Castle Bravo - Knowledge (XXG)

1172:. The secondary assembly was an elongated truncated cone. From its front part (excluding the blast-heat shield) to its aft section it was steeply tapered. Tapering was used for two reasons. First, radiation drops by the square of the distance, hence radiation coupling is relatively poor in the aftermost sections of the secondary. This made the use of a higher mass of the then scarce fusion fuel in the rear end of the secondary assembly ineffective and the overall design wasteful. This was also the reason why the lower-enriched slugs of fusion fuel were placed far aft of the fuel capsule. Second, as the primary could not illuminate the whole surface of the hohlraum, in part due to the large axial length of the secondary, relatively small solid angles would be effective to compress the secondary, leading to poor radiation focusing. By tapering the secondary, the hohlraum could be shaped as a cylinder in its aft section obviating the need to machine the radiation case to a parabola at both ends. This optimized radiation focusing and enabled a streamlined production line, as it was cheaper, faster and easier to manufacture a radiation case with only one parabolic end. The tapering in this design was much steeper than its cousins, the 1242:, transcended 1. Its purpose was to compress the fusion material around it from its inside, equally applying pressure with the tamper. The compression factor of the fusion fuel and its adiabatic compression energy determined the minimal energy required for the spark plug to counteract the compression of the fusion fuel and the tamper's momentum. The spark plug weighed about 18 kg, and its initial firing yielded 0.6 kilotonnes of TNT (2.5 TJ). Then it would be completely fissioned by the fusion neutrons, contributing about 330 kilotonnes of TNT (1,400 TJ) to the total yield. The energy required by the spark plug to counteract the compression of the fusion fuel was lower than the primary's yield because coupling of the primary's energy in the hohlraum is accompanied by losses due to the difference between the X-ray fireball and the hohlraum temperatures. The neutrons entered the assembly by a small hole through the ≈28 cm thick U blast-heat shield. It was positioned in front of the secondary assembly facing the primary. Similar to the tamper-fusion capsule assembly, the shield was shaped as a circular frustum, with its small diameter facing the primary's side, and with its large diameter locked by a type of 1123:. The rocket effect on the surface of tamper's wall created by the ablation of its several superficial layers would force an equal mass of uranium that rested in the remainder of the tamper to speed inwards, thus imploding the thermonuclear core. At the same time, the rocket effect on the surface of the hohlraum would force the radiation case to speed outwards. The ballistic case would confine the exploding radiation case for as long as necessary. The fact that the tamper material was uranium enriched in U is primarily based on the final fission reaction fragments detected in the radiochemical analysis, which conclusively showed the presence of U, found by the Japanese in the shot debris. The first-generation thermonuclear weapons (MK-14, 16, 17, 21, 22 and 24) all used uranium tampers enriched to 37.5% U. The exception to this was the 1680:(Lucky Dragon No. 5), came in direct contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to grow ill due to radiation sickness. One member died of a secondary infection six months later after acute radiation exposure, and another had a child that was stillborn and deformed. This resulted in an international incident and reignited Japanese concerns about radiation, especially as Japanese citizens were once more adversely affected by US nuclear weapons. The official US position had been that the growth in the strength of atomic bombs was not accompanied by an equivalent growth in radioactivity released, and they denied that the crew was affected by radioactive fallout. Japanese scientists who had collected data from the fishing vessel disagreed with this. 1168:

cone (the projection of the radiation case). Any other major supporting structure would interfere to radiation transfer from the primary to the secondary and complex vibrational behavior. With this form of joint bearing most of the structural loads of the secondary, the latter and the hohlraum-ballistic case ensemble behaved as a single mass sharing common eigenmodes. To reduce excessive loading of the joint, especially during deployment of the weapon, the forward section of the secondary (i.e. the thermal blast/heat shield) was anchored to the radiation case by a set of thin wires, which also aligned the center line of the secondary with the primary, as they diminished bending and torsional loads on the secondary, another technique adopted from the

