435:. Lorentz explained that the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms, or that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant. Lorentz included comments regarding the emission and absorption of radiation concluding that "A stationary state will be established in which the number of electrons entering their spheres is equal to the number of those leaving them." In the discussion of what could regulate energy differences between atoms, Max Planck simply stated: "The intermediaries could be the electrons." The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom and the difficulties in an atomic theory. Planck in his talk said explicitly: "In order for an oscillator to be able to provide radiation in accordance with the equation, it is necessary to introduce into the laws of its operation, as we have already said at the beginning of this Report, a particular physical hypothesis which is, on a fundamental point, in contradiction with classical Mechanics, explicitly or tacitly." Bohr's first paper on his atomic model quotes Planck almost word for word, saying: "Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics, i.e. the Planck constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action." Bohr's footnote at the bottom of the page is to the French translation of the 1911 Solvay Congress, proving he patterned his model directly on the proceedings and fundamental principles laid down by Planck, Lorentz, and the quantized Haas model of the atom which was mentioned seventeen times. Lorentz ended the discussion of Einstein's talk explaining: "The assumption that this energy must be a multiple of
5562: plane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could be turned this way and that relative to the coordinates without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of the
5285:
experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4). Notwithstanding its restricted validity, Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the
Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913.
4953:
which ... only a certain number of electronsânamely, eight in our caseâshould be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated." Later, chemist
Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons. In his 1919 paper,
4859: = 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit. This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius. The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2. This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus. Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective charge
306:
354:, was the best available. Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms and he developed a formula for the scattering of
4883:
filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert. The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert. The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct
Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra "d" electrons. The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10
1650:
5668:
5329:"around" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as "back and forth", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric â it doesn't point in any particular direction.
3624:; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei.
4607:< 8." For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: "rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8". However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, "on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neon
5418:
7938:
7948:
49:
5346:
coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic BohrâSommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics).
5598:. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron.
3789:
convincing
Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4.
552:. To avoid immediate collapse of this system he required that electrons come in pairs so the rotational acceleration of each electron was matched across the orbit. By 1913 Bohr had already shown from the analysis of alpha particle energy loss that hydrogen had only a single electron. Thus Bohr's atomic model would abandon classical electrodynamics.
250:. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results.
3109:
520:." Rutherford could have outlined these points to Bohr or given him a copy of the proceedings since he quoted from them and used them as a reference. In a later interview, Bohr said it was very interesting to hear Rutherford's remarks about the Solvay Congress. But Bohr said, "I saw the actual reports" of the Solvay Congress.
5338:, the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one. As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry.
3783:
4960:
In the
Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron. This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2. But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge of
532:
published a model of the atom which would influence Bohr's model. Nicholson developed his model based on the analysis of astrophysical spectroscopy. He connected the observed spectral line frequencies with the orbits of electrons in his atoms. The connection he adopted associated the atomic electron
4874:
of gases and density of pure crystalline solids. Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table. Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them. Every element on the last column
410:
By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the spectral lines. In 1897, Lord
Rayleigh analyzed the problem. By 1906, Rayleigh said, "The frequencies observed in the spectrum may not be frequencies of disturbance or of oscillation in the ordinary sense at all, but
3788:
However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in
358:
that seemed to match experimental results. However
Thomson himself later showed that the atom had a factor of a thousand fewer electrons, challenging the stability argument and forcing the poorly understood positive sphere to have most of the atom's mass. Thomson was also unable to explain the many
5328:
for the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern "orbital" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to rotate
3792:
For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy.
4952:
in 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: "This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of
4882:
In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling. Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand. The first Bohr orbit is
4591:
Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements. Bohr called his electron shells, "rings" in 1913. Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum
540:
The other critical influence of
Nicholson work was his detailed analysis of spectra. Before Nicholson's work Bohr thought the spectral data was not useful for understanding atoms. In comparing his work to Nicholson's, Bohr came to understand the spectral data and their value. When he then learned
4944:
Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost "K" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So
Moseley published his results without a
2112:
However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the
5345:
that grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a "coincidence". (However, many such
537:. Whereas Planck focused on a quantum of energy, Nicholson's angular momentum quantum relates to orbital frequency. This new concept gave Planck constant an atomic meaning for the first time. In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular momentum important for the atom.
2108:
In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the
Fourier
5601:
The BohrâSommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In
4260:
5284:
is the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 10 Hz. For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the
4831:
of 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916. Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. Per
2884:
5361:
group) can also be approximately predicted. Also, if the empiric electronânuclear screening factors for many atoms are known, many other spectral lines can be deduced from the information, in similar atoms of differing elements, via the RitzâRydberg combination principles (see
6567:
Well, yes," says Bohr. "But I can hardly imagine it will involve light quanta. Look, even if Einstein had found an unassailable proof of their existence and would want to inform me by telegram, this telegram would only reach me because of the existence and reality of radio
2116:
Bohr considered circular orbits. Classically, these orbits must decay to smaller circles when photons are emitted. The energy level spacing between circular orbits can be calculated with the correspondence formula. For a hydrogen atom, the classical orbits have a period
4813:, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemist
332:. As electrons in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons suitable arranged would cancel each other, a restriction applied in the subsequent classical atomic models.
5257:
5435:, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits. This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, the
1612:
divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected.
2449:
761:, of 0.0529 nm for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus. Starting from the angular momentum quantum rule as Bohr admits is previously given by Nicholson in his 1912 paper, Bohr was able to calculate the
2899:
5654:
of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the
5112:
5589:
However, this is not to say that the BohrâSommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the BohrâSommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-order
4801:
In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called "Systems Containing Several Nuclei", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen. The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail and
3637:
3261:
4488:
3884:
developed increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines. Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency. These formula contained a constant,
555:
Nicholson's model of radiation was quantum but was attached to the orbits of the electrons. Bohr would adopt Nicholson's interpretation of frequency quantization, but associate it with differences in energy levels of his model of hydrogen.
7739:: Elektronenbahnen, QuantensprĂŒnge und Spektren, in: Charlotte Bigg & Jochen Hennig (eds.) Atombilder. Ikonografien des Atoms in Wissenschaft und Ăffentlichkeit des 20. Jahrhunderts, Göttingen: Wallstein-Verlag 2009, pp. 51â61
4100:
1809:
2625:
3388:
2733:
4895:
Niels Bohr said in 1962: "You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously. We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all. There was no mention of it any place. The great change came from Moseley."
4262:
Therefore Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and the
1636:
independently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of a
389:
developed a new scattering model, showing that the observed large angle scattering could be explained by a compact, highly charged mass at the center of the atom. Rutherford scattering did not involve the electrons and thus his
3474:
4887:). The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment.
1925:
4969:, and lower it by â1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge). The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines,
3983:
4843:
This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of
4848:. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.
3992:
between orbital energy levels is able to explain these formula. For the hydrogen atom Bohr starts with his derived formula for the energy released as a free electron moves into a stable circular orbit indexed by
2759:
2209:
4095:
5680:
has been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for "atomic" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy). Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to:
2302:
3574:
3494:
is the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei with
5675:
Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920's, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms. The concept of an atom as a tiny
5369:
The relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, Bohr's formula or modifications of it, was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the
4343:
3855:
1992:
1657:
The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as the
7625:
p. 434. (provides an elegant reformulation of the BohrâSommerfeld quantization conditions, as well as an important insight into the quantization of non-integrable (chaotic) dynamical systems.)
316:
Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative and even the concept of atoms let alone atoms with internal structure faced opposition from some scientists.
595:
suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
4921:
in terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper). The two additional assumptions that
5512:
2518:
5123:
3104:{\displaystyle E=-{\frac {Zk_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}}{2r_{n}}}=-{\frac {Z^{2}(k_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2})^{2}m_{\mathrm {e} }}{2\hbar ^{2}n^{2}}}\approx {\frac {-13.6Z^{2}}{n^{2}}}~\mathrm {eV} .}
2340:
2096:
1518:
856:
644:
4389:
1304:
1420:
1362:
4975:
324:
In the late 1800's speculations on the possible structure of the atom included planetary models with orbiting charged electrons. These models faced a significant constraint. In 1897,
3143:, these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom. The hydrogen formula also coincides with the
3310:
1849:. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This equation determines the electron's speed at any radius:
269:. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to
4611:= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur". Bohr wrote "From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:"
1249:
901:
of the electromagnetic field. Quantization of the electromagnetic field was explained by the discreteness of the atomic energy levels; Bohr did not believe in the existence of
3778:{\displaystyle m_{\text{red}}={\frac {m_{\mathrm {e} }m_{\mathrm {p} }}{m_{\mathrm {e} }+m_{\mathrm {p} }}}=m_{\mathrm {e} }{\frac {1}{1+m_{\mathrm {e} }/m_{\mathrm {p} }}}.}
735:
518:
1590:
773:. In these orbits, the electron's acceleration does not result in radiation and energy loss. The Bohr model of an atom was based upon Planck's quantum theory of radiation.
7632:
La théorie du rayonnement et les quanta : rapports et discussions de la réunion tenue à Bruxelles, du 30 octobre au 3 novembre 1911, sous les auspices de M.E. Solvay
3163:
2243:
694:
4400:
5650:, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. The
2332:
1013:
5405:
Doublets and triplets appear in the spectra of some atoms as very close pairs of lines. Bohr's model cannot say why some energy levels should be very close together.
1200:
4965: â 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +
4011:
1469:
1119:), the two orbits involved in the emission process have nearly the same rotation frequency, so that the classical orbital frequency is not ambiguous. But for small
980:
456:
946:
926:
794:
1552:
1449:
1719:
3903:
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1610:
1157:
1137:
1113:
1093:
1073:
1053:
1033:
876:
755:
476:
3912:
3321:
2640:
3480:
Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a charge
6580:
6989:
4827:
is credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to the
4016:
431:
in the discussion of Planck's lecture raised the question of the composition of the atom based on Thomson's model with the quantum modification added by
3399:
776:
Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency
5353:
Much of the spectra of larger atoms. At best, it can make predictions about the K-alpha and some L-alpha X-ray emission spectra for larger atoms, if
4493:
Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of the
4255:{\displaystyle h\nu =W_{\tau _{2}}-W_{\tau _{1}}={\frac {2\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}}}\left({\frac {1}{\tau _{2}^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{\tau _{1}^{2}}}\right)}
1854:
394:
was incomplete. Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense, positively charged
7154:
Dahl, Jens Peder; Springborg, Michael (10 December 1982). "Wigner's phase space function and atomic structure: I. The hydrogen atom ground state".
4866:
The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in the
7833:
5686:
598:
The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced
4270:
7986:
7752:
7381:
6718:
6525:
On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules ... Papers of 1913 reprinted from the Philosophical Magazine, with an introduction by L. Rosenfeld
6460:
6291:
6072:
6000:
5962:
2879:{\displaystyle r_{1}={\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{k_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}m_{\mathrm {e} }}}\approx 5.29\times 10^{-11}~\mathrm {m} =52.9~\mathrm {pm} .}
4532:=3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted.
