, on
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to reduce prejudice. That is, a more broadly defined, ‘umbrella’ group/identity that includes the groups that are in conflict. By emphasizing this superordinate identity, individuals in both subgroups can share a common social identity. For example, if there is conflict between White, Black, and
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in the forms of emotional support, instrumental support, and informational support. It also offers friendship, potential new interests, learning new skills, and enhancing self esteem. However, joining a group may also cost an individual time, effort, and personal resources as they may conform to
718:, group membership will be more satisfying to a new prospective member if the group's outcomes, in terms of costs and rewards, are above the individual's comparison level. As well, group membership will be unsatisfying to a new member if the outcomes are below the individual's comparison level.
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suggests that a group starts when a collection of individuals perceive that they share some social category (‘smokers’, ‘nurses,’ ‘students,’ ‘hockey players’), and that interpersonal attraction only secondarily enhances the connection between individuals. Additionally, from the social identity
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suggested that by promoting contact between groups, prejudice can be reduced. Further, he suggested four optimal conditions for contact: equal status between the groups in the situation; common goals; intergroup cooperation; and the support of authorities, law, or customs. Since then, over 500
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Joining and leaving groups is ultimately dependent on the comparison level for alternatives, whereas member satisfaction within a group depends on the comparison level. To summarize, if membership in the group is above the comparison level for alternatives and above the comparison level, the
150:). The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. These applications of the field are studied in
214:(1832–1920), credited as the founder of experimental psychology, had a particular interest in the psychology of communities, which he believed possessed phenomena (human language, customs, and religion) that could not be described through a study of the individual. On the sociological side,
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also uses this strategy of interdependence. In 1971, thick racial tensions were abounding in Austin, Texas. Aronson was brought in to examine the nature of this tension within schools, and to devise a strategy for reducing it (so to improve the process of school integration, mandated under
721:
Comparison level only predicts how satisfied a new member will be with the social relationships within the group. To determine whether people will actually join or leave a group, the value of other, alternative groups needs to be taken into account. This is called the comparison level for
859:
This phenomenon has been later accounted for by subjective group dynamics theory. According to this theory, people derogate socially undesirable (deviant) ingroup members relative to outgroup members, because they give a bad image of the ingroup and jeopardize people's social identity.
434:. He discovered several mass group processes which involved the group as a whole adopting an orientation which, in his opinion, interfered with the ability of a group to accomplish the work it was nominally engaged in. Bion's experiences are reported in his published books, especially
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and Kurt Back) described cohesion as, “the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group” (Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950, p. 37). Later, this definition was modified to describe the forces acting on individual members to remain in the group, termed
206:
proposed "There are entities where the behaviour of the whole cannot be derived from its individual elements nor from the way these elements fit together; rather the opposite is true: the properties of any of the parts are determined by the intrinsic structural laws of the whole".
1282:
studies have been done on prejudice reduction under variations of the contact hypothesis, and a meta-analytic review suggests overall support for its efficacy. In some cases, even without the four optimal conditions outlined by
Allport, prejudice between groups can be reduced.
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may form. These groups are characterized as having no preexisting structure (e.g. group membership, allocated roles) or prior experience working together. Yet, these groups still express high levels of interdependence and coordinate knowledge, resources, and tasks.
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as marginal members. They also tended to judge the group as a whole in an increasingly less positive manner after they became full members. However, there is no evidence that this affects the way they are judged by other members. Nevertheless, depending on the
867:
of a group must prove themselves to the full members to become accepted, full members have undergone socialization and are already accepted within the group. They have more privilege than newcomers but more responsibility to help the group achieve its goals.
767:
Collectives are characterized by large groups of individuals who display similar actions or outlooks. They are loosely formed, spontaneous, and brief. Examples of collectives include a flash mob, an audience at a movie, and a crowd watching a building burn.
542:
Communities may be distinguished from other types of groups, in Peck's view, by the need for members to eliminate barriers to communication in order to be able to form true community. Examples of common barriers are: expectations and preconceptions;
1330:
the strategy was not widely used (arguably because of strong attitudes existing outside of the schools, which still resisted the notion that racial and ethnic minority groups are equal to Whites and, similarly, should be integrated into schools).
1018:
are the relative differences in status among group members. When a group is first formed the members may all be on an equal level, but over time certain members may acquire status and authority within the group; this can create what is known as a
872:
were once full members but lost membership because they failed to live up to the group's expectations. They can rejoin the group if they go through re-socialization. Therefore, full members' behavior is paramount to define the ingroup's image.
503:, i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group). This model refers to the overall pattern of the group, but of course individuals within a group work in different ways. If distrust persists, a group may never even get to the norming stage.
349:, and said that "It is not an overstatement if we say that Freud, though he was hardly interested in the political phase of the problem, clearly foresaw the rise and nature of fascist mass movements in purely psychological categories."
1153:) refers to the behavioural and psychological relationship between two or more groups. This includes perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and behaviours towards one's own group, as well as those towards another group. In some cases,
759:
since members are able to leave their social group and join new groups. The goals of social groups are often task-oriented as opposed to relationship-oriented. Examples of social groups include coworkers, clubs, and sports teams.
1299:
model, the ingroup projection model, the mutual intergroup differentiation model, and the ingroup identity model. Similarly, "recategorization" is a broader term used by
Gaertner et al. to describe the strategies aforementioned.