2200: 1690:, London, demonstrated that the contamination caused by the fallout from the test was far greater than that stated officially. Rotblat deduced that the bomb had three stages and showed that the fission phase at the end of the explosion increased the amount of radioactivity a thousand-fold. Rotblat's paper was taken up by the media, and the outcry in Japan reached such a level that diplomatic relations became strained and the incident was even dubbed by some as a "second Hiroshima". Nevertheless, the Japanese and US governments quickly reached a political settlement, with the transfer to Japan of $ 15.3 million as compensation, with the surviving victims receiving about 825: 841: 856: 404: 65: 2219: 874: 1139: 2228: 992:. Copper possesses excellent reflecting properties, and its low cost, compared to other reflecting materials like gold, made it useful for mass-produced hydrogen weapons. Hohlraum albedo is a very important design parameter for any inertial-confinement configuration. A relatively high albedo permits higher interstage coupling due to the more favorable azimuthal and latitudinal angles of reflected radiation. The limiting value of the albedo for high- 1586:, is filmed aboard the control ship in that film, showing the final conference. Hadley points out that 20,000 people live in the potential area of the fallout. He asks the control panel scientist if the test can be aborted and is told "yes", but it would ruin all their preparations in setting up timed measuring instruments. In Mike, the fallout correctly landed north of the inhabited area but, in the 1954 Bravo test, there was a large amount of 1637: 1706: 1108: 1441: 2062: 1154:, to better define and quantify the timing and energies of the x-rays and neutrons produced by these early thermonuclear devices. One of the outcomes of this diagnostic work resulted in this graphic depiction of the transport of energetic x-ray and neutrons through a vacuum line, some 2.3 km long, whereupon it heated solid matter at the "station 1200" blockhouse and thus generated a secondary fireball. 955:," their fusion fuel may have been spiked with additional tritium, in the form of LiT. All of the high-energy 14 MeV neutrons would cause fission in the uranium fusion tamper wrapped around the secondary and the spark plug's plutonium rod. The ratio of deuterium (and tritium) atoms burned by 14 MeV neutrons spawned by the burning was expected to vary from 5:1 to 3:1, a standardization derived from 2191: 1377: 1888: 2447:(ICF) indirect drive experiments, caused local radiation decoupling and hence poor radiation reflection by the hohlraum. Radiation decoupling in turn reduced locally the efficiency of the ablation process on the surface of secondary's tamper, destabilizing implosion by a small degree. Nevertheless, even minor instabilities during ablation amplified the already dreaded Taylor mixing. 1544: 2244: 629:. The assembled module weighed 1,840 lb (830 kg), measuring 30.5 in (770 mm) across. It was located at the end of the device, which, as seen in the declassified film, shows a small cone projecting from the ballistic case. This cone is the part of the paraboloid that was used to focus the radiation emanating from the primary into the secondary. 974: 72: 807:/g at that time. The fusion burn efficiency was close to 25.1%, the highest attained efficiency of the first thermonuclear weapon generation. This efficiency is well within the figures given in a November 1956 statement, when a DOD official disclosed that thermonuclear devices with efficiencies ranging from 15% to up about 40% had been tested. 2179:. The report is a guide to off-site radiation exposures, a narrative history, and a guide to primary historical references concerning the Castle Bravo test. The report focuses on the circumstances that resulted in radioactive exposure of the uninhabited atolls, and makes no attempt to address in detail the effects on or around Bikini Atoll. 1230:, a tritium-boosted fission device. It was assembled by plutonium rings and had a hollow volume inside that measured about 0.5 cm in diameter. This central volume was lined with copper, which like the liner in the primary's fissile core prevented DT gas diffusion in plutonium. The spark plug's boosting charge contained about 4 grams of 894: 1582:, the Scientific Director of Operation Castle. Graves had total authority over detonating the weapon, above that of the military commander of Operation Castle. Graves appears in the widely available film of the earlier 1952 test "Ivy Mike", which examines the last-minute fallout decisions. The narrator, the western actor 1100:, meaning that the generated energy balances the energy lost to fuel's vicinity (as radiation, particle losses). After all, for any hydrogen weapon system to work, this energy equilibrium must be maintained through the compression equilibrium between the fusion tamper and the spark plug (see below), hence their name 2003:

fuel in the fusion secondary to critical density and pressure, setting off thermonuclear (fusion) chain reactions, which in turn set off a tertiary fissioning of the bomb's U fusion tamper and casing. Consequently, this type of bomb is also known as a "fission-fusion-fission" device. The Soviet researchers, led by

1621:, makmok, and fish, had either disappeared or gave residents various illnesses, and they were again removed. Ultimately, 15 islands and atolls were contaminated, and by 1963 Marshall Islands natives began to suffer from thyroid tumors, including 20 of 29 Rongelap children at the time of Bravo, and many 2077:

were impacted by the radioactive fallout. This single test exposed the surrounding populations to varying levels of radiation. The fallout levels attributed to the Castle Bravo test are the highest in history. Populations neighboring the test site were exposed to high levels of radiation resulting in

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Castle Bravo had the greatest yield of any U.S. nuclear test, 15 Mt, though again, a substantial fraction came from fission. In the Teller–Ulam design, the fission and fusion stages were kept physically separate in a reflective cavity. The radiation from the exploding fission primary brought the

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In 2016, 45 Japanese fishermen from other ships sued their government for not disclosing records about their exposure to Operation Castle fallout. Records released in 2014 acknowledge that the crews of 10 ships were exposed but under health-damaging levels. In 2018 the suit was rejected by the Kochi

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effect that would otherwise "choke" radiation from compressing the secondary. The reemitted X-rays from the radiation case must be deposited uniformly on the outer walls of the secondary's tamper and ablate it externally, driving the thermonuclear fuel capsule (increasing the density and temperature

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from the primary to the secondary assembly; the interstage. It is one of the most closely guarded secrets of a multistage thermonuclear weapon. Implosion of the secondary assembly is indirectly driven, and the techniques used in the interstage to smooth the spatial profile (i.e. reduce coherence and

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joint. The hohlraum at its cylindrical end had an internal projection, which nested the secondary and had better structural strength to support the secondary's assembly, which had most of the device's mass. A visualization to this is that the joint looked much like a cap (the secondary) fitted in a

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Since the ablative process takes place on both walls of the radiation channel, a numerical estimate made with ISRINEX (a thermonuclear explosion simulation program) suggested that the uranium tamper also had a thickness of 2.5 cm, so that an equal pressure would be applied to both walls of the

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by stray neutrons from the primary without interfering with the subsequent fissioning of the U of the fusion tamper wrapping the secondary. Boron also played a role in increasing the compressive plasma pressure around the secondary by blocking the sputtering effect, leading to higher thermonuclear