1210:
condition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit:
5384:
in spectral lines, which are known to be due to a variety of relativistic and subtle effects, as well as complications from electron spin.
2139:
2251:
4957:
postulated the existence of "cells" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in "equidistant layers".
4806:
was one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium.
7272:
5697:
4913:. Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions only
7727:
7708:
7678:
5802:
5436:
4577:
and the later discussion of the "Shell Model of the Atom" below). This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model.
3505:
368:
281:
in 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed. The quantum theory of the period between
541:
from a friend about Balmer's compact formula for the spectral line data, Bohr quickly realized his model would match it in detail.
5624:
Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable "
427:'s lecture ended with this remark: "... atoms or electrons subject to the molecular bond would obey the laws of quantum theory".
4903:
found an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as the
7630:
5643:
5637:
1175:
544:
Nicholson's model was based on classical electrodynamics with negative electron orbiting a positive nucleus along the lines of
3799:
4867:
1936:
4823:
who corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: "shells".
2214:
It is possible to determine the energy level spacings by recursively stepping down orbit by orbit, but there is a shortcut.
31:
591:
The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what
2006:, the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. The total energy is half the
7372:
Schirrmacher, Arne (2009). "Bohr's Atomic Model". In Greenberger, Daniel M.; Hentschel, Klaus; Weinert, Friedel (eds.).
7047:(Interview). Interviewed by Thomas S. Kuhn; Leon Rosenfeld; Aage Petersen; Erik Rudinger. American Institute of Physics.
6385:(Interview). Interviewed by Thomas S. Kuhn; Leon Rosenfeld; Aage Petersen; Erik Rudinger. American Institute of Physics.
6367:(Interview). Interviewed by Thomas S. Kuhn; Leon Rosenfeld; Aage Petersen; Erik Rudinger. American Institute of Physics.
5789:
5395:; these are also due to more complicated quantum principles interacting with electron spin and orbital magnetic fields.
309:
Bohr model in 1921 after Sommerfeld expansion of 1913 model showing maximum electrons per shell with shells labeled in
8001:
7826:
7083:
5402:
in that it considers electrons to have known orbits and locations, two things which cannot be measured simultaneously.
5252:{\displaystyle f=\nu =R_{\mathrm {v} }\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)(Z-1)^{2}=(2.46\times 10^{15}~{\text{Hz}})(Z-1)^{2}.}
277:
before moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed by
7808:âAn interactive simulation to intuitively explain the quantization condition of standing waves in Bohr's atomic mode
7762:
Kragh, Helge (November 2011). "Conceptual objections to the Bohr atomic theory â do electrons have a 'free will'?".
7130:
5449:
5357:
additional ad hoc assumptions are made. Emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the
2468:
2444:{\displaystyle \Delta E\propto {\frac {1}{(L+\Delta L)^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{L^{2}}}\approx -{\frac {2\Delta L}{L^{3}}}.}
955:
at integer multiples of this frequency. This result is obtained from the Bohr model for jumps between energy levels
265:
of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be an
5752:
3989:
592:
266:
6776:
Bohr, N. (1913). "On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules, Part II. Systems containing only a Single Nucleus".
5783:
5426:
564:
Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an
411:
rather form an essential part of the original constitution of the atom as determined by conditions of stability."
7991:
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7805:
7135:
2054:
7044:
6958:
6382:
6364:
5981:. RePoSS: Research Publications on Science Studies 10. Aarhus: Centre for Science Studies, University of Aarhus.
5107:{\displaystyle E=h\nu =E_{i}-E_{f}=R_{\mathrm {E} }(Z-1)^{2}\left({\frac {1}{1^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}\right),}
2454:
This is as desired for equally spaced angular momenta. If one kept track of the constants, the spacing would be
1477:
803:
605:
7976:
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5607:
5544:
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4353:
1268:
1160:
697:
300:
247:
99:
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5408:
Multi-electron atoms do not have energy levels predicted by the model. It does not work for (neutral) helium.
2002:. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the proton. For infinite values of
235:
interpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according to
7981:
5579:
5555:
5333:
3391:
2010:, the difference being the kinetic energy of the electron. This is also true for noncircular orbits by the
1629:
262:
3276:
328:
showed that in classical electrodynamics an accelerating charge would radiate power, a result known as the
7819:
7236:
7126:
7059:
5625:
5618:
4918:
4837:
4803:
1171:
898:
529:
305:
228:
195:
In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, including
1163:, requiring quantum theory to agree with the classical theory only in the limit of large quantum numbers.
231:'s nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the new
5736:
5708:
5594:, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the
5399:
769:
atoms and ions. These orbits are associated with definite energies and are also called energy shells or
6061:
John L, Heilbron (1985). "Bohr's First Theories of the Atom". In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J. (eds.).
3793:
The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus.
1216:
572:
in 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen. This was further generalized by
6062:
5366:). All these techniques essentially make use of Bohr's Newtonian energy-potential picture of the atom.
1649:
7771:
7579:
7538:
7505:
7472:
7439:
7326:
7204:
7092:
6928:
6847:
6808:
6613:
6155:
5869:
5843:
5778:
5711:
5583:
4814:
1633:
887:
83:
6601:
5667:
3256:{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {E} }={\frac {(k_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2})^{2}m_{\mathrm {e} }}{2\hbar ^{2}}}.}
1159:), the radiation frequency has no unambiguous classical interpretation. This marks the birth of the
703:
587:
put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:
90:). The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as
7996:
7081:
M.A.B. Whitaker (1999). "The BohrâMoseley synthesis and a simple model for atomic x-ray energies".
5744:
5651:
5591:
5548:
5381:
4884:
481:
346:
When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912 the atomic model proposed by
7947:
4483:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\lambda }}=R\left({\frac {1}{n_{f}^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{n_{i}^{2}}}\right).}
1561:
7922:
7885:
7787:
7595:
7554:
7316:
7195:
7171:
7108:
6981:
6863:
6671:
6637:
6428:
6420:
6254:
6117:
6040:
5930:
5432:
2224:
1638:
649:
549:
351:
341:
287:
216:
158:
4535:
To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacing
423:
in 1911 on the subject of Radiation and Quanta, at which Bohr's mentor, Rutherford was present.
7265:
The Life of Stars: The Controversial Inception and Emergence of the Theory of Stellar Structure
6738:
4924:
this X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and
4870:. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring the
3125:
less energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus. The next energy level (
82:
and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of
7748:
7723:
7704:
7674:
7636:
7377:
7354:
7268:
6973:
6758:
6714:
6691:
6629:
6528:
6502:
6456:
6287:
6246:
6109:
6068:
5996:
5958:
5796:
5722:
5656:
5647:
5440:
5307:
4914:
3985:
Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.
2314:
1827:
1707:
1625:
1617:
432:
420:
386:
278:
270:
236:
232:
150:
985:
7955:
7891:
7779:
7587:
7546:
7513:
7480:
7447:
7344:
7334:
7245:
7212:
7163:
7100:
7022:
6936:
6894:
6855:
6816:
6750:
6683:
6621:
6492:
6412:
6279:
6238:
6194:
6163:
6101:
6032:
5922:
5851:
5677:
5571:
5536:
4845:
4836:, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used. This gives the atom a
4573:
is constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (see
3906:
3877:
3313:
2027:
2007:
1838:
1621:
1185:
573:
258:
224:
185:
165:
only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense
154:
4851:
For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit at
3996:
1804:{\displaystyle {\frac {m_{\mathrm {e} }v^{2}}{r}}={\frac {Zk_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}}{r^{2}}},}
1454:
958:
438:
7878:
7736:
7006:
5773:
5690:
5611:
5575:
5363:
4954:
4824:
4264:
3867:
2620:{\displaystyle m_{\text{e}}{\sqrt {\dfrac {k_{\text{e}}Ze^{2}}{m_{\text{e}}r}}}r=n\hbar ,}
2113:
classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation.
931:
911:
797:
779:
599:
577:
534:
428:
391:
385:
occasionally scatter at large angles, a result inconsistent with Thomson's model. In 1911
243:
208:
4840:
designed by Kossel, Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit.
3150:
The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (
1529:
1428:
7775:
7583:
7542:
7509:
7476:
7443:
7330:
7208:
7096:
6932:
6851:
6812:
6617:
6273:
6159:
5847:
5554:
The BohrâSommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. The
4933:
when used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to
3383:{\displaystyle {\frac {k_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}}{\hbar c}}=\alpha \approx {\frac {1}{137}}}
2728:{\displaystyle r_{n}={\frac {n^{2}\hbar ^{2}}{Zk_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}m_{\mathrm {e} }}}.}
7951:
7941:
7916:
7667:
7349:
7304:
5603:
5567:
5392:
5377:
5342:
4949:
4820:
4810:
4586:
4574:
4520:
3888:
3587:
3580:
3579:
The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see
3144:
2011:
1678:
1674:
1620:, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into a
1595:
1142:
1122:
1098:
1078:
1058:
1038:
1018:
861:
740:
461:
395:
382:
378:
329:
310:
285:(1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as the
166:
130:
79:
1254:
According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave as
17:
7970:
7791:
7112:
7104:
6585:
6432:
6403:
McCormmach, Russell (1 January 1966). "The atomic theory of John William Nicholson".
5889:
5887:
5759:
5563:
5388:
4900:
4507:
3873:
3591:
3267:
1846:
1682:
1658:
1207:
1116:
569:
325:
254:
196:
107:
53:
38:
7558:
6985:
6641:
5978:
1677:
of any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used for
7871:
7599:
7397:
7303:
Svidzinsky, Anatoly A.; Scully, Marlan O.; Herschbach, Dudley R. (23 August 2005).
7175:
6867:
6655:
Bohr, N. (1985). "Rydberg's discovery of the spectral laws". In Kalckar, J. (ed.).
6258:
5873:
5718:
5595:
5417:
5370:
4494:
4394:
these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off:
3881:
3628:
3122:
2122:
770:
545:
274:
204:
181:
75:
5834:
Lakhtakia, Akhlesh; Salpeter, Edwin E. (1996). "Models and Modelers of Hydrogen".
7783:
6754:
3469:{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {E} }={\frac {1}{2}}(m_{\mathrm {e} }c^{2})\alpha ^{2}}
7857:
6283:
5614:
2750:
2109:
transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T.
1711:
1670:
1555:
1255:
758:
374:
347:
220:
200:
162:
42:
7498:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
7465:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
7432:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
7309:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6801:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
6676:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
6275:
Old Quantum Theory and Early Quantum Mechanics. Challenges in Physics Education
6187:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
6148:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
3631:
of electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron,
3266:
This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form more
7640:
7629:
de Broglie, Maurice; Langevin, Paul; Solvay, Ernest; Einstein, Albert (1912).
7517:
7484:
7451:
7249:
7167:
7040:
6820:
6687:
6600:
MĂŒller, U.; de Reus, T.; Reinhardt, J.; MĂŒller, B.; Greiner, W. (1988-03-01).