1085:(the state of responding in the presence of others) elevates an individual's drive level which in turn triggers social facilitation when tasks are simple and easy to execute, but impedes performance when tasks are challenging.
399:
as stage-developmental, inclusion (am I included?), control (who is top dog here?), and affection (do I belong here?). Schutz sees groups resolving each issue in turn in order to be able to progress to the next stage.
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are based on how individuals in the group see their other members. Individuals tend to upgrade likeable in-group members and deviate from unlikeable group members, making them a separate outgroup. This is called the
1308:
There are techniques that utilize interdependence, between two or more groups, with the aim of reducing prejudice. That is, members across groups have to rely on one another to accomplish some goal or task. In the
3331:
910:), and that an individual's performance is reduced when others in the situation create distraction or conflict. Groups also influence individual's decision-making processes. These include decisions related to
615:(also referred to as ingroup-, within-group, or commonly just ‘group dynamics’) are the underlying processes that give rise to a set of norms, roles, relations, and common goals that characterize a particular
1295:
Latino students in a high school, one might try to emphasize the ‘high school’ group/identity that students share to reduce conflict between the groups. Models utilizing superordinate identities include the
591:: which results from having tasks which have variety, a group size that is not too large, talented group members who have at least moderate social skill, and strong norms that specify appropriate behaviour.
826:. Lewin defined group cohesion as the willingness of individuals to stick together, and believed that without cohesiveness a group could not exist. As an extension of Lewin's work, Festinger (along with
603:: which occurs on the rare occasions when group members feel they need help with task or interpersonal issues. Hackman emphasizes that many team leaders are overbearing and undermine group effectiveness.
248:, the first institute devoted explicitly to the study of group dynamics. Throughout his career, Lewin was focused on how the study of group dynamics could be applied to real-world, social issues.
3431:; Banker, B. S.; Houlette, M.; Johnson, K. M.; McGlynn, E. A. (2000). "Reducing intergroup conflict: From superordinate goals to decategorization, recategorization, and mutual differentiation".
2240:
Bohrnstedt, George W.; Fisher, Gene A. (1986). "The
Effects of Recalled Childhood and Adolescent Relationships Compared to Current Role Performances on Young Adults' Affective Functioning".
2205:
Rom, Eldad; Mikulincer, Mario (2003). "Attachment theory and group processes: The association between attachment style and group-related representations, goals, memories, and functioning".
259:
by way of group dynamics that enhance survival. Examples include mechanisms for dealing with status, reciprocity, identifying cheaters, ostracism, altruism, group decision, leadership, and
335:(1922), Sigmund Freud based his preliminary description of group psychology on Le Bon's work, but went on to develop his own, original theory, related to what he had begun to elaborate in
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is necessary for group formation. Through interaction, individuals begin to develop group norms, roles, and attitudes which define the group, and are internalized to influence behaviour.
1389:
517:
M. Scott Peck developed stages for larger-scale groups (i.e., communities) which are similar to
Tuckman's stages of group development. Peck describes the stages of a community as:
363:
Jacob L. Moreno was a psychiatrist, dramatist, philosopher and theoretician who coined the term "group psychotherapy" in the early 1930s and was highly influential at the time.
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therefore, is facilitated. On more complex tasks, where drive is not strong enough to effectively compete against the effects of distraction, there is no performance gain. The
796:
suggests that individuals have a desire to be similar to others, but also a desire to differentiate themselves, ultimately seeking some balance of these two desires (to obtain
3013:
Ryan, Carey S.; Bogart, Laura M. (Oct 1997). "Development of new group members' in-group and out-group stereotypes: Changes in perceived variability and ethnocentrism".
3587:
Hornsey, M. J.; Hogg, M. A. (2000). "Subgroup
Relations: A Comparison of Mutual Intergroup Differentiation and Common Ingroup Identity Models of Prejudice Reduction".
3362:
2914:
Marques, J. M.; Yzerbyt, V. Y.; Leyens, J. Ph. (1988). "The black sheep effect: Judgmental extremity towards ingroup members as a function of ingroup identification".
2666:
Spears, R.; Ellemers, N.; Doosje, B. (2005). "Let me count the ways in which I respect thee: Does competence compensate or compromise lack of liking from the group?".
2508:
2422:
968:: the socially appropriate way to respond in a social situation, or what group members are supposed to do (e.g. saying thank you after someone does a favour for you)
906:
Individual behaviour is influenced by the presence of others. For example, studies have found that individuals work harder and faster when others are present (see
1348:
1113:
predicts, in situations where they may be evaluated, individuals will consequently increase their efforts in order to project/preserve/maintain a positive image.
2522:
Lickel, B; Hamilton, D. L.; Wieczorkowska, G; Lewis, A; Sherman, S. J.; Uhles, A. N. (2000). "Varieties of groups and the perception of group entitativity".
1078:
Several theories analysing performance gains in groups via drive, motivational, cognitive and personality processes, explain why social facilitation occurs.
330:
2755:
Gully, S. M.; Devine, D. J.; Whitney, D. J. (1995). "A Meta-Analysis of
Cohesion and Performance: Effects of Level of Analysis and Task Interdependence".
