64:
31:
96:
279:
1) Enhances entry of glucose into cells; 2) Enhances storage of glucose as glycogen, or conversion to fatty acids; 3) Enhances synthesis of fatty acids and proteins; 4) Suppresses breakdown of proteins into amino acids, and
Triglycerides (from
866:
Romere C, Duerrschmid C, Bournat J, Constable P, Jain M, Xia F, Saha PK, Del Solar M, Zhu B, York B, Sarkar P, Rendon DA, Gaber MW, LeMaire SA, Coselli JS, Milewicz DM, Sutton VR, Butte NF, Moore DD, Chopra AR (April 2016).
215:
in order to preserve the concentration gradient so glucose will continue to enter the cell. Insulin also provides signals to several other body systems, and is the chief regulator of metabolic control in humans.
206:
transporter, thus decreasing blood sugar. When insulin binds to the receptors on the cell surface, vesicles containing the GLUT4 transporters come to the plasma membrane and fuse together by the process of
83:, which raises it, are the most well known of the hormones involved, but more recent discoveries of other glucoregulatory hormones have expanded the understanding of this process. The gland called
99:
The flat line is the optimal blood sugar level (i.e. the homeostatic set point). Blood sugar levels are balanced by the tug-of-war between 2 functionally opposite hormones, glucagon and insulin.
330:
1) Enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion; 2) Suppresses glucagon secretion after eating; 3) Slows gastric emptying; 4) Reduces food intake. (Only works while food is in the gut)
170:
foods. It is often self-diagnosed and self-medicated orally by the ingestion of balanced meals. In more severe circumstances, it is treated by injection or infusion of glucagon.
934:
976:
348:
1) Induce insulin secretion 2) Inhibits apoptosis of the pancreatic beta cells and promotes their proliferation 3) Stimulates glucagon secretion and fat accumulation
229:
type 1 is caused by insufficient or non-existent production of insulin, while type 2 is primarily due to a decreased response to insulin in the tissues of the body (
237:) and many of the same complications. Also, too much insulin and/or exercise without enough corresponding food intake in diabetics can result in low blood sugar (
1094:
981:
971:
966:
961:
849:
1043:
986:
927:
630:"Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man"
162:, the state of having low blood sugar, is treated by restoring the blood glucose level to normal by the ingestion or administration of
134:
If the blood glucose level falls to dangerously low levels (as during very heavy exercise or lack of food for extended periods), the
920:
211:, thus enabling a facilitated diffusion of glucose into the cell. As soon as the glucose enters the cell, it is phosphorylated into
339:
793:
Gandasi, Nikhil R.; Yin, Peng; Omar-Hmeadi, Muhmmad; Laakso, Emilia
Ottosson; Vikman, Petter; Barg, Sebastian (2018-02-06).
730:"SPINA Carb: a simple mathematical model supporting fast in-vivo estimation of insulin sensitivity and beta cell function"
991:
418:
1) Suppresses glucagon release from α cells (acts locally); 2) Suppresses release of
Insulin, Pituitary tropic hormones,
219:
There are also several other causes for an increase in blood sugar levels. Among them are the 'stress' hormones such as
728:
Dietrich, JW; Dasgupta, R; Anoop, S; Jebasingh, F; Kurian, ME; Inbakumari, M; Boehm, BO; Thomas, N (21 October 2022).
566:
Aronoff SL, Berkowitz K, Shreiner B, Want L (2004). "Glucose metabolism and regulation: Beyond insulin and glucagon".
1059:
122:
Granule docking is an important glucose-dependent step in human insulin secretion that does not work properly in
1038:
846:
223:(also known as adrenaline), several of the steroids, infections, trauma, and of course, the ingestion of food.
1033:
1104:
1063:
795:"Glucose-Dependent Granule Docking Limits Insulin Secretion and Is Decreased in Human Type 2 Diabetes"
454:
1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances release of fatty acids from adipose tissue.