6378:
6360:
6198:
6167:
4828:
1920:{\displaystyle v={\sqrt {\frac {Zk_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}}{m_{\mathrm {e} }r}}}.}
1653:
Models depicting electron energy levels in hydrogen, helium, lithium, and neon
1203:
1170:(BKS theory) is a failed attempt to extend the Bohr model, which violates the
1167:
584:
424:
355:
282:
146:
118:
48:
7374:
Compendium of quantum physics: concepts, experiments, history, and philosophy
7216:
6977:
6940:
6762:
6695:
6625:
6532:
6506:
6497:
6480:
6113:
5955:
Niels Bohr and the Quantum Atom: The Bohr Model of Atomic Structure 1913â1925
5292:
line of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (
1632:
of the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicist
192:, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).
7339:
4876:
4871:
952:
565:
122:
7358:
7131:"Die Radioelemente, das periodische System und die Konstitution der. Atome"
6250:
6023:
Heilbron, John L.; Kuhn, Thomas S. (1969). "The Genesis of the Bohr Atom".
4809:
In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on the
6883:"Langmuir's Theory of the Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules"
6633:
5995:(1. paperback ed., reprinted ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
1706:
The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The
1685:
below). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses of
894:
amount of energy is radiated. However, unlike Einstein, Bohr stuck to the
6548:
Quantum Reality, Relativistic Causality, and Closing the Epistemic Circle
5659:â the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other.
4592:
electrons in a shell is eight, writing: "We see, further, that a ring of
3978:{\displaystyle \nu =R\left({\frac {1}{m^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right).}
399:
173:
71:
7321:
7026:
6898:
6424:
6121:
6089:
6044:
5934:
6416:
6105:
5807:
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation
5733:
5726:
5431:
Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably the
5358:
5289:
4904:
2893:-th level for any atom is determined by the radius and quantum number:
1666:
189:
177:
6581:"Revealing the hidden connection between pi and Bohr's hydrogen model"
1182:
Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple of
7621:, A. Engel translator, (1997) Princeton University Press, Princeton.
7591:
7550:
6859:
6036:
5926:
5421:
Elliptical orbits with the same energy and quantized angular momentum
4833:
1662:
1178:
in quantum jumps, with the conservation laws only holding on average.
902:
212:
7567:
7526:
7493:
7460:
7427:
7231:
7190:
7010:
6919:[On molecular formation as a question of atomic structure].
6916:
6882:
6835:
6796:
6659:. Vol. 10. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publ. Cy. pp. 373â379.
6242:
6182:
6143:
5913:
Kragh, Helge (1 January 1979). "Niels Bohr's Second Atomic Theory".
5855:
5739:
code point U+269B (â) for an atom looks like a planetary atom model.
2204:{\displaystyle \Delta E\propto {\frac {1}{r^{3/2}}}\propto E^{3/2}.}
1641:, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge.
757:
is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the
419:
The outline of Bohr's atom came during the proceedings of the first
6272:
Giliberti, Marco; Lovisetti, Luisa (2024). "Bohr's Hydrogen Atom".
5689:, which was in part responsible for its later usage in relation to
5349:
The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain:
4596:
electrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge
4090:{\displaystyle W_{\tau }={\frac {2\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{2}\tau ^{2}}}}
2526:
Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation for
796:
determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the
7607:
A. Einstein (1917). "Zum Quantensatz von Sommerfeld und Epstein".
5701:
5666:
5416:
4890:
2297:{\displaystyle E\propto {\frac {1}{r}}\propto {\frac {1}{L^{2}}}.}
1689:
1686:
1681:
X-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (see
1648:
304:
170:
5993:
The tiger and the shark: empirical roots of wave-particle dualism
7811:
6342:
6330:
6318:
6306:
6211:
6183:"VII. On electrical vibrations and the constitution of the atom"
5893:
5714:' logo shows baseballs as electrons orbiting a large letter "A".
142:
7815:
7701:
Atomic and Molecular Structure: the development of our concepts
6229:
Heilbron, John L. (June 2013). "The path to the quantum atom".
5524:
is the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinate
6739:"Early atomic models â from mechanical to quantum (1904â1913)"
3569:{\displaystyle E_{n}=-{\frac {Z^{2}R_{\mathrm {E} }}{n^{2}}}.}
1931:
It also determines the electron's total energy at any radius:
6602:"Positron production in crossed beams of bare uranium nuclei"
2245:. The energy in terms of the angular momentum then obeys to:
6523:
Bohr, Niels; Rosenfeld, LĂ©on Jacques Henri Constant (1963).
5829:
5827:
4891:
Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines)
6090:"The Scattering of α and ÎČ Particles and Rutherford's Atom"
5574:. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on the
5341:
In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is a
3988:
In Bohr's theory describing the energies of transitions or
3499:
protons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation):
2458:, so the angular momentum should be an integer multiple of
1998:
The total energy is negative and inversely proportional to
6018:
6016:
6014:
6012:
5547:, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers are
1451:
is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writing
928:
of classical radiation is equal to the rotation frequency
1526:
Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as
1471:
for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes
6959:"Lars Vegard, atomic structure, and the periodic system"
6453:
Inward bound: of matter and forces in the physical world
4338:{\displaystyle cR_{H}={\frac {2\pi ^{2}me^{4}}{h^{3}}}.}
3850:{\displaystyle E_{n}={\frac {R_{\mathrm {E} }}{2n^{2}}}}
580:. After this, Bohr declared, "everything became clear".
106:
transition depicted here produces the first line of the
7609:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
5558:
measured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to the
4097:
The energy difference between two such levels is then:
1987:{\displaystyle E=-{\frac {1}{2}}m_{\mathrm {e} }v^{2}.}
6713:(Impression: 3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
5948:
5946:
5944:
890:, Bohr's formula assumes that during a quantum jump a
253:
The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the
7659:(3rd ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co.
7011:"The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules"
5452:
5126:
4978:
4403:
4356:
4273:
4103:
4019:
3999:
3915:
3891:
3802:
3640:
3586:) because the electrons are not only affected by the
3508:
3402:
3324:
3279:
3166:
3139:
3) is â1.51 eV, and so on. For larger values of
2902:
2762:
2643:
2556:
2543:
2471:
2343:
2334:, the spacing between neighboring energies obeys to;
2317:
2254:
2227:
2142:
2057:
1939:
1857:
1722:
1598:
1564:
1532:
1480:
1457:
1431:
1376:
1318:
1271:
1219:
1188:
1145:
1125:
1101:
1081:
1061:
1041:
1021:
988:
961:
934:
914:
864:
806:
782:
743:
706:
652:
608:
484:
464:
441:
7494:"LXXIII. On the constitution of atoms and molecules"
7461:"XXXVII. On the constitution of atoms and molecules"
6797:"LXXIII. On the constitution of atoms and molecules"
4855: = 2. Each one sees the nuclear charge of
3114:
An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen (
1695:
Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions.
7908:
7849:
5979:
Before Bohr: Theories of atomic structure 1850-1913
5799:
is adequately explained by means of the Bohr model.
5700:is a "crest-and-spinning-atom emblem", enclosed in
4819:Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 was
1624:of electron motion. The new theory was proposed by
7666:
7232:"The quantum theory of radiation and line spectra"
6561:Gilder, Louisa (2009). "The Arguments 1909â1935".
6446:
6444:
6442:
5506:
5251:
5106:
4482:
4383:
4337:
4254:
4089:
4005:
3977:
3897:
3849:
3777:
3568:
3468:
3382:
3304:
3255:
3103:
2878:
2727:
2619:
2512:
2443:
2326:
2296:
2237:
2203:
2090:
1986:
1919:
1803:
1604:
1584:
1546:
1512:
1463:
1443:
1414:
1356:
1298:
1243:
1194:
1151:
1131:
1107:
1087:
1067:
1047:
1027:
1007:
974:
940:
920:
870:
850:
788:
749:
729:
688:
638:
512:
470:
450:
6485:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
6398:
6396:
6394:
6392:
30:"Bohr's law" redirects here. For other uses, see
7743:Steven and Susan Zumdahl (2010). "Chapter 7.4".
6518:
6516:
6474:
6472:
5535:is one full orbital period. The integral is the
2133:, so the energy level spacing formula obeys to:
766:
7428:"I. On the constitution of atoms and molecules"
6672:"I. On the constitution of atoms and molecules"
6224:
6222:
6220:
6144:"I. On the constitution of atoms and molecules"
3612:), the motion becomes highly relativistic, and
1616:In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed,
576:in 1888, resulting in what is now known as the
242:The model's key success lies in explaining the
6056:
6054:
5748:uses a planetary-like image in its print logo.
5602:particular, the symplectic form should be the
5507:{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{T}p_{r}\,dq_{r}=nh,}
2513:{\displaystyle L={\frac {nh}{2\pi }}=n\hbar .}
2307:Assuming, with Bohr, that quantized values of
908:According to the Maxwell theory the frequency
7827:
6910:
6908:
6546:Stachel, John (2009). "Bohr and the Photon".
6455:(Reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press
6067:. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
1055:. These jumps reproduce the frequency of the
27:Atomic model introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913
8:
7060:"The high-frequency spectra of the elements"
6952:
6950:
6917:"Ăber MolekĂŒlbildung als Frage des Atombaus"
6732:
6730:
5758:On maps, it is generally used to indicate a
5642:Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom and
5391:â changes in spectral lines due to external
3909:and a pair of integers indexing the lines:
6025:Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences
5915:Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences
5908:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5671:Shield of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
4863:doesn't usually come out to be an integer.
2091:{\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {e} }vr=n\hbar .}
762:
261:model. As a theory, it can be derived as a
7834:
7820:
7812:
7655:Linus Carl Pauling (1970). "Chapter 5-1".
7290:ĐзбŃĐ°ĐœĐœŃĐ” ĐœĐ°ŃŃĐœŃĐ” ŃŃŃĐŽŃ (ŃŃĐ°ŃŃĐž 1909â1925)
6711:The quantum story: a history in 40 moments
6481:"The Constitution of the Solar Corona. IL"
6355:
6353:
6351:
5792:provided early support for the Bohr model.