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inches (220 mm) in diameter and 40 feet (12 m) long and were butt-welded end-to-end to the ballistic case leading out to the top of the shot cab. They would carry the initial reaction's light up to the array of 12 mirror towers built in an arc on the artificial 1-acre (0.40 ha) shot

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was nominally 40% lithium-6 (the remainder was the much more common lithium-7, which was incorrectly assumed to be inert). The fuel slugs varied in enrichment from 37 to 40% in Li, and the slugs with lower enrichment were positioned at the end of the fusion-fuel chamber, away from the primary. The

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reached a height of 47,000 feet (14,000 m) and a diameter of 7 miles (11 km) in about a minute, a height of 130,000 feet (40 km) and 62 mi (100 km) in diameter in less than 10 minutes and was expanding at more than 160 meters per second (580 km/h; 360 mph). As a

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Boron was used at many locations in this dry system; it has a high cross-section for the absorption of slow neutrons, which fission U and Pu, but a low cross-section for the absorption of fast neutrons, which fission U. Because of this characteristic, B deposited onto the surface of the secondary

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The unexpectedly high yield of the device severely damaged many of the permanent buildings on the control site island on the far side of the atoll. Little of the desired diagnostic data on the shot was collected; many instruments designed to transmit their data back before being destroyed by the

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Ring Lenses were used in conjunction with 1E23 type bridge-wire detonators. The ring lenses reduced weapon's external diameter by making the HE layer thinner, and their simultaneity of shock wave emergence was considerably higher compared to previous hyperboloid lenses, enabling better and more

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The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as Australia, India and Japan, and even the United States and parts of Europe. Though organized as a secret test, Castle Bravo quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear

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primary predetonated the spherical fission spark plug, which in turn "cooked" the fusion fuel, leading to an overall poor compression.) The plastic's low molecular weight is unable to implode the secondary's mass. Its plasma-pressure is confined in the boiled-off sections of the tamper and the

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materials is reached when the thickness is 5–10 g/cm, or 0.5–1.0 free paths. Thus, a hohlraum made of uranium much thicker than a free path of uranium would be needlessly heavy and costly. At the same time, the angular anisotropy increases as the atomic number of the scatterer material is

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nails, lined to the top of their head with copper, attached the radiation case to the ballistic case. The nails were bolted in vertical arrays in a double-shear configuration to better distribute the shear loads. This method of attaching the radiation case to the ballistic case was first used

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This resultant extra fuel (both lithium-6 and lithium-7) contributed greatly to the fusion reactions and neutron production and in this manner greatly increased the device's explosive output. The test used lithium with a high percentage of lithium-7 only because lithium-6 was then scarce and

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and, imploding together with the secondary's compression, was timed to detonate by the first generations of neutrons that arrived from the primary. Timing was defined by the geometric characteristics of the sparkplug (its uncompressed annular radius), which detonated when its criticality, or

1491:, and another neutron. As a result, much more tritium was produced than expected, the extra tritium fusing with deuterium and producing an extra neutron. The extra neutron produced by fusion and the extra neutron released directly by lithium-7 decay produced a much larger 1162:

component of the weapon. The weapon, like most contemporary thermonuclear weapons at that time, bore the same codename as the secondary component. The secondary was situated in the cylindrical end of the device, where its end was locked to the radiation case by a type of

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ballistic case. Aluminum was used to drastically reduce the bomb's weight and simultaneously provided sufficient radiation confinement time to raise yield, a departure from the heavy stainless steel casing (304L or MIM 316L) employed by other weapon-projects at the time.

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used in most stockpiled bombs at that time, as Cyclotol 75/25 was denser than Composition B and thus could generate the same amount of explosive force in a smaller volume (it provided 13 percent more compressive energy than Comp B). The composite uranium-plutonium

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of their ship, or refrain from inhaling the fallout dust, the firing crew that triggered the explosion safely sheltered in their firing station when they noticed the wind was carrying the fallout in the unanticipated direction towards the island of Enyu on the

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Both the ballistic case and hohlraum were perforated in these points so that light emanating from the nuclear components could travel unobstructed to the recording station. A slight drop in yield was expected because of those apertures, much like in the

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stations was established to monitor fallout following Operation Castle. Although meteorological data was poor, a general connection of tropospheric flow patterns with observed fallout was evident. There was a tendency for fallout/debris to remain in

1456:. They considered only the lithium-6 isotope in the lithium deuteride secondary to be reactive; the lithium-7 isotope, accounting for 60% of the lithium content, was assumed to be inert. It was expected that the lithium-6 isotope would absorb a 622:

was Los Alamos' most recent product of design work on the "new principles" of the hollow core. A copper pit liner encased within the weapon-grade plutonium inner capsule prevented DT gas diffusion into the plutonium, a technique first tested in

2344:(p. 490) and Mike's fusion fuel volume assumed by Andre Gsponer and Jean-Pierre Hurni in their paper "The physical principles of thermonuclear explosives, inertial confinement fusion, and the quest for fourth generation nuclear weapons", p. 68. 2049:, of which 275 units were produced, weighing 17,600 pounds (8,000 kg) and measuring 12.5 feet (3.8 m) long and 58 inches (1.5 m) in diameter. This 18-megaton bomb was produced until July 1956. In 1957, it was converted into the 601:, designed to explore the same question about a suitable primary for thermonuclear bombs, could be canceled. The implosion system was quite lightweight at 900 lb (410 kg), because it eliminated the aluminum pusher shell around the 1328: 42: 1012:

of the scatterer. There are two sources of X-rays in the hohlraum: the primary's irradiance, which is dominant at the beginning and during the pulse rise; and the wall, which is important during the required radiation temperature's

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to properly implode. This constant wall temperature is dictated by the ablation pressure requirements to drive compression, which lie on average at about 0.4 keV (out of a range of 0.2 to 2 keV), corresponding to several million

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which peaked at about 5.4 keV during boosted-fission. The final wall-temperature, which corresponds to energy of the wall-reradiated X-rays to the secondary's pusher, also drops due to losses from the hohlraum material itself.