63:
741:
392:
187:
212:
1099:
1028:
1012:
775:
659:
513:
493:
230:
842:
538:
1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances absorption of sugars from intestine.
1089:
898:
824:
816:
767:
710:
651:
610:
226:
147:
116:
104:
87:
secrete two hormones and they are primarily responsible to regulate glucose levels in blood.
947:
888:
880:
806:
757:
749:
700:
690:
641:
602:
575:
233:). Both types of diabetes, if untreated, result in too much glucose remaining in the blood (
53:
853:
628:
Matthews, DR; Hosker, JP; Rudenski, AS; Naylor, BA; Treacher, DF; Turner, RC (July 1985).
475:
449:
374:
123:
30:
498:
1) Enhances release of cortisol; 2) Enhances release of fatty acids from adipose tissue.
745:
17:
1068:
893:
868:
762:
729:
705:
678:
507:
469:
370:
281:
158:). The cells release the glucose into the bloodstream, increasing blood sugar levels.
155:
95:
1083:
912:
779:
234:
663:
426:. 3) Decreases stomach acid production by preventing the release of other hormones (
406:
238:
195:
167:
159:
57:
194:, causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen (this process is called
606:
443:
220:
208:
135:
108:
46:
884:
811:
794:
753:
593:
BOLIE, VW (September 1961). "Coefficients of normal blood glucose regulation".
943:
695:
579:
364:
300:
274:
183:
182:
conversion, or from digestion of a meal, a different hormone is released from
820:
527:
431:
902:
828:
771:
714:
614:
655:
463:
423:
386:
357:
179:
163:
151:
139:
84:
80:
646:
629:
533:
427:
419:
413:
306:
267:
191:
143:
112:
76:
50:
35:
325:
293:
199:
202:
and fat tissue cells) to take up glucose from the blood through the
318:
203:
94:
62:
146:
which travels through the blood to the liver, where it binds to
115:
in the blood are monitored by many tissues, but the cells in the
679:"Origins and History of the Minimal Model of Glucose Regulation"
487:
150:
on the surface of liver cells and stimulates them to break down
916:
154:
stored inside the cells into glucose (this process is called
869:"Asprosin, a Fasting-Induced Glucogenic Protein Hormone"
305:
1) Suppresses glucagon secretion after eating; 2) Slows
178:
When levels of blood sugar rise, whether as a result of
248:
397:
1) Enhances release of liver glucose during fasting.
67:
1052:
1021:
1000:
954:
198:), and to force about 2/3 of body cells (primarily
60:, are maintained by the body within a narrow range.
119:are among the most well understood and important.
369:1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen (
928:
8:
434:), thus slowing down the digestive process.
245:Hormones that influence blood glucose level
1044:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
935:
921:
913:
856:, May 4, 2009. Retrieved November 1, 2009.
892:
810:
761:
704:
694:
645:
561:
559:
557:
977:Hypothalamic–pituitary–somatotropic axis
71:This tight regulation is referred to as
29:
553:
45:is the process by which the levels of
27:Hormones regulating blood sugar levels
1095:Medical conditions related to obesity
982:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
373:); 2) Enhances synthesis of glucose (
7:
987:Hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system
103:Blood sugar levels are regulated by
972:Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
967:Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
962:Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis
309:emptying; 3) Reduces food intake.
25:
847:Regulation of Glucose by Insulin
79:, which lowers blood sugar, and
190:in the pancreas. This hormone,
1:
595:Journal of Applied Physiology
107:in order to keep the body in
377:) from amino acids or fats.
607:10.1152/jappl.1961.16.5.783
286:
278:
272:
265:
1121:
885:10.1016/j.cell.2016.02.063
812:10.1016/j.cmet.2017.12.017
754:10.1038/s41598-022-22531-3
683:Frontiers in Endocrinology
478:; 2) Antagonizes insulin.