3590:but also interact with each other via the
1513:{\displaystyle \ell ={\frac {nh}{2\pi }},}
851:{\displaystyle \Delta E=E_{2}-E_{1}=h\nu }
639:{\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {e} }vr=n\hbar }
7348:
7338:
7320:
6836:"The Constitution of Atoms and Molecules"
6496:
5725:, and has come to be used as a symbol of
5486:
5478:
5472:
5462:
5457:
5451:
5240:
5216:
5207:
5185:
5155:
5144:
5143:
5125:
5088:
5079:
5068:
5059:
5048:
5025:
5024:
5011:
4998:
4977:
4464:
4459:
4450:
4439:
4434:
4425:
4404:
4402:
4384:{\displaystyle E={\frac {hc}{\lambda }},}
4363:
4355:
4324:
4313:
4300:
4290:
4281:
4272:
4239:
4234:
4225:
4214:
4209:
4200:
4187:
4176:
4163:
4153:
4142:
4137:
4122:
4117:
4102:
4078:
4068:
4056:
4043:
4033:
4024:
4018:
3998:
3959:
3950:
3939:
3930:
3914:
3890:
3838:
3823:
3822:
3816:
3807:
3801:
3762:
3761:
3752:
3745:
3744:
3728:
3721:
3720:
3703:
3702:
3688:
3687:
3674:
3673:
3662:
3661:
3654:
3645:
3639:
3555:
3543:
3542:
3532:
3525:
3513:
3507:
3460:
3447:
3436:
3435:
3418:
3408:
3407:
3401:
3370:
3344:
3333:
3332:
3325:
3323:
3296:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3241:
3225:
3224:
3214:
3204:
3193:
3192:
3182:
3172:
3171:
3165:
3090:
3079:
3068:
3055:
3043:
3033:
3017:
3016:
3006:
2996:
2985:
2984:
2971:
2964:
2949:
2934:
2923:
2922:
2912:
2901:
2865:
2851:
2839:
2816:
2815:
2805:
2794:
2793:
2782:
2776:
2767:
2761:
2712:
2711:
2701:
2690:
2689:
2674:
2664:
2657:
2648:
2642:
2588:
2576:
2563:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2478:
2470:
2430:
2413:
2399:
2390:
2378:
2353:
2342:
2316:
2283:
2274:
2261:
2253:
2228:
2226:
2188:
2184:
2165:
2161:
2152:
2141:
2063:
2062:
2056:
1975:
1964:
1963:
1949:
1938:
1900:
1899:
1887:
1876:
1875:
1864:
1856:
1790:
1779:
1768:
1767:
1757:
1742:
1731:
1730:
1723:
1721:
1597:
1574:
1563:
1536:
1531:
1487:
1479:
1456:
1430:
1377:
1375:
1319:
1317:
1299:{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{mv}},}
1278:
1270:
1218:
1187:
1144:
1124:
1100:
1080:
1060:
1040:
1020:
993:
987:
966:
960:
933:
913:
863:
833:
820:
805:
781:
742:
716:
705:
651:
614:
613:
607:
492:
483:
463:
440:
7718:Paul Tipler and Ralph Llewellyn (2002).
7699:Walter J. Lehmann (1972). "Chapter 18".
7292:. Vol. 1. Đ.: «ĐĐ°ŃĐșа». p. 133.
7015:Journal of the American Chemical Society
6887:Journal of the American Chemical Society
6137:
6135:
6133:
6131:
5318:The Bohr model gives an incorrect value
4613:
2630:so that the allowed orbit radius at any
1415:{\displaystyle {\frac {nh}{2\pi }}=mvr,}
1357:{\displaystyle {\frac {nh}{mv}}=2\pi r,}
47:
7619:The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein
7305:"Bohr's 1913 molecular model revisited"
7191:"Zur Quantentheorie der Spektrallinien"
6527:. Copenhagen; W.A. Benjamin: New York.
6491:(8). Oxford University Press: 677â693.
5957:. Oxford University Press. p. 18.
5823:
3352:
3238:
3030:
2779:
2671:
2611:
2523:This is how Bohr arrived at his model.
2504:
2082:
1189:
707:
633:
5755:uses planetary-like image as its logo.
5687:United States Atomic Energy Commission
5335:fully quantum treatment in phase space
458:leads to the following formula, where
141:was the first successful model of the
78:encircles a small, positively charged
7806:Standing waves in Bohr's atomic model
6966:Bulletin for the History of Chemistry
6405:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
6278:. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
6094:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
3305:{\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {e} }c^{2}}
1202:, was later reinterpreted in 1924 by
7:
7527:"The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen"
5663:Symbolism of planetary atomic models
5531:, which is the radial position, and
5433:Sommerfeld or BohrâSommerfeld models
4615:Bohr's 1913 proposed configurations
5721:, was chosen as the symbol for the
5543:. This condition, suggested by the
3627:The Bohr formula properly uses the
1095:. For sufficiently large values of
951:of the electron in its orbit, with
7690:George Gamow (1985). "Chapter 2".
6550:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 79.
5698:International Atomic Energy Agency
5145:
5026:
4875:of the table is chemically inert (
3824:
3763:
3746:
3722:
3704:
3689:
3675:
3663:
3544:
3437:
3409:
3334:
3286:
3226:
3194:
3173:
3094:
3091:
3018:
2986:
2924:
2869:
2866:
2852:
2817:
2795:
2713:
2691:
2419:
2368:
2344:
2318:
2143:
2064:
1965:
1901:
1877:
1769:
1732:
1523:which is Bohr's second postulate.
807:
615:
533:orbital angular momentum with the
415:Influence of the Solvay Conference
248:hydrogen's spectral emission lines
184:, but with attraction provided by
145:. Developed from 1911 to 1918 by
25:
7376:. Heidelberg New York: Springer.
6479:Nicholson, J. W. (14 June 1912).
5803:Introduction to quantum mechanics
1244:{\displaystyle n\lambda =2\pi r.}
369:Rutherford scattering experiments
283:Planck's discovery of the quantum
7946:
7937:
7936:
7673:. New York: Dover Publications.
6995:from the original on 2022-10-09.
4347:Since the energy of a photon is
3121:) therefore has about 13.6
2221:of the circular orbit scales as
70:), where the negatively charged
7764:The European Physical Journal H
7722:(4th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
7692:Thirty Years That Shook Physics
7635:(in French). Gauthier-Villars.
6743:The European Physical Journal H
6181:Rayleigh, Lord (January 1906).
5646:. According to his model for a
5638:Bohr model of the chemical bond
4907:line), and their atomic number
3316:of the electron (511 keV),
2738:The smallest possible value of
765:of the hydrogen atom and other
6881:Bury, Charles R. (July 1921).
6064:Niels Bohr: a centenary volume
5343:spherical cloud of probability
5237:
5224:
5221:
5194:
5182:
5169:
5045:
5032:
4868:periodic table of the elements
3453:
3428:
3211:
3185:
3132:) is â3.4 eV. The third (
3003:
2977:
2375:
2359:
886:Like Einstein's theory of the
763:energies of the allowed orbits
730:{\displaystyle \hbar =h/2\pi }
398:attracting negatively charged
199:'s Solar System model (1897),
1:
7747:(8th ed.). Brooks/Cole.
6834:Nicholson, J. W. (May 1914).
5874:"Les HypothÚses moléculaires"
513:{\displaystyle qv^{2}=nh\nu }
223:'s quantum model (1910), the
7987:Foundational quantum physics
7925:(relativistic quantum model)
7492:Bohr, N. (1 November 1913).
6795:Bohr, N. (1 November 1913).
5644:a model of the chemical bond
5570:in 1925, using Heisenberg's
5398:The model also violates the
5332:Nevertheless, in the modern
1585:{\displaystyle \lambda =h/p}
117:) it results in a photon of
7459:Bohr, N. (September 1913).
7084:European Journal of Physics
6284:10.1007/978-3-031-57934-9_6
5836:American Journal of Physics
5566:, which was first given by
4581:Shell model (heavier atoms)
2238:{\displaystyle {\sqrt {r}}}
689:{\displaystyle n=1,2,3,...}
32:Bohr's law (disambiguation)
8018:
7784:10.1140/epjh/e2011-20031-x
7105:10.1088/0143-0807/20/3/312
6755:10.1140/epjh/e2012-30009-7
6365:"Niels Bohr â Session III"
6088:Heilbron, John L. (1968).
5991:Wheaton, Bruce R. (1992).
5635:
5632:Model of the chemical bond
5424:
4584:
3865:
2045:is an integer multiple of
1168:BohrâKramersâSlater theory
593:classical electromagnetism
366:
339:
335:
298:
267:obsolete scientific theory
63:) or a hydrogen-like ion (
36:
29:
7932:
7865:vortex theory of the atom
7525:Bohr, N. (October 1913).
7518:10.1080/14786441308635031
7485:10.1080/14786441308634993
7452:10.1080/14786441308634955
7267:. Springer. p. 203.
7250:10.1080/14786440608635362
7168:10.1080/00268978200100752
7136:Physikalische Zeitschrift
6821:10.1080/14786441308635031
6688:10.1080/14786441308634955
6383:"Niels Bohr â Session II"
6199:10.1080/14786440609463428
6168:10.1080/14786441308634955
5977:Helge Kragh (Oct. 2010).
5693:technology in particular.
4945:theoretical explanation.
4927:, that the atomic number
3872:Beginning in late 1860s,
2129:. The energy scales as 1/
359:lines in atomic spectra.
263:first-order approximation
7217:10.1002/andp.19163561702
7058:Moseley, H.G.J. (1913).
7045:"Niels Bohr â Session I"
6941:10.1002/andp.19163540302
6737:Baily, C. (2013-01-01).
6626:10.1103/PhysRevA.37.1449
5545:correspondence principle
5541:action-angle coordinates
2327:{\displaystyle \Delta L}
1822:is the electron's mass,
1161:correspondence principle
698:principal quantum number
363:Rutherford nuclear model
301:History of atomic theory
180:to the structure of the
100:principal quantum number
37:Not to be confused with
7703:. John Wiley and Sons.
7566:Bohr, N. (March 1921).
7398:"Logo Usage Guidelines"
7340:10.1073/pnas.0505778102
7127:van den Broek, Antonius
6709:Baggott, J. E. (2013).
6563:The Age of Entanglement
5790:FranckâHertz experiment
5751:The JavaScript library
5556:magnetic quantum number
5443:quantization condition
3392:fine-structure constant
1556:de Broglie's wavelength
1008:{\displaystyle E_{n-k}}
878:is the Planck constant.
568:equation discovered by
52:The Bohr model of the
7665:Linus Pauling (1988).
7426:Bohr, N. (July 1913).
7263:Shaviv, Glora (2010).
7237:Philosophical Magazine
7189:A. Sommerfeld (1916).
7064:Philosophical Magazine
6778:Philosophical Magazine
6670:Bohr, N. (July 1913).
6498:10.1093/mnras/72.8.677
6451:Pais, Abraham (2002).
6343:de Broglie et al. 1912
6331:de Broglie et al. 1912
6319:de Broglie et al. 1912
6307:de Broglie et al. 1912
6212:de Broglie et al. 1912
6142:Bohr, N. (July 1913).
5894:de Broglie et al. 1912
5717:A similar symbol, the
5672:
5508:
5422:
5253:
5108:
4919:Antonius Van den Broek
4804:John William Nicholson
4484:
4385:
4339:
4256:
4091:
4007:
3979:
3899:
3851:
3779:
3570:
3470:
3384:
3306:
3257:
3105:
2880:
2742:in the hydrogen atom (
2729:
2621:
2514:
2445:
2328:
2311:are equally spaced by
2298:
2239:
2205:
2092:
1988:
1921:
1805:
1654:
1645:Electron energy levels
1606:
1586:
1548:
1514:
1465:
1445:
1416:
1358:
1300:
1245:
1196:
1195:{\displaystyle \hbar }
1172:conservation of energy
1153:
1133:
1109:
1089:
1075:-th harmonic of orbit
1069:
1049:
1029:
1009:
976:
942:
922:
872:
852:
790:
751:
737:. The lowest value of
731:
690:
640:
530:John William Nicholson
514:
472:
452:
313:
229:John William Nicholson
126:
84:electromagnetic energy
18:Bohr model of the atom
7860:(billiard ball model)
7694:. Dover Publications.