3313:; Kozioziemski, B. J.; Nikroo, A.; Wilkens, H. L.; Bhandarkar, S.; Forsman, A. C.; Haan, S. W.; Hoppe, M. L.; Huang, H.; Mapoles, E.; Moody, J. D.; Sater, J. D.; Seugling, R. M.; Stephens, R. B.; Takagi, M.; Xu, H. W. (2008). 1865:, and therefore very similar chemically. Islanders consuming contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies and so had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time. 1534:

In an additional unexpected event, albeit one of far less consequence, X-rays traveling through line-of-sight (LOS) pipes caused a small second fireball at Station 1200 with a yield of 1 kiloton of TNT (4.2 TJ).

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lacked a decontamination washdown system, and was therefore ordered on February 27, to return to Pearl Harbor at the highest possible speed. A breakdown in her engine systems, namely a cracked cylinder liner, slowed

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Unanticipated fallout and the radiation emitted by it also affected many of the vessels and personnel involved in the test, in some cases forcing them into bunkers for several hours. In contrast to the crew of the

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was 565 to 586 nautical miles from ground zero. The fallout was at first thought to be harmless and there were no radiation detectors aboard, so no decontamination measures were taken. Measurements taken after

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tamper material would mix rapidly with the relatively low-density fusion fuel—leading to unacceptably large radiation losses—the stand-off gap also acted as a buffer to mitigate the unavoidable and undesirable

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mild radiation sickness of many (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). The unexpected strength of the detonation, combined with shifting wind patterns, sent some of the radioactive fallout over the inhabited atolls of

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District Court, who acknowledged the fishermen's radiation exposure but could not "conclude that the state persistently gave up providing support and conducting health surveys to hide the radiation exposure".

959:, while for these estimations, the ratio of 3:1 was predominantly used in ISRINEX. The neutronicity of the fusion reactions harnessed by the fusion tamper would dramatically increase the yield of the device. 803:

devices, or about 500 liters (110 imp gal; 130 U.S. gal), corresponding to about 400 kg of lithium deuteride (as LiD has a density of 0.78201 g/cm). The mixture cost about 4.54

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island created for the event. From those pipes, mirrors would reflect early bomb light from the bomb casing to a series of remote high-speed cameras, and so that Los Alamos could determine both the

2042:" during the month after the Castle Bravo test, the final piece of the puzzle being the idea that the compression of the secondary can be accomplished by the primary's X-rays before fusion began. 1790:. Total exposure estimates range from 3.3 R to 18 R of whole-body radiation, taking into account the effects of natural washdown from rain, and variations between above- and below-deck exposure. 5463: 605:

and used the more compact ring lenses, a design feature shared with the Mark 5, 12, 13 and 18 designs. The explosive material of the inner charges in the MK 7 was changed to the more powerful

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efficiency. Because the structural foam holding the secondary in place within the casing was doped with B, the secondary was compressed more highly, at a cost of some radiated neutrons. (The

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in the ICF laser assemblies. This medium was a polystyrene plastic foam filling, extruded or impregnated with a low-molecular-weight hydrocarbon (possibly methane gas), which turned to a low-

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and other testing on the atoll also affected islanders who had previously inhabited the atoll, and who returned there some time after the tests. This was due to the presence of radioactive

760:. The proposed weight reduction (from TX-17's 42,000 pounds (19,000 kg) to TX-21's 25,000 pounds (11,000 kg)) would provide the Air Force with a much more versatile deliverable 4701: 1253:. All parts of the tamper were similarly locked together to provide structural support and rigidity to the secondary assembly. Surrounding the fusion-fuel–spark-plug assembly was the 3917: 1664:

Although the atmospheric fallout plume drifted eastward, once fallout landed in the water it was carried in several directions by ocean currents, including northwest and southwest.

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fallout plume spread dangerous levels of radioactivity over an area over 280 miles (450 km) long, including inhabited islands. The contour lines show the cumulative radiation

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deposited into the hohlraum liner from primary's interface with the interstage (i.e. the primary's outer surface) were "cooler" than the maximum temperature of a fission device.

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result of the blast, the cloud contaminated more than 7,000 square miles (18,000 km) of the surrounding Pacific Ocean, including some of the surrounding small islands like

824: 317:, including the death six months later of Kuboyama Aikichi, the boat's chief radioman. The blast incited a strong international reaction over atmospheric thermonuclear testing. 5356: 3832: 3711: 4694: 1567:. That, combined with the larger than expected yield and a major wind shift, produced some very serious consequences for those in the fallout range. In the declassified film 1215:

of the design (i.e. the time interval between primary's firing and secondary's ignition) and the thermonuclear burn rate in these two crucial areas of the secondary device.