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In more recent studies, Marques and colleagues have shown that this occurs more strongly with regard to ingroup full members than other members. Whereas
1032:
Forsyth suggests that while many daily tasks undertaken by individuals could be performed in isolation, the preference is to perform with other people.
1905:
Cohen, D.; Nisbett, R. E.; Bowdle, B. F.; Schwarz, N. (1996). "Insult, aggression, and the southern culture of honor: An "experimental ethnography."".
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effect. The way a person judges socially desirable and socially undesirable individuals depends upon whether they are part of the ingroup or outgroup.
1341:
1218:), individuals begin to show favouritism towards their own group, and negative reactions towards the outgroup. This conflict can result in prejudice,
1100:
559:
and solutions; the need to heal, convert, fix or solve and the need to control. A community is born when its members reach a stage of "emptiness" or
2081:
Gore, Jonathan S.; Cross, Susan E.; Morris, Michael L. (2006-03-01). "Let's be friends: Relational self-construal and the development of intimacy".
2941:
Marques, J. M.; Abrams, D.; Paez, D.; Taboada, C. (1998). "The role of categorization and ingroup norms in judgments of groups and their members".
839:
described two forms of solidarity (mechanical and organic), which created a sense of collective conscious and an emotion-based sense of community.
579:: which results from having a shared task, clear boundaries which clarify who is inside or outside of the group, and stability in group membership.
1157:
is prosocial, positive, and beneficial (for example, when multiple research teams work together to accomplish a task or goal). In other cases,
288:
281:
1261:
There have been several strategies developed for reducing the tension, bias, prejudice, and conflict between social groups. These include the
3631:
3517:
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3095:
2898:
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935:
245:
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The history of group dynamics (or group processes) has a consistent, underlying premise: "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." A
3048:
Pinto, I. R.; Marques, J. M.; Abrams, D. (2010). "Membership status and subjective group dynamics: Who triggers the black sheep effect?".
457:
377:
Kurt Lewin (1943, 1948, 1951) is commonly identified as the founder of the movement to study groups scientifically. He coined the term
3332:"Resisting hybridisation between modes of clinical risk management: Contradiction, contest, and the production of intractable conflict"
2398:
2358:
1547:
218:(1858–1917), who was influenced by Wundt, also recognized collective phenomena, such as public knowledge. Other key theorists include
2970:"Membership role and subjective group dynamics: Impact on evaluative intragroup differentiation and commitment to prescriptive norms"
2011:
Majchrzak, A.; Jarvenpaa, S. L.; Hollingshead, A. B. (2007). "Coordinating Expertise Among Emergent Groups Responding to Disasters".
1226:. Intergroup conflict can be highly competitive, especially for social groups with a long history of conflict (for example, the 1994
3538:
2484:
2322:
2178:
McAdams, Dan P.; Constantian, Carol A. (1983). "Intimacy and affiliation motives in daily living: An experience sampling analysis".
2116:
McAdams, Dan P.; Constantian, Carol A. (1983). "Intimacy and affiliation motives in daily living: An experience sampling analysis".
1832:
119:
1617:
Westheimer, G. (1999). "Gestalt theory reconfigured: Max Wertheimer's anticipation of recent developments in visual neuroscience".
2046:
Lucas, Richard E.; Diener, Ed (2001). "Understanding extraverts' enjoyment of social situations: The importance of pleasantness".
305:
223:
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Campbell, D. T. (1958). "Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities".
222:(1841–1931) who believed that crowds possessed a 'racial unconscious' with primitive, aggressive, and antisocial instincts, and
53:
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found that although people in groups were more productive than individuals, the quality of their product/effort was inferior.
1163:
793:
198:
is an entity that has qualities which cannot be understood just by studying the individuals that make up the group. In 1924,
100:
57:
1783:
Benne, K. D.; Bradford, L. P.; Gibb, J. R. (1972). "Geschichte der Trainingsgruppe im Laboratorium". In K. D. Benne (ed.).
72:
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1090:
1131:) demonstrated that, by narrowing a person's focus of attention on certain tasks, distractions can improve performance.
822:
Group cohesion, as a scientifically studied property of groups, is commonly associated with Kurt Lewin and his student,
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1323:
915:
894:
886:, he or she is more likely to comply with the group even if they possibly have their own beliefs about the situation.
427:
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79:
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exaggerate and overgeneralize the differences between the ingroup and the outgroup (to enhance group distinctiveness)
2143:
Turner, Jonathan (1974-12-01). "THE POWER MOTIVE. By David G. Winter. New York: Free Press, 1973. 373 pp. $ 12.00".
1250:
1206:
remember more detailed and positive information about the ingroup, and more negative information about the outgroup
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arise from a relatively spontaneous process of group formation. For example, in response to a natural disaster, an
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for a group. Tuckman's model states that the ideal group decision-making process should occur in four stages:
1532:
Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining – KDD '06
1530:
Backstrom, L.; Huttenlocher, D.; Kleinberg, J.; Lan, X. (2006). "Group formation in large social networks".
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46:
226:, who believed in a 'group mind,' which had a distinct existence born from the interaction of individuals.
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1959:
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will publicly agree with the group and keep the private beliefs to themselves. If the person is privately
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715:
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Hackman proposed five conditions that increase the chance that groups will be successful. These include:
1479:
1040:
In a study of dynamogenic stimulation for the purpose of explaining pacemaking and competition in 1898,
183:
1698:
Lewin, Kurt (1945). "The Research Center for Group Dynamics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology".