6957:Kragh, Helge (2012).
5953:Kragh, Helge (2012).
5878:La Revue scientifique
5784:BohrâSommerfeld model
5737:Miscellaneous Symbols
5709:minor league baseball
5670:
5509:
5427:BohrâSommerfeld model
5420:
5400:uncertainty principle
5254:
5109:
4485:
4386:
4340:
4257:
4092:
4008:
4006:{\displaystyle \tau }
3980:
3900:
3857: (positronium).
3852:
3780:
3571:
3471:
3385:
3307:
3258:
3106:
2881:
2730:
2622:
2515:
2446:
2329:
2299:
2240:
2217:The angular momentum
2206:
2093:
1989:
1922:
1806:
1665:, and doubly ionized
1652:
1607:
1587:
1549:
1515:
1466:
1464:{\displaystyle \ell }
1446:
1417:
1359:
1301:
1260:de Broglie wavelength
1246:
1197:
1154:
1134:
1110:
1090:
1070:
1050:
1035:is much smaller than
1030:
1010:
977:
975:{\displaystyle E_{n}}
943:
923:
873:
853:
791:
752:
732:
691:
641:
524:Nicholson atom theory
515:
473:
453:
451:{\displaystyle h\nu }
308:
275:energy level diagrams
203:'s model (1901), the
139:RutherfordâBohr model
51:
7917:electron cloud model
7874:(cubical atom model)
6589:. November 17, 2015.
5742:The television show
5712:Albuquerque Isotopes
5617:, which is called a
5549:adiabatic invariants
5450:
5124:
4976:
4815:Charles Rugeley Bury
4635:Electrons per shell
4401:
4354:
4271:
4101:
4017:
3997:
3913:
3889:
3800:
3638:
3506:
3400:
3322:
3277:
3164:
2900:
2760:
2641:
2541:
2469:
2341:
2315:
2252:
2225:
2140:
2055:
1937:
1855:
1720:
1596:
1562:
1530:
1478:
1455:
1429:
1374:
1316:
1269:
1217:
1186:
1143:
1123:
1099:
1079:
1059:
1039:
1019:
986:
959:
941:{\displaystyle \nu }
932:
921:{\displaystyle \nu }
912:
888:photoelectric effect
862:
804:
789:{\displaystyle \nu }
780:
741:
704:
650:
606:
482:
462:
439:
336:Thomson's atom model
157:, it supplanted the
110:, and for hydrogen (
7901:(old quantum model)
7776:2011EPJH...36..327K
7584:1921Natur.107..104B
7543:1913Natur..92..231B
7510:1913PMag...26..857B
7477:1913PMag...26..476B
7444:1913PMag...26....1B
7331:2005PNAS..10211985S
7315:(34): 11985â11988.
7209:1916AnP...356....1S
7097:1999EJPh...20..213W
7043:(31 October 1962).
7027:10.1021/ja02227a002
6933:1916AnP...354..229K
6915:Kossel, W. (1916).
6899:10.1021/ja01440a023
6852:1914Natur..93..268N
6813:1913PMag...26..857B
6618:1988PhRvA..37.1449M
6381:(1 November 1962).
6363:(7 November 1962).
6160:1913PMag...26....1B
5896:, pp. 122â123.
5848:1997AmJPh..65..933L
5745:The Big Bang Theory
5652:dynamic equilibrium
5586:developed in 1926.
5467:
5382:hyperfine structure
4885:transition elements
4629:Electrons per shell
4623:Electrons per shell
4616:
4469:
4444:
4244:
4219:
1700:Classical mechanics
1622:more accurate model
1547:{\displaystyle 2/h}
1444:{\displaystyle mvr}
1309:which implies that
350:, now known as the
186:electrostatic force
8002:Old quantum theory
7923:DiracâGordon model
7886:plum pudding model
7568:"Atomic Structure"
7230:W. Wilson (1915).
7196:Annalen der Physik
6921:Annalen der Physik
6417:10.1007/BF00357268
6106:10.1007/BF00411591
5673:
5504:
5453:
5423:
5249:
5104:
4614:
4480:
4455:
4430:
4381:
4335:
4252:
4230:
4205:
4087:
4003:
3975:
3895:
3847:
3775:
3566:
3466:
3380:
3302:
3253:
3101:
2889:The energy of the
2876:
2725:
2617:
2599:
2510:
2441:
2324:
2294:
2235:
2201:
2123:Kepler's third law
2088:
1984:
1917:
1801:
1669:, but it includes
1655:
1639:hydrogen-like atom
1602:
1582:
1544:
1510:
1461:
1441:
1412:
1354:
1296:
1262:of an electron is
1241:
1192:
1149:
1129:
1105:
1085:
1065:
1045:
1025:
1005:
972:
938:
918:
882:Other points are:
868:
848:
786:
747:
727:
686:
636:
550:plum pudding model
510:
468:
448:
381:demonstrated that
352:Plum pudding model
342:Plum pudding model
314:
288:old quantum theory
257:, compared to the
233:quantum mechanical
217:plum pudding model
215:model (1904), the
159:plum pudding model
127:
7964:
7963:
7894:(planetary model)
7881:(Saturnian model)
7754:978-0-495-82992-8
7669:General Chemistry
7657:General Chemistry
7578:(2682): 104â107.
7537:(2295): 231â232.
7383:978-3-540-70626-7
7156:Molecular Physics
6846:(2324): 268â269.
6720:978-0-19-965597-7
6606:Physical Review A
6462:978-0-19-851997-3
6293:978-3-031-57933-2
6074:978-0-674-62415-3
6002:978-0-521-35892-7
5964:978-0-19-163046-0
5797:inert-pair effect
5779:Balmer's Constant
5723:American Atheists
5657:Coulomb repulsion
5648:diatomic molecule
5584:Erwin Schrödinger
5376:The existence of
5308:Siegbahn notation
5219:
5215:
5163:
5094:
5074:
4915:Ernest Rutherford
4799:
4798:
4470:
4445:
4412:
4376:
4330:
4245:
4220:
4193:
4085:
3965:
3945:
3898:{\displaystyle R}
3845:
3770:
3711:
3648:
3561:
3426:
3378:
3359:
3248:
3089:
3085:
3050:
2956:
2864:
2850:
2824:
2753:and is equal to:
2720:
2600:
2598:
2591:
2566:
2551:
2496:
2436:
2405:
2385:
2289:
2269:
2233:
2175:
1957:
1912:
1911:
1828:elementary charge
1796:
1752:
1708:centripetal force
1661:, singly ionized
1634:Erwin Schrödinger
1626:Werner Heisenberg
1618:quantum mechanics
1605:{\displaystyle h}
1505:
1395:
1337:
1291:
1152:{\displaystyle k}
1132:{\displaystyle n}
1108:{\displaystyle n}
1088:{\displaystyle n}
1068:{\displaystyle k}
1048:{\displaystyle n}
1028:{\displaystyle k}
871:{\displaystyle h}
750:{\displaystyle n}
471:{\displaystyle n}
433:Arthur Erich Haas
421:Solvay Conference
392:model of the atom
387:Ernest Rutherford
279:Arthur Erich Haas
271:quantum mechanics
237:classical physics
151:Ernest Rutherford
16:(Redirected from
8009:
7992:Hydrogen physics
7950:
7940:
7939:
7892:Rutherford model
7836:
7829:
7822:
7813:
7795:
7758:
7733:
7714:
7695:
7684:
7672:
7660:
7644:
7616:
7603:
7592:10.1038/107104a0
7562:
7551:10.1038/092231d0
7521:
7504:(155): 857â875.
7488:
7471:(153): 476â502.
7455:
7413:
7412:
7410:
7409:
7394:
7388:
7387:
7369:
7363:
7362:
7352:
7342:
7324:
7300:
7294:
7293:
7285:
7279:
7278:
7260:
7254:
7253:
7244:(174): 795â802.
7227:
7221:
7220:
7186:
7180:
7179:
7162:(5): 1001â1019.
7151:
7145:
7144:
7129:(January 1913).
7123:
7117:
7116:
7078:
7072:
7071:
7055:
7049:
7048:
7037:
7031:
7030:
7007:Langmuir, Irving
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6963:
6954:
6945:
6944:
6912:
6903:
6902:
6893:(7): 1602â1609.
6878:
6872:
6871:
6860:10.1038/093268a0
6831:
6825:
6824:
6807:(155): 857â875.
6792:
6786:
6785:
6773:
6767:
6766:
6734:
6725:
6724:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6667:
6661:
6660:
6652:
6646:
6645:
6612:(5): 1449â1455.