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device was housed in a cylinder that weighed 23,500 pounds (10,700 kg) and measured 179.5 inches (456 cm) in length and 53.9 inches (137 cm) in diameter.

2563: 1483:) to a pair of alpha particles on a timescale of nearly a second, vastly longer than the timescale of nuclear detonation. However, when lithium-7 is bombarded with 3501: 3270: 984:

Attached to the cylindrical ballistic case was a natural-uranium liner, the radiation case, that was about 2.5 cm thick. Its internal surface was lined with

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event and yielded 61 kilotons of TNT (260 TJ) (out of 50–70 kt expected yield range). It was considered successful enough that the planned operation series

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The yield of 15 (± 5) Mt was triple that of the 5 Mt predicted by its designers. The cause of the higher yield was an error made by designers of the device at

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The thermonuclear burn would produce (like the fission fuel in the primary) pulsations (generations) of high-energy neutrons with an average temperature of 14

2137:, and the Castle Bravo test was frequently part of the plots of numerous Japanese media, especially in relation to Japan's most widely recognized media icon, 1625:

were reported. The islanders received compensation from the U.S. government, relative to how much contamination they received, beginning in 1956; by 1995 the

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levels and thyroid cancer is still being researched. There are also correlations between fallout exposure levels and diseases such as thyroid disease like

2034:, present in the fallout. This information could potentially reveal the means by which megaton-yield nuclear devices achieve their yield. Soviet scientist 1342:. A sizable array of diagnostic instruments were trained on it, including high-speed cameras trained through an arc of mirror towers around the shot cab. 2143: 1531:

blast were instead vaporized instantly, while most of the instruments that were expected to be recovered for data retrieval were destroyed by the blast.

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reportedly stated independently that the first generation of thermonuclear weapons had (fusion) efficiencies varying from as low as 15% to up about 25%.

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Sputtering is the manifestation of the underdense plasma corona of the ablating hohlraum and the tamper surfaces. It is a problem also shared with (see

873: 840: 2332:. SAUSAGE used an 840-liter version of a cryogenic vessel developed for the PANDA committee (PANDA was SAUSAGE's unclassified name) and in part by the 855: 5406: 2134: 4428:"Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 years ago still have health implications today that will continue into the future" 5483: 5478: 4474:

Grossman, Charles M.; Morton, William E.; Nussbaum, Rudi H.; Goldberg, Mark S.; Mayo, Nancy E.; Levy, Adrian R.; Scott, Susan C. (January 1, 1999).

64: 4676: 2634: 5361: 3961: 683:, even though the TX-21 as proof-tested in the Bravo event was not weaponized. The successful test rendered obsolete the cryogenic design used by 1527:

test used almost pure lithium-6. Had sufficient lithium-6 been available, the usability of the common lithium-7 might not have been discovered.

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to one-third of her full speed, and when the Castle Bravo detonation took place, she was still about 180 to 195 nautical miles east of Bikini.

1610: 791:(ADP) started production in late 1953. The volume of LiD fuel used was approximately 60% the volume of the fusion fuel filling used in the wet 2039: 1613:

deemed Rongelap safe to return, and allowed 82 inhabitants to move back to the island. Upon their return, they discovered that their previous

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with an energy greater than 2.47 MeV, rather than simply absorbing a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission into an alpha particle, a tritium

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over 250 miles (400 km) away. The explosion left a crater 6,500 feet (2,000 m) in diameter and 250 feet (76 m) in depth. The

128: 5400: 5325: 3925: 3752: 3888: 2113:. Populations of the Marshall Islands that received significant exposure to radionuclides have a much greater risk of developing cancer. 1222:

fusion fuel in a stainless-steel canister. Running down to the center of the secondary was a 1.3 cm thick hollow cylindrical rod of

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design to tailor its opacity), which fly inside the radiation channel and absorb radiation or reflect it, hampering radiation "ducting".

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The physical principles of thermonuclear explosives, inertial confinement fusion, and the quest for fourth generation nuclear weapons

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When Bravo was detonated, within one second it formed a fireball almost 4.5 miles (7.2 km) across. This fireball was visible on

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In the Mark 7 HE system, the irregularities in the implosion front were relatively small rendering the pusher component unnecessary.

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reported that it had awarded $ 43.2 million, nearly its entire fund, to 1,196 claimants for 1,311 illnesses. A medical study, named

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plasma from the X-rays, and along with channeling radiation it modulated the ablation front on the high-Z surfaces; it "tamped" the

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with a standoff air-gap about 0.9 cm wide that was to increase the tamper's momentum, a levitation technique used as early as

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Page 36 from the Project 4.1 final report, showing four photographs of exposed Marshallese. Faces blotted out for privacy reasons.

5458: 3526: 585: 4427: 1280: 5422: 4047: 3497: 2676: 2172: 1096:). This point is above the threshold where the fusion fuel would turn opaque to its emitting radiation, as determined from its 916:

and deuterium, and in two reactions (with energies of 17.6 MeV and 4.8 MeV, mediated by a neutron and tritium) it produces two

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and gaseous fallout spread around the world. The inhabitants of the islands were evacuated only three days later and suffered

5319: 5223: 4732: 2868:"Dangerous Thermonuclear Quest: The Potential of Explosive Fusion Research for the Development of Pure Fusion Weapons", p. 4. 1909: 1453: 746: 455: 5122: 5115: 212: 2357:

material because the fission bomb's tamper, pusher and high-explosive lenses as well as interstage's plastic foam strongly

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as part of the normal biological process, but will also readily absorb caesium if present, being of the same group on the

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pointed to a diagram indicating that the wind shift was still in the range of "acceptable fallout", although just barely.