34:Ball-and-stick model of a
696:10.3389/fendo.2020.583016
580:10.2337/diaspect.17.3.183
284:) into free fatty acids.
1039:Psychoneuroendocrinology
992:Renin–angiotensin system
261:Effect on blood glucose
138:of the pancreas release
18:Blood glucose regulation
1034:Pediatric endocrinology
1008:Blood sugar regulation
852:July 16, 2011, at the
100:
68:
49:, the common name for
43:Blood sugar regulation
39:
1060:Wolff–Chaikoff effect
98:
66:
33:
677:Bergman, RN (2020).
518:Antagonizes insulin
393:White adipose tissue
188:islets of Langerhans
746:2022NatSR..1217659D
345:Intestinal K cells
213:glucose-6-phosphate
73:glucose homeostasis
1064:Jod-Basedow effect
1029:Neuroendocrinology
1013:Calcium metabolism
955:Regulatory systems
734:Scientific Reports
647:10.1007/BF00280883
514:Anterior pituitary
494:Anterior pituitary
231:insulin resistance
148:glucagon receptors
101:
69:
40:
1077:
1076:
805:(2): 470–478.e4.
568:Diabetes Spectrum
545:
544:
258:Metabolic effect
255:Tissue of origin
227:Diabetes mellitus
117:pancreatic islets
105:negative feedback
16:(Redirected from
1112:
948:endocrine system
937:
930:
923:
914:
907:
906:
896:
863:
857:
839:
833:
832:
814:
790:
784:
783:
765:
725:
719:
718:
708:
698:
674:
668:
667:
649:
625:
619:
618:
590:
584:
583:
563:
249:
111:. The levels of
21:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1073:
1048:
1017:
996:
950:
941:
911:
910:
865:
864:
860:
854:Wayback Machine
840:
836:
799:Cell Metabolism
792:
791:
787:
727:
726:
722:
676:
675:
671:
627:
626:
622:
592:
591:
587:
565:
564:
555:
550:
476:gluconeogenesis
450:Adrenal medulla
375:gluconeogenesis
247:
176:
132:
124:type 2 diabetes
93:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1118:
1116:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1082:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1071:
1069:Plummer effect
1066:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1004:
1002:
998:
997:
995:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
958:
956:
952:
951:
942:
940:
939:
932:
925:
917:
909:
908:
858:
834:
785:
720:
669:
620:
585:
552:
551:
549:
546:
543:
542:
539:
536:
531:
523:
522:
519:
516:
511:
508:Growth hormone
503:
502:
499:
496:
491:
483:
482:
479:
472:
470:Adrenal cortex
467:
459:
458:
455:
452:
447:
439:
438:
435:
416:
410:
402:
401:
398:
395:
390:
382:
381:
378:
371:glycogenolysis
367:
361:
353:
352:
349:
346:
343:
335:
334:
331:
328:
322:
314:
313:
310:
303:
297:
289:
288:
285:
282:adipose tissue
277:
271:
263:
262:
259:
256:
253:
246:
243:
175:
172:
156:glycogenolysis
131:
128:
92:
89:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1117:
1106:
1105:Endocrinology
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1003:
999:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
938:
933:
931:
926:
924:
919:
918:
915:
904:
900:
895:
890:
886:
882:
879:(3): 566–79.
878:
874:
870:
862:
859:
855:
851:
848:
844:
838:
835:
830:
826:
822:
818:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
789:
786:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
724:
721:
716:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
688:
684:
680:
673:
670:
665:
661:
657:
653:
648:
643:
639:
635:
631:
624:
621:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
589:
586:
581:
577:
574:(3): 183–90.