6597:
6591:
6590:
6577:
6571:
6570:
6558:
6552:
6551:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6520:
6511:
6510:
6500:
6476:
6467:
6466:
6448:
6437:
6436:
6400:
6387:
6386:
6375:
6369:
6368:
6357:
6346:
6340:
6334:
6328:
6322:
6316:
6310:
6304:
6298:
6297:
6269:
6263:
6262:
6226:
6215:
6209:
6203:
6202:
6178:
6172:
6171:
6139:
6126:
6125:
6085:
6079:
6078:
6058:
6049:
6048:
6037:10.2307/27757291
6020:
6007:
6006:
5988:
5982:
5975:
5969:
5968:
5950:
5939:
5938:
5927:10.2307/27757389
5910:
5897:
5891:
5882:
5881:
5866:
5860:
5859:
5831:
5696:The flag of the
5685:The logo of the
5678:planetary system
5572:matrix mechanics
5513:
5511:
5510:
5505:
5491:
5490:
5477:
5476:
5466:
5461:
5327:
5258:
5256:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5244:
5220:
5217:
5213:
5212:
5211:
5190:
5189:
5168:
5164:
5156:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5096:
5095:
5093:
5092:
5080:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5060:
5053:
5052:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5016:
5015:
5003:
5002:
4940:
4932:
4912:
4617:
4572:
4566:
4556:
4550:
4540:
4531:
4518:
4505:
4489:
4487:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4472:
4471:
4468:
4463:
4451:
4446:
4443:
4438:
4426:
4413:
4405:
4390:
4388:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4364:
4344:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4329:
4328:
4319:
4318:
4317:
4305:
4304:
4291:
4286:
4285:
4261:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4251:
4247:
4246:
4243:
4238:
4226:
4221:
4218:
4213:
4201:
4194:
4192:
4191:
4182:
4181:
4180:
4168:
4167:
4154:
4149:
4148:
4147:
4146:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4096:
4094:
4093:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4073:
4072:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4048:
4047:
4034:
4029:
4028:
4012:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3967:
3966:
3964:
3963:
3951:
3946:
3944:
3943:
3931:
3907:Rydberg constant
3905:, now known the
3904:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3878:Johannes Rydberg
3856:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3829:
3828:
3827:
3817:
3812:
3811:
3784:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3756:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3694:
3693:
3692:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3655:
3650:
3649:
3646:
3611:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3537:
3536:
3526:
3518:
3517:
3489:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3452:
3451:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3427:
3419:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3379:
3371:
3360:
3358:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3326:
3314:rest mass energy
3311:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3219:
3218:
3209:
3208:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3183:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3138:
3131:
3120:
3110:
3108:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3056:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3038:
3037:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3011:
3010:
3001:
3000:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2976:
2975:
2965:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2913:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2847:
2846:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2809:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2772:
2771:
2749:) is called the
2748:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2706:
2705:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2653:
2652:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2589:
2582:
2581:
2580:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2479:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2425:
2414:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2391:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2382:
2354:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2275:
2270:
2262:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2234:
2229:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2153:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2044:
2028:angular momentum
2008:potential energy
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1958:
1950:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1866:
1865:
1839:Coulomb constant
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1724:
1710:is equal to the
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1504:
1496:
1488:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1442:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1396:
1394:
1386:
1378:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1338:
1336:
1328:
1320:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1279:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1242:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1114:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1086:
1074:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1003:
981:
979:
978:
973:
971:
970:
947:
945:
944:
939:
927:
925:
924:
919:
877:
875:
874:
869:
857:
855:
854:
849:
838:
837:
825:
824:
795:
793:
792:
787:
756:
754:
753:
748:
736:
734:
733:
728:
720:
695:
693:
692:
687:
645:
643:
642:
637:
620:
619:
618:
574:Johannes Rydberg
519:
517:
516:
511:
497:
496:
477:
475:
474:
469:
457:
455:
454:
449:
320:Planetary models
225:Rutherford model
149:and building on
116:
105:
69:
62:
21:
8017:
8016:
8012:
8011:
8010:
8008:
8007:
8006:
7977:1913 in science
7967:
7966:
7965:
7960:
7928:
7904:
7850:Historic models
7845:
7840:
7802:
7761:
7755:
7742:
7737:Klaus Hentschel
7730:
7717:
7711:
7698:
7689:
7681:
7664:
7654:
7651:
7649:Further reading
7628:
7606:
7565:
7524:
7491:
7458:
7425:
7422:
7420:Primary sources
7417:
7416:
7407:
7405:
7396:
7395:
7391:
7384:
7371:
7370:
7366:
7322:physics/0508161
7302:
7301:
7297:
7288:ĐĐŸŃ Đ. (1970).
7287:
7286:
7282:
7275:
7262:
7261:
7257:
7229:
7228:
7224:
7188:
7187:
7183:
7153:
7152:
7148:
7125:
7124:
7120:
7080:
7079:
7075:
7057:
7056:
7052:
7039:
7038:
7034:
7005:
7004:
7000:
6992:
6961:
6956:
6955:
6948:
6914:
6913:
6906:
6880:
6879:
6875:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6794:
6793:
6789:
6775:
6774:
6770:
6736:
6735:
6728:
6721:
6708:
6707:
6703:
6669:
6668:
6664:
6657:Collected works
6654:
6653:
6649:
6599:
6598:
6594:
6579:
6578:
6574:
6560:
6559:
6555:
6545:
6544:
6540:
6522:
6521:
6514:
6478:
6477:
6470:
6463:
6450:
6449:
6440:
6402:
6401:
6390:
6377:
6376:
6372:
6359:
6358:
6349:
6341:
6337:
6329:
6325:
6317:
6313:
6305:
6301:
6294:
6271:
6270:
6266:
6243:10.1038/498027a
6237:(7452): 27â30.
6228:
6227:
6218:
6210:
6206:
6193:(61): 117â123.
6180:
6179:
6175:
6141:
6140:
6129:
6087:
6086:
6082:
6075:
6060:
6059:
6052:
6022:
6021:
6010:
6003:
5990:
5989:
5985:
5976:
5972:
5965:
5952:
5951:
5942:
5912:
5911:
5900:
5892:
5885:
5868:
5867:
5863:
5856:10.1119/1.18691
5833:
5832:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5774:1913 in science
5769:
5691:nuclear fission
5665:
5640:
5634:
5619:prequantization
5576:atomic orbitals
5529:
5522:
5482:
5468:
5448:
5447:
5429:
5415:
5393:magnetic fields
5364:Rydberg formula
5319:
5316:
5304:
5297:
5278:
5269:
5236:
5203:
5181:
5151:
5139:
5122:
5121:
5084:
5064:
5058:
5054:
5044:
5020:
5007:
4994:
4974:
4973:
4955:Irving Langmuir
4939: â 1)
4934:
4928:
4908:
4893:
4838:shell structure
4825:Irving Langmuir
4601:
4589:
4583:
4568:
4558:
4552:
4542:
4536:
4529:
4524:
4516:
4511:
4503:
4498:
4424:
4420:
4399:
4398:
4365:
4352:
4351:
4320:
4309:
4296:
4292:
4277:
4269:
4268:
4265:Planck constant
4199:
4195:
4183:
4172:
4159:
4155:
4138:
4133:
4118:
4113:
4099:
4098:
4074:
4064:
4063:
4052:
4039:
4035:
4020:
4015:
4014:
3995:
3994:
3955:
3935:
3929:
3925:
3911:
3910:
3887:
3886:
3870:
3868:Rydberg formula
3864:
3862:Rydberg formula
3834:
3830:
3818:
3803:
3798:
3797:
3757:
3740:
3733:
3716:
3698:
3683:
3682:
3669:
3657:
3656:
3641:
3636:
3635:
3606:
3551:
3538:
3528:
3527:
3509:
3504:
3503:
3481:
3456:
3443:
3431:
3403:
3398:
3397:
3351:
3340:
3328:
3327:
3320:
3319:
3292:
3280:
3275:
3274:
3237:
3233:
3220:
3210:
3200:
3188:
3184:
3167:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3133:
3126:
3115:
3075:
3064:
3057:
3039:
3029:
3025:
3012:
3002:
2992:
2980:
2967:
2966:
2945:
2941:
2930:
2918:
2914:
2898:
2897:
2835:
2811:
2801:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2763:
2758:
2757:
2743:
2707:
2697:
2685:
2681:
2670:
2660:
2659:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2584:
2583:
2572:
2559:
2558:
2544:
2539:
2538:
2488:
2480:
2467:
2466:
2426:
2415:
2395:
2374:
2358:
2339:
2338:
2313:
2312:
2279:
2250:
2249:
2223:
2222:
2180:
2157:
2138:
2137:
2106:
2058:
2053:
2052:
2040:
2030:
1971:
1959:
1935:
1934:
1895:
1894:
1883:
1871:
1867:
1853:
1852:
1836:
1821:
1786:
1775:
1763:
1759:
1738:
1726:
1725:
1718:
1717:
1647:
1594:
1593:
1560:
1559:
1528:
1527:
1497:
1489:
1476:
1475:
1453:
1452:
1427:
1426:
1387:
1379:
1372:
1371:
1329:
1321:
1314:
1313:
1283:
1267:
1266:
1215:
1214:
1184:
1183:
1141:
1140:
1121:
1120:
1097:
1096:
1077:
1076:
1057:
1056:
1037:
1036:
1017:
1016:
989:
984:
983:
962:
957:
956:
950:
930:
929:
910:
909:
860:
859:
829:
816:
802:
801:
798:Planck relation
778:
777:
739:
738:
702:
701:
648:
647:
609:
604:
603:
600:Planck constant
578:Rydberg formula
562:
535:Planck constant
526:
488:
480:
479:
478:is an integer:
460:
459:
437:
436:
429:Hendrik Lorentz
417:
408:
371:
365:
344:
338:
322:
303:
297:
244:Rydberg formula
209:Hantaro Nagaoka
111:
103:
74:confined to an
64:
57:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8015:
8013:
8005:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7982:Atomic physics
7979:
7969:
7968:
7962:
7961:
7959:
7958:
7952:Portal:Physics
7944:
7942:Category:Atoms
7933:
7930:
7929:
7927:
7926:
7919:
7912:
7910:
7909:Current models
7906:
7905:
7903:
7902:
7895:
7888:
7882:
7875:
7868:
7861:
7853:
7851:
7847:
7846:
7841:
7839:
7838:
7831:
7824:
7816:
7810:
7809:
7801:
7800:External links
7798:
7797:
7796:
7770:(3): 327â352.
7759:
7753:
7740:
7734:
7728:
7720:Modern Physics
7715:
7709:
7696:
7687:
7686:
7685:
7679:
7650:
7647:
7646:
7645:
7626:
7604:
7563:
7522:
7489:
7456:
7421:
7418:
7415:
7414:
7389:
7382:
7364:
7295:
7280:
7274:978-3642020872
7273:
7255:
7222:
7181:
7146:
7118:
7091:(3): 213â220.
7073:
7066:. 6th series.
7050:
7032:
7021:(6): 868â934.
6998:
6946:
6927:(3): 229â362.
6904:
6873:
6826:
6787:
6768:
6726:
6719:
6701:
6662:
6647:
6592:
6572:
6565:. p. 55.
6553:
6538:
6512:
6468:
6461:
6438:
6411:(2): 160â184.
6388:
6370:
6347:
6345:, p. 447.
6335:
6333:, p. 109.
6323:
6321:, p. 127.
6311:
6309:, p. 124.
6299:
6292:
6264:
6216:
6214:, p. 114.
6204:
6173:
6127:
6100:(4): 247â307.