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1459:
1423:
1418:
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Under the contact hypothesis, several models have been developed. A number of these models utilize a
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1964:
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473:(letting down the politeness barrier and trying to get down to the issues even if tempers flare up)
439:
2599:
Haslam, N; Rothschild, L; Ernst, D (2002). "Are essentialist beliefs associated with prejudice?".
1060:
effects—he examined behaviour in the presence of another individual engaged in the same activity.
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Van Vugt, M.; Schaller, M. (2008). "Evolutionary approaches to group dynamics: An introduction".
1715:
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1504:
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919:
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Social support and physical health : understanding the health consequences of relationships
255:
principles to group dynamics. As human's social environments became more complex, they acquired
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2098:
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1977:
1932:
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1634:
1590:
Hogg, M. A.; Williams, K. D. (2000). "From I to we: Social identity and the collective self".
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to describe the positive and negative forces within groups of people. In 1945, he established
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2020:
1969:
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Dion, K. L. (2000). "Group cohesion: From "field of forces" to multidimensional construct".
1626:
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1535:
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1438:
1318:
1227:
93:
2720:
Brewer, M. B. (1991). "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time".
1041:
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roles, norms, and networks of relations among members that define and organize the group.
927:
639:, which is associated with norms of toughness, honour-related violence, and self-defence.
423:
358:
337:
2693:
Deaux, K.; Reid, A.; Mizrahi, K.; Ethier, K. A. (1995). "Parameters of social identity".
1408:
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approach, group formation involves both identifying with some individuals and explicitly
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1233:
The formation of intergroup conflict was investigated in a popular series of studies by
1314:
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314:(1920) researched the dynamics of groups of various sizes and degrees of organization.
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3128:(Second ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 341–365.
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2875:
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Carron, A. V.; Brawley, L. R. (2000). "Cohesion: Conceptual and Measurement Issues".
2811:
2776:
2741:
2639:
Crano, W. D. (2000). "Milestones in the psychological analysis of social influence".
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1413:
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974:: actions that group members should not do; prohibitive (e.g. not belching in public)
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to describe the way groups and individuals act and react to changing circumstances.
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to tasks that are easier to learn and which dominate other potential responses and
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social pressures and strive to reap the benefits that may be offered by the group.
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431:
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195:
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159:
136:
1814:. (Updated version based on 1958 work). Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
690:
would not be possible if an individual decided to remain alone, including gaining
17:
3300:
485:(working in a group to a common goal on a highly efficient and cooperative basis)
3389:"Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour"
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1219:
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210:
As a field of study, group dynamics has roots in both psychology and sociology.
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35:
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2129:
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1973:
1918:
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3244:
Triplett, N. (1898). "The Dynamogenic Factors in Pacemaking and Competition".
923:
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this very broad level, the study of group dynamics is similar to the study of
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has further developed and applied the theory and practices developed by Bion.
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1746:
1603:
3541:; Tropp, L. R. (2006). "A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory".
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3388:
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1950:
Cohen, D. (1998). "Culture, social organization, and patterns of violence".
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Are There Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of Human Values?
3034:
2790:
Stein, A. A. (1976). "Conflict and Cohesion: A Review of the Literature".
2585:
2479:. Kelley, Harold H. New Brunswick, U.S.A.: Transaction Books. p. 21.
2156:
1981:
1936:
647:
Group formation starts with a psychological bond between individuals. The
3485:
Ethnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes, and Group Behavior
1927:
635:. For example, there are group dynamics in the U.S. South that sustain a
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548:
499:
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Tuckman later added a fifth stage for the dissolution of a group called
135:
is a system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a
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1719:
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3112:
Small-Group Research in Social Psychology: Topics and Trends over Time
1178:’s decision to kill a teacher and 14 students (including themselves).
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2679:
890:
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Gustave Le Bon was a French social psychologist whose seminal study,
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2253:
1883:
1711:
1245:. Other prominent theories relating to intergroup conflict include
1630:
585:: which results from a clear, challenging, and consequential goal.
560:
479:(getting used to each other and developing trust and productivity)
430:
London, as did another key figure in the Psychoanalytic movement,
622:
The dynamics of a particular group depend on how one defines the
2968:
Pinto, I. R.; Marques, J. M.; Levine, J. M.; Abrams, D. (2016).
980:: describe what people usually do (e.g. clapping after a speech)
1870:
Wageman, R. (1995). "Interdependence and Group Effectiveness".
1326:
in 1954). Despite strong evidence for the effectiveness of the
1313:, Sherif used this strategy to reduce conflict between groups.
1203:
minimize the perception of differences between ingroup members
29:
666:
identifying with others. So to say, a level of psychological
3126:
Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach
2391:
Interpersonal relations : a theory of interdependence
1799:
FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior
456:
Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed the four-stage model called
3279:
Robert B. Zajonc (July 16, 1965). "Social Facilitation".
2351:
Group motivation : social psychological perspectives
3330:
Fischer, Michael Daniel; Ferlie, Ewan (1 January 2013).