573:
569:
562:
560:
558:
554:
547:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
529:
525:
524:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
509:
505:
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500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
489:
485:
484:
480:
477:
473:
471:
468:
466:
465:
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460:
456:
453:
451:
448:
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445:
441:
440:
436:
433:
429:
425:
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417:
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411:
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389:
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384:
383:
379:
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372:
368:
366:
362:
360:
359:
355:
354:
350:
347:
344:
342:
341:
337:
336:
332:
329:
327:
323:
321:
320:
316:
315:
311:
308:
304:
302:
298:
296:
295:
291:
290:
283:
276:
270:
269:
264:
260:
257:
254:
251:
250:
244:
242:
240:
236:
235:hyperglycemia
232:
228:
224:
222:
217:
214:
210:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
186:found in the
185:
181:
173:
171:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
142:, a peptide
141:
137:
129:
127:
125:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
97:
90:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
65:
61:
59:
55:
52:
48:
44:
37:
32:
19:
1007:
876:
872:
861:
841:Ebey Soman,
837:
802:
798:
788:
740:(1): 17659.
737:
733:
723:
686:
682:
672:
640:(7): 412–9.
637:
634:Diabetologia
633:
623:
601:(5): 783–8.
598:
594:
588:
571:
567:
526:
506:
486:
474:1) Enhances
462:
442:
407:Somatostatin
405:
385:
356:
338:
317:
292:
266:
239:hypoglycemia
225:
218:
196:glycogenesis
177:
168:carbohydrate
160:Hypoglycemia
133:
121:
102:
72:
70:
58:blood plasma
42:
41:
444:Epinephrine
412:Pancreatic
363:Pancreatic
324:Intestinal
299:Pancreatic
273:Pancreatic
221:epinephrine
209:endocytosis
136:alpha cells
47:blood sugar
1084:Categories
1001:Metabolism
944:Physiology
843:Scienceray
689:: 583016.
548:References
184:beta cells
91:Mechanisms
1100:Nutrition
821:1550-4131
780:253041870
528:Thyroxine
432:histamine
54:dissolved
1090:Diabetes
903:27087445
850:Archived
829:29414688
772:36271244
715:33658981
664:24872571
615:13870789
464:Cortisol
424:secretin
387:Asprosin
358:Glucagon
252:Hormone
180:glycogen
164:dextrose
152:glycogen
140:glucagon
130:Glucagon
85:pancreas
81:glucagon
38:molecule
946:of the
894:4852710
763:9587026
742:Bibcode
706:7917251
656:3899825
541:Raises
534:Thyroid
521:Raises
501:Raises
481:Raises
457:Raises
437:Lowers
428:gastrin
420:gastrin
414:δ Cells
400:Raises
380:Raises
365:α Cells
351:Lowers
333:Lowers
326:L cells
312:Lowers
307:gastric
301:β Cells
287:Lowers
275:β Cells
268:Insulin
192:insulin
174:Insulin
144:hormone
113:glucose
109:balance
77:Insulin
51:glucose
36:glucose
1022:Fields
901:
891:
827:
819:
778:
770:
760:
713:
703:
662:
654:
613:
294:Amylin
200:muscle
1053:Other
776:S2CID
660:S2CID
319:GLP-1
204:GLUT4
899:PMID
873:Cell
825:PMID
817:ISSN
768:PMID
711:PMID
652:PMID
611:PMID
488:ACTH
430:and
422:and
889:PMC
881:doi
877:165
807:doi
758:PMC
750:doi
701:PMC
691:doi
642:doi
603:doi
576:doi
340:GIP
241:).
166:or
56:in
1086::
897:.
887:.
875:.
871:.
845:,
823:.
815:.
803:27
801:.
797:.
774:.
766:.
756:.
748:.
738:12
736:.
732:.
709:.
699:.
687:11
685:.
681:.
658:.
650:.
638:28
636:.
632:.
609:.
599:16
597:.
572:17
570:.
556:^
126:.
75:.
1062:/
936:e
929:t
922:v
905:.
883::
831:.
809::
782:.
752::
744::
717:.
693::
666:.
644::
617:.
605::
582:.
578::
20:)
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