6080:
6073:
6050:
6008:
6001:
5983:
5970:
5963:
5940:
5898:
5883:
5861:
5822:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5808:
5805:
5800:
5793:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5763:
5756:
5749:
5740:
5730:
5715:
5705:
5694:
5664:
5661:
5636:Main article:
5633:
5630:
5604:curvature form
5580:wave mechanics
5568:Wolfgang Pauli
5527:
5520:
5515:
5514:
5503:
5500:
5497:
5494:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5475:
5471:
5465:
5460:
5456:
5425:Main article:
5414:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5406:
5403:
5396:
5385:
5378:fine structure
5374:
5367:
5315:
5312:
5302:
5295:
5276:
5267:
5260:
5259:
5248:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5232:
5229:
5226:
5223:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5199:
5196:
5193:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5177:
5174:
5171:
5167:
5162:
5159:
5154:
5147:
5142:
5138:
5135:
5132:
5129:
5115:
5114:
5103:
5099:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5078:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5057:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5040:
5037:
5034:
5028:
5023:
5019:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4950:Walther Kossel
4892:
4889:
4821:Walther Kossel
4811:periodic table
4797:
4796:
4795:8, 8, 4, 2, 2
4793:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4781:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4770:
4767:
4764:
4761:
4757:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4737:
4736:
4733:
4730:
4727:
4724:
4721:
4717:
4716:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4696:
4693:
4690:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4677:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4667:
4664:
4661:
4657:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4637:
4636:
4633:
4630:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4599:
4587:Electron shell
4585:Main article:
4582:
4579:
4575:Electron shell
4527:
4514:
4501:
4491:
4490:
4479:
4475:
4467:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4442:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4423:
4419:
4416:
4411:
4408:
4392:
4391:
4380:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4362:
4359:
4334:
4327:
4323:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4289:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4250:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4217:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4152:
4145:
4141:
4136:
4132:
4125:
4121:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4106:
4081:
4077:
4071:
4067:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4002:
3974:
3970:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3949:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3918:
3894:
3866:Main article:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3826:
3821:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3786:
3785:
3774:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3748:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3724:
3719:
3715:
3706:
3701:
3697:
3691:
3686:
3677:
3672:
3665:
3660:
3653:
3644:
3577:
3576:
3565:
3558:
3554:
3546:
3541:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3478:
3477:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3422:
3417:
3411:
3406:
3395:
3377:
3374:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3347:
3343:
3336:
3331:
3317:
3299:
3295:
3288:
3283:
3264:
3263:
3252:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3175:
3170:
3154:
3145:Wallis product
3112:
3111:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3060:
3054:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3020:
3015:
3009:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2921:
2917:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2887:
2886:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2845:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2819:
2814:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2792:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2736:
2735:
2724:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2663:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2628:
2627:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2596:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2562:
2547:
2521:
2520:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2491:
2486:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2452:
2451:
2440:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2323:
2320:
2305:
2304:
2293:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2265:
2260:
2257:
2232:
2212:
2211:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2121:determined by
2105:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2066:
2061:
2038:
2023:
2022:
2020:A quantum rule
2016:
2015:
2012:virial theorem
1996:
1995:
1994:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1916:
1909:
1903:
1898:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1860:
1845:is the atom's
1834:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1800:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1756:
1751:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1729:
1703:
1702:
1675:Rydberg states
1646:
1643:
1601:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1521:
1520:
1509:
1503:
1500:
1495:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1460:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1423:
1422:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1365:
1364:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1327:
1324:
1307:
1306:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1252:
1251:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1164:
1148:
1128:
1117:Rydberg states
1104:
1084:
1064:
1044:
1024:
1002:
999:
996:
992:
969:
965:
948:
937:
917:
906:
899:Maxwell theory
880:
879:
867:
847:
844:
841:
836:
832:
828:
823:
819:
815:
812:
809:
785:
774:
746:
726:
723:
719:
715:
712:
709:
696:is called the
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
617:
612:
596:
561:
558:
525:
522:
509:
506:
503:
500:
495:
491:
487:
467:
447:
444:
416:
413:
407:
406:Atomic spectra
404:
383:alpha particle
379:Ernest Marsden
367:Main article:
364:
361:
356:beta particles
340:Main article:
337:
334:
330:Larmor formula
321:
318:
311:X-ray notation
299:Main article:
296:
293:
169:surrounded by
131:atomic physics
80:atomic nucleus
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8014:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7974:
7972:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7945:
7943:
7935:
7934:
7931:
7924:
7920:
7918:
7914:
7913:
7911:
7907:
7900:
7896:
7893:
7889:
7887:
7883:
7880:
7879:Nagaoka model
7876:
7873:
7869:
7866:
7862:
7859:
7855:
7854:
7852:
7848:
7844:
7843:Atomic models
7837:
7832:
7830:
7825:
7823:
7818:
7817:
7814:
7807:
7804:
7803:
7799:
7793:
7789:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7760:
7756:
7750:
7746:
7741:
7738:
7735:
7731:
7729:0-7167-4345-0
7725:
7721:
7716:
7712:
7710:0-471-52440-9
7706:
7702:
7697:
7693:
7688:
7682:
7680:0-486-65622-5
7676:
7671:
7670:
7662:
7661:
7658:
7653:
7652:
7648:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7633:
7627:
7624:
7620:
7617:Reprinted in
7614:
7610:
7605:
7601:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7581:
7577:
7573:
7569:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7523:
7519:
7515:
7511:
7507:
7503:
7499:
7495:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7445:
7441:
7438:(151): 1â25.
7437:
7433:
7429:
7424:
7423:
7419:
7403:
7399:
7393:
7390:
7385:
7379:
7375:
7368:
7365:
7360:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7332:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7299:
7296:
7291:
7284:
7281:
7276:
7270:
7266:
7259:
7256:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7238:
7233:
7226:
7223:
7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7199:(in German).
7198:
7197:
7192:
7185:
7182:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7157:
7150:
7147:
7142:
7139:(in German).
7138:
7137:
7132:
7128:
7122:
7119:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7102:
7098:
7094:
7090:
7086:
7085:
7077:
7074:
7069:
7065:
7061:
7054:
7051:
7046:
7042:
7036:
7033:
7028:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7012:
7009:(June 1919).
7008:
7002:
6999:
6991:
6987:
6983:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6960:
6953:
6951:
6947:
6942:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6923:(in German).
6922:
6918:
6911:
6909:
6905:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6884:
6877:
6874:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6830:
6827:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6791:
6788:
6783:
6779:
6772:
6769:
6764:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6733:
6731:
6727:
6722:
6716:
6712:
6705:
6702:
6697:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6682:(151): 1â25.
6681:
6677:
6673:
6666:
6663:
6658:
6651:
6648:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6627:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6596:
6593:
6588:
6587:
6586:Physics World
6582:
6576:
6573:
6569:
6564:
6557:
6554:
6549:
6542:
6539:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6519:
6517:
6513:
6508:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6475:
6473:
6469:
6464:
6458:
6454:
6447:
6445:
6443:
6439:
6434:
6430:
6426:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6399:
6397:
6395:
6393:
6389:
6384:
6380:
6374:
6371:
6366:
6362:
6356:
6354:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6339:
6336:
6332:
6327:
6324:
6320:
6315:
6312:
6308:
6303:
6300:
6295:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6276:
6268:
6265:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6225:
6223:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6208:
6205:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6177:
6174:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6154:(151): 1â25.
6153:
6149:
6145:
6138:
6136:
6134:
6132:
6128:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6084:
6081:
6076:
6070:
6066:
6065:
6057:
6055:
6051:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6019:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6009:
6004:
5998:
5994:
5987:
5984:
5980:
5974:
5971:
5966:
5960:
5956:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5941:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5890:
5888:
5884:
5879:
5875:
5871:
5865:
5862:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5830:
5828:
5824:
5817:
5812:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5798:
5794:
5791:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5771:
5766:
5762:installation.
5761:
5760:nuclear power
5757:
5754:
5750:
5747:
5746:
5741:
5738:
5735:
5731:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5713:
5710:
5706:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5683:
5682:
5679:
5669:
5662:
5660:
5658:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5639:
5631:
5629:
5627:
5626:closed shells
5622:
5620:
5616:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5599:
5597:
5593:
5592:perturbations
5587:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5564:hydrogen atom
5561:
5557:
5552:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5523:
5501:
5498:
5495:
5492:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5473:
5469:
5463:
5458:
5454:
5446:
5445:
5444:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5419:
5412:
5407:
5404:
5401:
5397:
5394:
5390:
5389:Zeeman effect
5386:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5372:
5368:
5365:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5351:
5350:
5347:
5344:
5339:
5337:
5336:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5313:
5311:
5309:
5305:
5298:
5291:
5286:
5283:
5282:
5275:
5270:
5266:
5246:
5241:
5233:
5230:
5227:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5197:
5191:
5186:
5178:
5175:
5172:
5165:
5160:
5157:
5152:
5140:
5136:
5133:
5130:
5127:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5101:
5097:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5076:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5055:
5049:
5041:
5038:
5035:
5021:
5017:
5012:
5008:
5004:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4988:
4985:
4982:
4979:
4972:
4971:
4970:
4968:
4964:
4958:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4931:
4926:
4923:
4920:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4902:
4901:Henry Moseley
4897:
4888:
4886:
4880:
4878:
4873:
4869:
4864:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4849:
4847:
4841:
4839:
4835:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4817:
4816:
4812:
4807:
4805:
4794:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4774:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4762:
4759:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4748:
4745:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4734:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4722:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4711:
4708:
4705:
4702:
4699:
4698:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4685:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4674:
4671:
4668:
4665:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4654:
4651:
4648:
4645:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4595:
4588:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4571:
4565:
4562: â
4561:
4555:
4549:
4546: â
4545:
4539:
4533:
4530:
4522:
4517:
4509:
4504:
4496:
4477:
4473:
4465:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4440:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4409:
4406:
4397:
4396:
4395:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4360:
4357:
4350:
4349:
4348:
4345:
4332:
4325:
4321:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4266:
4248:
4240:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4222:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4143:
4139:
4134:
4130:
4123:
4119:
4114:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4065:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4030:
4025:
4021:
4000:
3991:
3990:quantum jumps
3986:
3972:
3968:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3947:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3926:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3908:
3892:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3874:Johann Balmer
3869:
3861:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3819:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3790:
3772:
3758:
3753:
3741:
3737:
3734:
3730:
3717:
3713:
3699:
3695:
3684:
3670:
3658:
3651:
3642:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3625:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3593:
3592:Coulomb force
3589:
3585:
3584:-body problem
3583:
3563:
3556:
3552:
3539:
3533:
3529:
3522:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3502:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3461:
3457:
3448:
3444:
3432:
3423:
3420:
3415:
3404:
3396:
3393:
3375:
3372:
3367:
3364:
3361:
3355:
3345:
3341:
3329:
3318:
3315:
3297:
3293:
3281:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:natural units
3250:
3242:
3234:
3221:
3215:
3205:
3201:
3189:
3179:
3168:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3136:
3129:
3124:
3118:
3098:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3058:
3052:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3026:
3013:
3007:
2997:
2993:
2981:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2958:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2935:
2931:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2873:
2859:
2856:
2843:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2812:
2806:
2802:
2790:
2783:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2746:
2741:
2722:
2708:
2702:
2698:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2614:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2594:
2585:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2560:
2545:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2492:
2489:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2438:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2379:
2371:
2365:
2362:
2355:
2350:
2347:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2321:
2310:
2291:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2230:
2220:
2215:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2146:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2059:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1914:
1907:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1847:atomic number
1844:
1840:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1798:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1776:
1764:
1760:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1739:
1727:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1712:Coulomb force
1709:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1683:Moseley's law
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1659:hydrogen atom
1651:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1599:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1557:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1524:
1507:
1501:
1498:
1493:
1490:
1484:
1481:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1458:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1322:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1208:standing wave
1205:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1146:
1126:
1118:
1102:
1082:
1062:
1042:
1022:
1000:
997:
994:
990:
967:
963:
954:
935:
915:
907:
904:
900:
897:
893:
889:
885:
884:
883:
865:
845:
842:
839:
834:
830:
826:
821:
817:
813:
810:
799:
783:
775:
772:
771:energy levels
768:
767:hydrogen-like
764:
760:
744:
724:
721:
717:
713:
710:
699:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
630:
627:
624:
621:
610:
601:
597:
594:
590:
589:
588:
586:
581:
579:
575:
571:
570:Johann Balmer
567:
559:
557:
553:
551:
547:
542:
538:
536:
531:
523:
521:
507:
504:
501:
498:
493:
489:
485:
465:
445:
442:
434:
430:
426:
422:
414:
412:
405:
403:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
380:
376:
370:
362:
360:
357:
353:
349:
343:
333:
331:
327:
326:Joseph Larmor
319:
317:
312:
307:
302:
294:
292:
290:
289:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
259:valence shell
256:
255:hydrogen atom
251:
249:
245:
240:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
205:cubical model
202:
198:
197:Joseph Larmor
193:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
124:
120:
114:
109:
108:Balmer series
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
67:
60:
55:
54:hydrogen atom
50:
44:
40:
39:Bohr equation
33:
19:
7898:
7867:(knot model)
7858:Dalton model
7767:
7763:
7744:
7719:
7700:
7691:
7668:
7656:
7631:
7622:
7618:
7612:
7608:
7575:
7571:
7534:
7530:
7501:
7497:
7468:
7464:
7435:
7431:
7406:. Retrieved
7404:. 2021-11-23
7402:www.iaea.org
7401:
7392:
7373:
7367:
7312:
7308:
7298:
7289:
7283:
7264:
7258:
7241:
7235:
7225:
7203:(17): 1â94.