1241:. The Robbers Cave Experiment was later used to support
1109:
themselves. In relation to performance gains, Goffman's
990:
to do; more evaluative in nature than a descriptive norm
1858:
Leading Teams: Setting the Stage for Great Performances
1390:
Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal
422:
perspective, and stated that he was much influenced by
310:
The British psychologist William McDougall in his work
3208:
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology.
2891:
Multi-ethnic Canada : identities and inequalities
1071:
to tasks that are less likely to be performed. In his
347:
Freudian Theory and the Pattern of Fascist Propaganda
3008:
3006:
651:
suggests that group formation comes out of bonds of
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
27:
System of behaviors within or between social groups
2826:
1384:International Journal on Minority and Group Rights
418:Wilfred Bion (1961) studied group dynamics from a
2977:Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, On-Line
2559:social organization: a study of the larger mind
1845:The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace.
1827:, third edition, Basic Books (1985), hardback,
1269:, and several categorization-based strategies.
467:(pretending to get on or get along with others)
3433:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
2829:The theory and practice of group psychotherapy
2641:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
1825:The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy
1735:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
1673:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
1592:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
1349:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
1273:Contact hypothesis (intergroup contact theory)
182:, business and managerial studies, as well as
2893:. Toronto New York: Oxford University Press.
2344:
2342:
1063:Zajonc observed two categories of behaviours—
8:
3543:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3533:
3531:
3529:
3050:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3015:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2943:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2695:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2524:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2507:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2421:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2207:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2180:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2118:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2048:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1952:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1907:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1369:International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
1048:Further to Triplett's observation, in 1920,
404:are nominally the agenda of group meetings.
331:Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego
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2006:
2004:
1787:. Stuttgart: Klett Verlag. pp. 95–154.
143:group dynamics), or between social groups (
3589:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
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3153:
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3149:
3147:
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3143:
3141:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3081:
3079:
2722:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
2349:Hogg, Michael A.; Abrams, Dominic (1993).
2275:McGuire, Gail M. (2007). "Intimate Work".
1342:Group Processes & Intergroup Relations
3462:. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press.
3404:
1963:
1926:
1374:The Journal for Specialists in Group Work
1101:The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
1095:complex tasks in the presence of others.
1036:Social facilitation and performance gains
345:reprised Freud's essay in 1951 with his
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
3124:Jex, Steve &; Britt, Thomas (2008).
2634:
2632:
2630:
626:of the group. Often, there are distinct
2574:Systems Research and Behavioral Science
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1575:
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1571:
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1567:
1522:
902:Group influence on individual behaviour
2500:
2452:
2414:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1088:Nickolas Cottrell, 1972, proposed the
395:William Schutz (1958, 1966) looked at
289:The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind
282:The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind
3393:European Journal of Social Psychology
3339:Accounting, Organizations and Society
2916:European Journal of Social Psychology
2668:European Journal of Social Psychology
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2308:
2306:
936:Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse
246:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7:
2601:British Journal of Social Psychology
2561:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
2393:. Thibaut, John W. New York: Wiley.
2317:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
781:Group membership and social identity
710:In John Thibaut and Harold Kelley's
58:adding citations to reliable sources
3512:. Reading: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
1237:and colleagues in 1961, called the
251:Increasingly, research has applied
3246:The American Journal of Psychology
3196:The Handbook of Social Psychology.
2353:. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
1396:Organizational and Social Dynamics
986:: describe behaviours that people
242:The Group Dynamics Research Center
25:
3110:Wittenbaum and Moreland. (2008).
1823:Page 194 to 196, Irvin D. Yalom,
292:(1896) led to the development of
2095:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2006.00106.x
1872:Administrative Science Quarterly
1138:to social interference effects.
306:William McDougall (psychologist)
224:William McDougall (psychologist)
34:
2477:The social psychology of groups
1996:The psychology of social norms.
1045:the presence of other people".
45:needs additional citations for
3090:. New York: Worth Publishers.
2792:Journal of Conflict Resolution
1176:Eric Harris’ and Dylan Klebold
1164:Columbine High School shooting
794:Optimal distinctiveness theory
1:
1495:Social psychology (sociology)
1257:Intergroup conflict reduction
1174:played a significant role in
1091:evaluation apprehension model
1073:Theory of Social Facilitation
3301:10.1126/science.149.3681.269
3220:Group Norms in Organizations
1812:The Interpersonal Underworld
236:(1890–1947) coined the term
3460:The Robbers Cave Experiment
2389:H., Kelley, Harold (1978).
2242:Social Psychology Quarterly
2219:10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1220
1856:J. Richard Hackman (2002).
1465:Interpersonal relationships
1324:Brown v. Board of Education
916:Asch conformity experiments
895:fraternities and sororities
497:may also be referred to as
428:University College Hospital
3675:
3555:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
3027:10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.719
2955:10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.976
2868:10.1177/104649640003100105
2804:10.1177/002200277602000106
2707:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.280
2536:10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.223
2475:W., Thibaut, John (1986).
2192:10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.851
2130:10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.851
2060:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.343
1974:10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.408
1919:10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.945
1335:Selected academic journals
1251:self-categorization theory
807:
733:
510:
449:
411:
388:
370:
356:
321:
303:
275:
3351:10.1016/j.aos.2012.11.002
2833:. New York: Basic Books.
2464:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
1860:. Harvard Business Press.
1801:. New York, NY: Rinehart.