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respectively. On paper it was a scaled-down version of these devices, and its origins can be traced back to 1953. The

403: 323: 3314: 2922: 1988:" in the U.S.), in 1953. It was not a true hydrogen bomb; fusion provided only 15–20% of its yield, most coming from 1640:

Map showing points (X) where contaminated fish were caught or where the sea was found to be excessively radioactive.

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The Japanese government and people dubbed it "a second Hiroshima" and it nearly led to severing diplomatic relations

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reactions. Its yield was 400 kilotons, and it could not be infinitely scaled, as with a true thermonuclear device.

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was in the range of nuclear fallout, which began landing on the ship in the mid-afternoon of March 2. By this time

1212: 3857: 1999:, but most of this also came from fission: 77% of the total came from fast fission of its natural-uranium tamper. 1898: 1075:

nonuniformities) of the primary's irradiance are of utmost importance. This was done with the introduction of the

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granular particles (made off uranium of Pb–Bi eutectic; the selected material depends on the "cocktail", or high-

2249: 282: 4589:"Historical events associated with fallout from Bravo Shot – Operation Castle and 25 Y of medical findings" 1559:(R) for the first 96 hours after the test. Although widely published, this fallout map is not perfectly correct. 1059:

primary that was employed to create the conditions needed to start the fusion reaction, and its other end was a

5366: 5045: 1257: 1247: 314: 2417:), that has to do with the ablated heavy particles; For a hydrogen weapon, these particles are blown-off high- 2008: 1938: 1498:

Summarizing, the reactions involving lithium-6 result in some combination of the two following net reactions:

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tapering and its mounting to the hohlraum apparently made the whole secondary assembly resemble the body of a

291:, the heaviest of which was in the form of pulverized surface coral from the detonation, fell on residents of 2985: 787:

and many later hydrogen weapons, were due to shortages in enriched lithium at that time, as the first of the

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There is a presumed association between radiation levels and functioning of the female reproductive system.

1626: 988:

that was about 240 μm thick, and made from 0.08-μm thick copper foil, to increase the overall albedo of the

734: 602: 181: 2027: 5108: 4641: 1989: 1267: 581: 3267:"How Archive Data Contribute to Certification. Fred N. Mortensen, John M. Scott, and Stirling A. Colgate" 1920: 5351: 4925: 4795: 4321: 3865: 2850: 2218: 1636: 1480: 1151: 1093: 4686: 2642: 2129: 1709:

The device's firing crew was located on Enyu island, variously spelled as Eneu island, as depicted here

1675: 1475:

It was assumed that the lithium-7 would absorb one neutron, producing lithium-8, which decays (through

309: 2788: 2097:

The exposure to fallout has been linked to increase the likelihood of several types of cancer such as

5488: 5101: 5002: 4909: 4874: 4809: 4788: 4352: 4162: 3329: 3064: 2997: 2896: 2572: 2050: 2046: 1754: 1179: 1173: 1124: 1054: 1037: 952: 782: 753: 716: 710: 688: 424: 266: 232: 3962:

Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute, Lovelace Biomedical & Environmental Research Institute

1835: 1572: 277:), 2.5 times the predicted 6 Mt (25 PJ), due to unforeseen additional reactions involving 5129: 5087: 5052: 4881: 3109: 1484: 1338:

The device was mounted in a "shot cab" on an artificial island built on a reef off Namu Island, in

1262: 1021: 773: 698: 278: 2884: 2337: 1563:

The fission reactions of the natural uranium tamper were quite dirty, producing a large amount of

5276: 5213: 4995: 4946: 4902: 4867: 4846: 4816: 4739: 4497: 4449: 4432: 4368: 4281: 4225: 3693: 3618: 3252: 3013: 1683: 421: 304: 262: 3744: 3310: 2147:, Castle Bravo becomes the call sign for Monarch Outpost 54 located in the Atlantic Ocean, near 1590:, and the wind that was blowing north the day before the test steadily veered towards the east. 3965: 3833:"Former fishermen lose H-bomb damages suit linked to Bikini Atoll tests U.S. conducted in 1954" 2328:

Both SAUSAGE and the two RUNTs (SAUSAGE's "lithiated" versions) had fusion fuel volumes of 840

1246:

joint to the rest of the secondary assembly. The shield-tamper ensemble can be visualized as a

5376: 5073: 5059: 5038: 4988: 4974: 4960: 4888: 4860: 4823: 4802: 4767: 4760: 4608: 4505: 4403: 4376: 4299: 4243: 4147: 4126: 4101: 4052: 4017: 3984: 3683: 3657: 3590: 3457: 3412: 3131: 3123: 3113: 2600: 2375: 2019: 1812: 1243: 1219: 1164: 656: 258: 3783: 2792: 1509:

But when lithium-7 is present, one also has some amounts of the following two net reactions:

5188: 5172: 5136: 5094: 5080: 5066: 5031: 4981: 4781: 4660: 4647: 4634: 4600: 4487: 4441: 4360: 4289: 4273: 4233: 4217: 4170: 4166: 4009: 3649: 3337: 3155: 3147: 3072: 3005: 2904: 2745: 2590: 2580: 2379: 2074: 2030:

of the Castle Bravo device by studying the ratio and presence of tell-tale isotopes, namely

1870: 1815:

associated with meteorological disturbances of the predominantly zonal flow. Outside of the

1735: 1143: 1097: 928: 249: 244: 104: 1984:

The Soviet Union had previously used lithium deuteride in its Sloika design (known as the "

5387: 5331: 5297: 5271: 4939: 4839: 4753: 4746: 3838: 3139: 2087: 2035: 2004: 1945: 1787: 1598: 1579: 1564: 1353: 1138: 1042: 625: 590: 4628: 3617:. October 11, 2009. A&E Television Networks. Military History Channel. Archived from 3586:

Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War

3228: 2476: 2456:

The cylindrical hole was plugged with B-doped paraffin wax to time the neutrons' arrival.