7200:
7194:
7184:
7159:
7155:
7149:
7140:
7134:
7121:
7088:
7082:
7076:
7070:: 1024â1034.
7067:
7063:
7053:
7035:
7018:
7014:
7001:
6972:(1): 42â49.
6969:
6965:
6924:
6920:
6890:
6886:
6876:
6843:
6839:
6829:
6804:
6800:
6790:
6781:
6777:
6771:
6746:
6742:
6710:
6704:
6679:
6675:
6665:
6656:
6650:
6609:
6605:
6595:
6584:
6575:
6566:
6562:
6556:
6547:
6541:
6524:
6488:
6484:
6452:
6408:
6404:
6373:
6338:
6326:
6314:
6302:
6274:
6267:
6234:
6230:
6207:
6190:
6186:
6176:
6151:
6147:
6097:
6093:
6083:
6063:
6028:
6024:
5992:
5986:
5973:
5954:
5918:
5914:
5877:
5870:Perrin, Jean
5864:
5839:
5835:
5743:
5719:atomic whirl
5674:
5641:
5623:
5600:
5596:Stark effect
5588:
5559:
5553:
5532:
5525:
5518:
5516:
5430:
5371:Stark effect
5354:
5348:
5340:
5334:
5331:
5324:
5320:
5317:
5314:Shortcomings
5300:
5293:
5287:
5280:
5273:
5272:
5264:
5263:
5261:
5116:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4947:
4943:
4936:
4929:
4925:
4922:
4909:
4898:
4894:
4881:
4865:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4850:
4842:
4818:
4808:
4800:
4608:
4604:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4569:
4563:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4525:
4512:
4499:
4492:
4393:
4346:
3987:
3882:Walther Ritz
3871:
3791:
3787:
3629:reduced mass
3626:
3621:
3617:
3616:cancels the
3613:
3607:
3602:
3598:
3596:
3581:
3578:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3479:
3265:
3151:
3149:
3140:
3134:
3127:
3116:
3113:
2890:
2888:
2744:
2739:
2737:
2631:
2629:
2531:
2530:in terms of
2527:
2525:
2522:
2459:
2455:
2453:
2308:
2306:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2130:
2126:
2125:to scale as
2118:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2046:
2041:
2035:
2031:
2019:
2003:
1999:
1842:
1831:
1823:
1816:
1699:
1694:
1656:
1630:Another form
1615:
1525:
1522:
1424:
1366:
1308:
1253:
1181:
895:
891:
881:
582:
563:
554:
546:J.J. Thomson
543:
539:
527:
418:
409:
372:
345:
323:
315:
286:
252:
241:
227:(1911), and
194:
188:rather than
182:Solar System
138:
134:
128:
125:(red light).
112:
95:
91:
87:
76:atomic shell
65:
58:
7872:Lewis model
7041:Bohr, Niels
6749:(1): 1â38.
6379:Bohr, Niels
6361:Bohr, Niels
5921:: 123â186.
5729:in general.
5615:line bundle
5413:Refinements
4775:8, 8, 4, 3
4755:8, 8, 2, 4
4735:8, 8, 2, 3
4715:8, 8, 2, 2
4695:8, 8, 2, 1
4655:8, 4, 4, 1
2751:Bohr radius
1687:heavy quark
1671:positronium
1115:(so-called
759:Bohr radius
560:Development
375:Hans Geiger
348:J J Thomson
221:Arthur Haas
201:Jean Perrin
163:J J Thomson
153:'s nuclear
104:3 → 2
43:Bohr effect
7997:Niels Bohr
7971:Categories
7899:Bohr model
7641:1048217622
7408:2024-09-04
6784:: 476â502.
6031:: viâ290.
5842:(9): 933.
5813:References
5608:connection
5441:Sommerfeld
4829:octet rule
4789:8, 4, 2, 2
3876:and later
2104:Derivation
1592:described
1204:de Broglie
1139:(or large
585:Niels Bohr
425:Max Planck
295:Background
147:Niels Bohr
135:Bohr model
119:wavelength
7956:Chemistry
7792:120859582
7745:Chemistry
7663:Reprint:
7113:250901403
6978:797965772
6763:2102-6467
6696:1941-5982
6533:557599205
6507:0035-8711
6433:120797894
6114:0003-9519
5818:Footnotes
5704:branches.
5612:Hermitian
5455:∫
5231:−
5201:×
5176:−
5134:ν
5077:−
5039:−
5005:−
4989:ν
4899:In 1913,
4877:noble gas
4872:viscosity
4846:screening
4519:=2), and
4448:−
4410:λ
4374:λ
4298:π
4232:τ
4223:−
4207:τ
4161:π
4140:τ
4131:−
4120:τ
4108:ν
4076:τ
4041:π
4026:τ
4001:τ
3948:−
3917:ν
3523:−
3458:α
3368:≈
3365:α
3353:ℏ
3239:ℏ
3059:−
3053:≈
3031:ℏ
2962:−
2910:−
2841:−
2833:×
2827:≈
2780:ℏ
2672:ℏ
2612:ℏ
2505:ℏ
2493:π
2420:Δ
2411:−
2408:≈
2388:−
2369:Δ
2351:∝
2345:Δ
2319:Δ
2272:∝
2259:∝
2178:∝
2150:∝
2144:Δ
2083:ℏ
1947:−
1566:λ
1502:π
1482:ℓ
1459:ℓ
1392:π
1346:π
1273:λ
1233:π
1224:λ
1190:ℏ
998:−
953:harmonics
936:ν
916:ν
896:classical
846:ν
827:−
808:Δ
784:ν
725:π
708:ℏ
634:ℏ
566:empirical
508:ν
446:ν
400:electrons
373:In 1908,
213:Saturnian
178:analogous
174:electrons
121:656
7615:: 82â92.
7559:11988018
7359:16103360
7143:: 32â41.
6990:Archived
6986:53520045
6642:35364965
6425:41133258
6251:23739408
6122:41133273
6045:27757291
5935:27757389
5872:(1901).
5767:See also
5582:, which
4675:8, 8, 2
3490:, where
1176:momentum
892:discrete
858:, where
646:, where
583:In 1913
528:In 1911
219:(1904),
207:(1902),
176:. It is
171:orbiting
94:, where
72:electron
7772:Bibcode
7600:4035652
7580:Bibcode
7539:Bibcode
7506:Bibcode
7473:Bibcode
7440:Bibcode
7350:1186029
7327:Bibcode
7205:Bibcode
7176:9628509
7093:Bibcode
6929:Bibcode
6868:3977652
6848:Bibcode
6809:Bibcode
6634:9899816
6614:Bibcode
6259:4355108
6156:Bibcode
5844:Bibcode
5734:Unicode
5727:atheism
5707:The US
5359:lithium
5290:K-alpha
4948:It was
4905:K-alpha
4783:4, 2, 2
4769:8, 4, 3
4749:8, 2, 4
4729:8, 2, 3
4709:8, 2, 2
4689:8, 2, 1
4649:4, 4, 1
4632:Element
4626:Element
4620:Element
4603:unless
4521:Paschen
3588:nucleus
3390:is the
3312:is the
1837:is the
1826:is the
1667:lithium
903:photons
396:nucleus
190:gravity
167:nucleus
98:is the
88:hν
7790:
7751:
7726:
7707:
7677:
7639:
7598:
7572:Nature
7557:
7531:Nature
7380:
7357:
7347:
7271:
7174:
7111:
6984:
6976:
6866:
6840:Nature
6761:
6717:
6694:
6640:
6632:
6568:waves.
6531:
6505:
6459:
6431:
6423:
6290:
6257:
6249:
6231:Nature
6120:
6112:
6071:
6043:
5999:
5961:
5933:
5880:: 463.
5537:action
5517:where
5437:Wilson
5262:Here,
5214:
4834:Kossel
4567:where
4508:Balmer
3088:
2863:
2849:
1815:where
1690:mesons
1679:K-line
1663:helium
1554:while
1425:where
1258:. The
700:, and
133:, the
102:. The
68:> 1
7921:1928
7915:1926
7897:1913
7890:1911
7884:1904
7877:1904
7870:1902
7863:1867
7856:1804
7788:S2CID
7596:S2CID
7555:S2CID
7317:arXiv
7172:S2CID
7109:S2CID
6993:(PDF)
6982:S2CID
6962:(PDF)
6864:S2CID
6638:S2CID
6429:S2CID
6421:JSTOR
6255:S2CID
6118:JSTOR
6041:JSTOR
5931:JSTOR
5753:React
5702:olive
5610:of a
5606:of a
5306:) in
4557:with
4541:with
4506:=1),
4495:Lyman
3610:â 137
3597:When
1256:waves
1206:as a
1015:when
155:model
7749:ISBN
7724:ISBN
7705:ISBN
7675:ISBN
7637:OCLC
7378:ISBN
7355:PMID
7269:ISBN
6974:OCLC
6759:ISSN
6715:ISBN
6692:ISSN
6630:PMID
6529:OCLC
6503:ISSN
6457:ISBN
6288:ISBN
6247:PMID
6110:ISSN
6069:ISBN
5997:ISBN
5959:ISBN
5795:The
5788:The
5732:The
5387:The
5380:and
5299:and
5288:The
5198:2.46
4917:and
4763:4, 3
4743:2, 4
4723:2, 3
4703:2, 2
4683:2, 1
4669:8, 2
3880:and
3601:= 1/
3062:13.6
2860:52.9
2830:5.29
2026:The
1841:and
1673:and
1174:and
1166:The
982:and
377:and
246:for
143:atom
7780:doi
7588:doi
7576:107
7547:doi
7514:doi
7481:doi
7448:doi
7345:PMC
7335:doi
7313:102
7246:doi
7213:doi
7164:doi
7101:doi
7023:doi
6937:doi
6925:354
6895:doi
6856:doi
6817:doi
6751:doi
6684:doi
6622:doi
6493:doi
6413:doi
6280:doi
6239:doi
6235:498
6195:doi
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