1485:Small-group communication
1243:realistic conflict theory
1135:Social orientation theory
1081:Zajonc hypothesized that
3622:Aronson, Elliot (1997).
3601:10.1177/0146167200264010
3508:Allport, Gordon (1979).
3458:Sherif, Muzafer (1988).
3445:10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.98
3086:Aronson, Elliot (2008).
2989:10.1177/1368430216638531
2769:10.1177/1046496495264003
2734:10.1177/0146167291175001
2653:10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.68
2557:Cooley, Charles (1909).
2313:Uchino, Bert N. (2004).
2289:10.1177/0730888406297313
1770:Adorno and the political
1747:10.1037/1089-2699.12.1.1
1604:10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.81
1286:Superordinate identities
1111:self-presentation theory
819:and therapeutic change.
658:social identity approach
653:interpersonal attraction
649:social cohesion approach
3510:The Nature of Prejudice
3483:Levine, Robert (1971).
3406:10.1002/ejsp.2420050102
2928:10.1002/ejsp.2420180102
2613:10.1348/014466602165072
1685:10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.7
1540:10.1145/1150402.1150412
1379:Social Work With Groups
1311:Robbers Cave Experiment
1297:common ingroup identity
1247:social dominance theory
1239:Robbers Cave Experiment
833:attraction to the group
798:optimal distinctiveness
678:emergent response group
553:counterproductive norms
397:interpersonal relations
253:evolutionary psychology
3387:Turner, J. C. (1975).
3185:. New York: Wadsworth.
3181:Forsyth, D.R. (2009).
2889:Driedger, Leo (1996).
2083:Personal Relationships
2025:10.1287/orsc.1060.0228
1449:High-performance teams
1292:superordinate identity
1216:minimal group paradigm
1212:intergroup interaction
1188:social identity theory
1009:Communication patterns
736:Types of social groups
716:social exchange theory
712:social exchange theory
704:social exchange theory
436:Experiences in Groups.
426:for whom he worked at
3626:. New York: Longman.
2825:Yalom, Irvin (1995).
2586:10.1002/bs.3830030103
1480:Out-group homogeneity
1069:nondominant responses
995:Intermember Relations
184:communication studies
3624:The Jigsaw Classroom
2856:Small Group Research
2757:Small Group Research
2277:Work and Occupations
2013:Organization Science
1475:Organization climate
1460:Intergroup relations
1424:Decision downloading
1419:Collaborative method
1356:Small Group Research
1151:intergroup relations
1118:Distraction-conflict
1016:Status differentials
583:Compelling direction
261:intergroup relations
54:improve this article
3487:. New York: Wiley.
3293:1965Sci...149..269Z
2157:10.1093/sf/53.2.363
1994:Sherif, M. (1936).
1843:Peck, M. S. (1987)
1810:Schutz, W. (1966).
1797:Schutz, W. (1958).
1510:Team-based learning
1470:Maintenance actions
1455:Intergroup dialogue
1182:Intergroup conflict
1172:intergroup dynamics
1168:Littleton, Colorado
1159:intergroup dynamics
1155:intergroup dynamics
1147:Intergroup dynamics
1142:Intergroup dynamics
908:social facilitation
847:Beliefs within the
817:intergroup conflict
815:group performance,
655:. In contrast, the
613:Intragroup dynamics
608:Intragroup dynamics
440:Tavistock Institute
231:social psychologist
1505:Team effectiveness
1263:contact hypothesis
1195:favour the ingroup
1065:dominant responses
972:Proscriptive Norms
966:Prescriptive Norms
920:Milgram Experiment
918:), obedience (see
914:, persuasion (see
843:Black sheep effect
810:Group cohesiveness
595:Supportive context
589:Enabling structure
180:leadership studies
18:Black sheep effect
3633:978-0-673-99383-0
3519:978-0-201-00179-2
3494:978-0-471-53117-3
3469:978-0-8195-6194-7
3427:Gaertner, S. L.;
3287:(3681): 269–274.
3231:Schwarz. (2007).
3218:Hahn, M. (2010).
3097:978-1-4292-0316-6
3088:The social animal
2900:978-0-19-541161-4
2840:978-0-465-08448-7
2458:Forsyth, Donelson
1998:New York: Harper.
1490:Social psychology
1328:jigsaw classroom,
1210:Even without any
1197:over the outgroup
1170:, United States,
1028:Group performance
978:Descriptive Norms
932:Abu Ghraib prison
889:In situations of
828:Stanley Schachter
700:Minimax Principle
577:Being a real team
300:William McDougall
164:political science
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3666:
3638:
3637:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3584:
3575:
3574:
3539:Pettigrew, T. F.
3535:
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3448:
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3408:
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3373:
3367:
3361:. Archived from
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3241:
3235:
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3216:
3210:
3206:Senior. (1991).
3204:
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3194:Levine. (1998).
3192:
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3130:
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3101:
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3073:
3062:10.1037/a0018187
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2787:
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2746:
2745:
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2711:
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2690:
2684:
2683:
2680:10.1002/ejsp.248
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2548:
2547:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2506:
2498:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2454:
2427:
2426:
2420:
2412:
2386:
2373:
2372:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2310:
2301:
2300:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2213:(6): 1220–1235.
2202:
2196:
2195:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2008:
1999:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1967:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1930:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1867:
1861:
1854:
1848:
1841:
1835:
1821:
1815:
1808:
1802:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1780:
1774:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1668:
1651:
1650:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1587:
1562:
1561:
1527:
1444:Group narcissism
1439:Frog pond effect
1319:Jigsaw Classroom
1267:jigsaw classroom
1228:Rwandan genocide
984:Injunctive Norms
870:Marginal members
637:culture of honor
522:Pseudo-community
458:Tuckman's Stages
294:group psychology
229:Eventually, the
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
69:"Group dynamics"
62:
38:
30:
21:
3674:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3659:Social dynamics
3654:Group processes
3644:
3643:
3642:
3641:
3634:
3621:
3620:
3616:
3586:
3585:
3578:
3537:
3536:
3527:
3520:
3507:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3482:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3426:
3425:
3414:
3386:
3385:
3381:
3371:
3369:
3365:
3334:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3258:10.2307/1412188
3243:
3242:
3238:
3230:
3226:
3217:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3193:
3189:
3180:
3133:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3109:
3105:
3098:
3085:
3084:
3077:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3012:
3011:
3004:
2972:
2967:
2966:
2962:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2638:
2637:
2628:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2499:
2487:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2456:
2455:
2430:
2413:
2401:
2388:
2387:
2376:
2361:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2325:
2312:
2311:
2304:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2254:10.2307/2786854
2239:
2238:
2234:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2010:
2009:
2002:
1993:
1989:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1884:10.2307/2393703
1869:
1868:
1864:
1855:
1851:
1842:
1838:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1805:
1796:
1792:
1785:Gruppentraining
1782:
1781:
1777:
1766:
1762:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1712:10.2307/2785233
1697:
1696:
1692:
1670:
1669:
1654:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1589:
1588:
1565:
1550:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1404:
1337:
1306:
1304:Interdependence
1288:
1275:
1259:
1184:
1144:
1042:Norman Triplett
1038:
1030:
944:
942:Group structure
928:My Lai Massacre
904:
845:
812:
806:
786:own group (see
783:
774:
765:
756:
747:
738:
732:
730:Types of groups
687:
674:Emergent groups
668:distinctiveness
645:
643:Group formation
610:
601:Expert coaching
569:
567:Richard Hackman
515:
509:
454:
448:
424:Wilfred Trotter
416:
410:
393:
387:
375:
369:
361:
359:Jacob L. Moreno
355:
353:Jacob L. Moreno
338:Totem and Taboo
326:
320:
308:
302:
284:
276:Main articles:
274:
269:
192:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3672:
3670:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3639:
3632:
3614:
3595:(2): 242–256.
3576:
3549:(5): 751–783.
3525:
3518:
3500:
3493:
3475:
3468:
3450:
3429:Dovidio, J. F.
3412:
3379:
3368:on 5 July 2019
3322:
3283:. New Series.
3271:
3252:(4): 507–533.
3236:
3224:
3211:
3199:
3187:
3183:Group Dynamics
3131:
3116:
3103:
3096:
3075:
3056:(1): 107–119.
3040:
3021:(4): 719–732.
3002:
2983:(5): 570–590.
2960:
2949:(4): 976–988.
2933:
2906:
2899:
2881:
2846:
2839:
2817:
2782:
2763:(4): 497–520.
2747:
2728:(5): 475–482.
2712:
2701:(2): 280–291.
2685:
2674:(2): 263–279.
2658:
2626:
2591:
2564:
2549:
2530:(2): 223–246.
2514:
2485:
2467:
2462:Group Dynamics
2428:
2400:978-0471034735
2399:
2374:
2360:978-0745012391
2359:
2338:
2323:
2302:
2283:(2): 125–147.
2267:
2232:
2197:
2186:(4): 851–861.
2170:
2151:(2): 363–364.
2135:
2124:(4): 851–861.
2108:
2073:
2054:(2): 343–356.
2038:
2000:
1987:
1965:10.1.1.458.621
1958:(2): 408–419.
1942:
1913:(5): 945–959.
1897:
1878:(1): 145–180.
1862:
1849:
1836:
1816:
1803:
1790:
1775:
1767:Hammer, Espen
1760:
1725:
1706:(2): 126–136.
1690:
1652:
1609:
1563:
1549:978-1595933393
1548:
1534:. p. 44.
1521:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1363:Group Analysis
1359:
1352:
1345:
1336:
1333:
1315:Elliot Aronson
1305:
1302:
1287:
1284:
1279:Gordon Allport
1274:
1271:
1258:
1255:
1249:, and social-/
1235:Muzafer Sherif
1224:discrimination
1208:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1183:
1180:
1143:
1140:
1106:Erving Goffman
1037:
1034:
1029:
1026:
992:
991:
981:
975:
969:
943:
940:
903:
900:
844:
841:
837:Emile Durkheim
824:Leon Festinger
808:Main article:
805:
804:Group cohesion
802:
782:
779:
773:
770:
764:
761:
755:
752:
746:
745:Primary groups
743:
734:Main article:
731:
728:
692:social support
686:
685:Joining groups
683:
644:
641:
609:
606:
605:
604:
598:
592:
586:
580:
568:
565:
540:
539:
537:True Community
534:
529:
524:
511:Main article:
508:
505:
487:
486:
480:
474:
468:
450:Main article:
447:
444:
420:psychoanalytic
412:Main article:
409:
406:
391:William Schutz
389:Main article:
386:
385:William Schutz
383:
379:group dynamics
371:Main article:
368:
365:
357:Main article:
354:
351:
343:Theodor Adorno
322:Main article:
319:
316:
312:The Group Mind
304:Main article:
301:
298:
278:Gustave Le Bon
273:
272:Gustave Le Bon
270:
268:
265:
238:group dynamics
220:Gustave Le Bon
216:Émile Durkheim
204:Max Wertheimer
191:
188:
148:group dynamics
133:Group dynamics
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3671:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3635:
3629:
3625:
3618:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3515:
3511:
3504:
3501:
3496:
3490:
3486:
3479:
3476:
3471:
3465:
3461:
3454:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3380:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3326:
3323:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3228:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3104:
3099:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2964:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2882:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2831:
2830:
2821:
2818:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2786:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2662:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2607:(1): 87–100.
2606:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2568:
2565:
2560:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2486:9780887386336
2482:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2324:9780300102185
2320:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2145:Social Forces
2139:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2089:(1): 83–102.
2088:
2084:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1991:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1928:2027.42/92155
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1833:0-465-08447-8
1830:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1771:
1764:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1726:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1631:10.1068/p2883
1628:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1516:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1500:Social tuning
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1414:Collaboration
1412:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1186:According to
1181:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1132:
1130:
1129:Stroop effect
1126:
1121:
1119:
1114:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1086:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1058:
1057:Robert Zajonc
1053:
1051:
1050:Floyd Allport
1046:
1043:
1035:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:pecking order
1017:
1013:
1010:
1006:
1003:
999:
996:
989:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
963:
962:
959:
955:
952:
948:
941:
939:
937:
933:
930:, and in the
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
901:
899:
896:
892:
887:
885:
880:
874:
871:
866:
861:
857:
855:
850:
842:
840:
838:
834:
829:
825:
820:
818:
811:
803:
801:
799:
795:
791:
789:
780:
778:
771:
769:
762:
760:
754:Social groups
753:
751:
744:
742:
737:
729:
727:
723:
719:
717:
713:
708:
705:
702:is a part of
701:
696:
693:
684:
682:
679:
675:
671:
669:
665:
660:
659:
654:
650:
642:
640:
638:
634:
629:
625:
620:
618:
614:
607:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
574:
573:
566:
564:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
519:
518:
514:
513:M. Scott Peck
507:M. Scott Peck
506:
504:
502:
501:
496:
492:
484:
481:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
463:
462:
461:
459:
453:
452:Bruce Tuckman
446:Bruce Tuckman
445:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
415:
407:
405:
401:
398:
392:
384:
382:
380:
374:
366:
364:
360:
352:
350:
348:
344:
341:
339:
334:
332:
325:
324:Sigmund Freud
318:Sigmund Freud
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52:Please help
47:verification
44:
2922:(1): 1–16.
2798:: 143–172.
2019:: 147–161.
1625:(1): 5–15.
1434:Facilitator
1220:stereotypes
1214:(as in the
1125:Stroop task
1083:compresence
879:self-esteem
865:new members
854:black sheep
763:Collectives
257:adaptations
176:social work
3648:Categories
3439:: 98–114.
2862:: 89–106.
1847:p. 95-103.
1700:Sociometry
1619:Perception
1517:References
934:(also see
924:groupthink
884:self-aware
772:Categories
624:boundaries
545:prejudices
495:Adjourning
491:adjourning
483:Performing
373:Kurt Lewin
367:Kurt Lewin
234:Kurt Lewin
152:psychology
110:March 2023
80:newspapers
3609:145116253
3372:29 August
2997:147836059
2876:220367599
2812:145093926
2777:145303557
2742:145294289
2647:: 68–80.
2503:cite book
2417:cite book
2333:182530829
2297:145394891
2165:0037-7732
2103:1475-6811
1960:CiteSeerX
1773:, pp.58–9
1598:: 81–97.
1277:In 1954,
1055:In 1965,
628:subgroups
532:Emptiness
172:education
156:sociology
3571:14149856
3563:16737372
3399:: 1–34.
3359:44146410
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2460:(2006).
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2068:11519937
2033:43354804
1755:15306280
1679:: 7–26.
1639:10627849
1402:See also
1104:(1959),
557:theology
549:ideology
500:mourning
471:Storming
3309:1715944
3289:Bibcode
3281:Science
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1982:9731316
1937:8656339
1892:2393703
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1647:9800976
1558:7904289
922:), and
893:within
849:ingroup
633:culture
477:Norming
465:Forming
244:at the
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190:History
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891:hazing
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3567:S2CID
3366:(PDF)
3355:S2CID
3335:(PDF)
3305:JSTOR
3262:JSTOR
2993:S2CID
2973:(PDF)
2872:S2CID
2808:S2CID
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2293:S2CID
2258:JSTOR
2029:S2CID
1888:JSTOR
1751:S2CID
1716:JSTOR
1643:S2CID
1554:S2CID
1451:(HPT)
988:ought
958:Norms
951:Roles
561:peace
527:Chaos
146:inter
141:intra
101:JSTOR
87:books
3628:ISBN
3559:PMID
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2509:link
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