2443:

test. The hot-spot openings, similar to the "starburst" diagnostics in hohlraums used in

1495:. The result was greatly increased fissioning of the uranium tamper and increased yield. 4356: 3333: 3068: 3055:(1992). "Progress toward Ignition and Burn Propagation in Inertial Confinement Fusion". 3001: 2900: 2576: 2531: 2227: 1738:("buttoning up") for several hours until outside radiation decayed to safer levels. "25 1705: 997:

reduced. Therefore, hohlraum liners require the use of copper (or, as in other devices,

5193: 5018: 4830: 4294: 4261: 4238: 4205: 3101: 3034: 2662: 2595: 2558: 2312: 2110: 2102: 2079: 2023: 1996: 1862: 1761: 1606: 1602: 1488: 1472:

and increase the yield in a predicted manner. Lithium-6 indeed reacted in this manner.

1461: 1385: 1366: 1362: 1357: 924: 917: 738: 648: 292: 270: 254: 192: 51: 3653: 3243:"Declassified U.S. Nuclear Test Film #34 0800034 – Project Gnome – 1961. 6:14 minutes" 2972: 1345:

The detonation took place at 06:45 on March 1, 1954, local time (18:45 on February 28

1196:

pipes attached to the middle and left section of the device. These pipe sections were

1107: 5437: 5346: 5218: 4932: 4916: 4604: 4542: 4492: 4475: 4045:; List, Robert J. (March 1, 1959). Analysis of Stratospheric Strontium Measurements. 4042: 3955: 3052: 3017: 2908: 2272: 2160: 1751: 1552: 1429: 729: 680: 610: 236: 1578:

The decision to carry out the Bravo test under the prevailing winds was made by Dr.

5417: 5412: 5394: 5341: 5203: 4576:

Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining control in a Post-Nuclear, Post Colonial World

4318:"The Legacy of U.S. Nuclear Testing and Radiation Exposure in the Marshall Islands" 3561: 3200: 3169: 2822: 2712: 2209: 2155: 2061: 1839: 1827: 1731: 1622: 1523: 1492: 1404:

is the sixth largest nuclear explosion in history, exceeded by the Soviet tests of

1397: 1370: 1339: 1308:

device did not use B in its design; as a result, the intense neutron flux from its

815: 761: 742: 723: 296: 240: 217: 114: 4364: 4071: 2941:

Current Trends in International Fusion Research Proceedings of the Third Symposium

2557:

Hughes EW; Molina MR; Abella MKIL; Nikolić-Hughes I; Ruderman MA (July 30, 2019).

2190: 1440: 1376: 1092:

of the fusion fuel) to the point needed to sustain a thermonuclear reaction. (see

3451: 3433: 709:

was at least in theory and in many critical aspects identical in geometry to the

588:, a very compact MK 7 device. This boosted fission device had been tested in the 313:("Lucky Dragon No. 5") were also contaminated by the heavy fallout, experiencing 5336: 5239: 5198: 4528: 3893: 2657: 2358: 2086:. Within 52 hours, the 86 people on Rongelap and 167 on Utrik were evacuated to 2083: 2031: 1887: 1854: 1831: 1803: 1726: 1630: 1614: 1583: 1301: 1192:. The secondary's length is defined by the two pairs of dark-colored diagnostic 1150:

test of 1952, the 1954 Castle Bravo test was likewise heavily instrumented with

300: 3296: 1319:

can enter the radiation channel that has to be open for the radiation transit.

5208: 5013: 4654: 4277: 4174: 4005: 3697: 3469: 3342: 3242: 2374:

These losses were associated with material's properties like back-scattering,

2277: 2239: 2106: 1995:

The Teller–Ulam-based "Ivy Mike" device had a much greater yield of 10.4

1823:

received the greatest total fallout, about five times that received in Japan.

1725:, who did not anticipate the hazard and therefore did not take shelter in the 1587: 1476: 1406: 1393: 1088: 808: 737:

indicated the importance of lighter thermonuclear weapons for delivery by the

3135: 369: 356: 338: 325: 143: 130: 4194:

Strategic Air Command History Development of Atomic Weapons 1956, pp. 29, 39

3151: 2585: 2262: 2133:

led to an increase in antinuclear protests in Japan. It was compared to the

2127:

The Castle Bravo detonation and the subsequent poisoning of the crew aboard

1858: 1739: 1695: 1618: 1556: 1543: 1469: 1250: 1223: 1002: 913: 905: 772:

as its fusion fuel. Natural lithium is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7

668: 664: 4681: 4509: 4380: 4303: 3661: 3143: 2604: 2391:

Tamper is the metal cladding encasing the secondary, and it is also termed

2353:

This temperature range is compatible with a hohlraum filling made of a low-

1842:

and fallout times, and arrive at more accurate meteorological models after

4612: 4247: 3456:. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. p. 437. 1327: 973: 923:

The reaction would produce high-energy neutrons with 14 MeV, and its

41: 17: 5255: 4894: 4670: 3806:"Fishermen Sue Japan for Hiding Records of Fallout From US Nuclear Tests" 3438:. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. p. 462. 2426: 2257: 2165: 2138: 2098: 2091: 1843: 1786:

had returned to Pearl Harbor suggested an exposure range of 0.18 to 0.62

1609:

atolls, which were evacuated 48 hours after the detonation. In 1957, the

1412: 1310: 1147: 1120: 1060: 989: 643: 606: 4453: 4445: 4285: 2090:

for medical care. Several weeks later, many people began suffering from

1644:=original "danger zone" around Bikini announced by the U.S. government. 781:

lower levels of lithium enrichment in the fuel slugs, compared with the

4501: 4426:

Simon, Steven L.; Bouville, André; Land, Charles E. (January 1, 2006).

4372: 4229: 3779: 3247: 3009: 2311:

accurate compression (LA-1632, table 4.1). At the same time, since the

2148: 1912: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1816: 1808: 1465: 1457: 1445: 1254: 1231: 909: 901: 769: 288: 4525:

Mushroom Clouds and Mushroom Men: The Fantastic Cinema of Ishiro Honda

4056: 4021: 749:

responded to this indication with a follow-up enriched version of the

3076: 2012: 1189: 1079:—an optical element used as a refractive medium, also encountered as 1033: 985: 4221: 4013: 2763: 951:, were to be high-yield shots required to assure the thermonuclear " 641:, and had the same basic configuration (radiation implosion) as the 3039:

Plasma Astrophysics; Kinetic Processes in Solar and Stellar Coronae

679:

was the first test by the United States of a practical deliverable

253:. Detonated on March 1, 1954, the device remains the most powerful 4682:

Strategic Air Command History – Development of Atomic Weapons 1956

3584: 2988:; Hälg, Walter (1981). "Radiation dynamics of nuclear explosion". 2362: 2329: 2316: 2060: 1985: 1704: 1635: 1542: 1439: 1375: 1326: 1137: 1106: 1071: 972: 893: 274: 196: 1834:

used to sample the air at stratospheric altitudes; the research (

1053:

device. The radiation case had a parabolic end, which housed the

3127: 1036:. Wall temperature depended on the temperature of the primary's 1020:) plateau. The primary emits radiation in a manner similar to a 998: 4690: 3957:

Human Radiation Exposures Related to Nuclear Weapons Industries

2750:

LA-1632: Weapons Activities of Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

2559:"Radiation maps of ocean sediment from the Castle Bravo crater" 2764:"The Nuclear Weapon Archive – A Guide to Nuclear Weapons" 1881: 1346: 804: 3682:, Britain’s Pacific H-bomb tests, ANU Press, pp. 55–68, 1468:

in the process, of which the latter would then fuse with the

1005:), as the absorption probability increases with the value of 3204: 3173: 2826: 2716: 892: 4324:

in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. September 15, 2012

3678:

Oishi, Matashichi; Maclellan, Nic (2017), "The fisherman",

3359:

Bombs in the Backyard: Atomic Testing and American Politics

2635:"Operation Castle tests focus of April 20 panel discussion" 1380:

Castle Bravo mushroom cloud a few seconds after detonation

307:. Twenty-three crew members of the Japanese fishing vessel 27:

1954 U.S. thermonuclear weapon test in the Marshall Islands

4204:

Lauerman, John F.; Reuther, Christopher (September 1997).

3776:"Bikini Atoll H-bomb damaged fisheries, created prejudice" 3315:"National Ignition Facility target design and fabrication" 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 1315:

radiation case so that material from neither of these two

465:$ 2.7 million (1954) ($ 24.3 million in 2023 dollars) 3954:

Newton, Richard G.; Cuddihy, George J. (September 1985).

2404:

Not to be confused with the function of the fusion tamper

2340:). This vessel fits the description of Richard Rhodes in 900:

The Jetter cycle is a combination of reactions involving

776:(with 7.5% of the former). The enriched lithium used in 2620:

The Ecological Revolution: Making Peace with the Planet

1874:

warned of the contamination of milk with strontium-90.

1857:

in locally grown coconut milk. Plants and trees absorb

1633:, studied the effects of the fallout on the islanders. 1142:

In a similar manner to the earlier pipes filled with a

1830:

from the test were later captured with balloon-borne

1274:. Since there were also technical concerns that high- 1070:, and the case formed a radiation channel to conduct 756:

to a 3/4 scale radiation-implosion system called the

5357:

Unethical human experimentation in the United States

4718:

Nuclear weapons tests conducted by the United States

4587:

Cronkite, E. P.; Conard, R. A.; Bond, V. P. (1997).

4161:(4). Gordon and Breach Science Publishers: 351–363. 4098:

The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society

1392:

was about 1,000 times more powerful than the atomic

5310: 5285: 5264: 5248: 5232: 5181: 5155: 5146: 4724: 3673: 3671: 3489:Kunkel, Thomas; Ristvet, Brian (January 25, 2013). 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 2973:

https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq4-4.html

546: 538: 530: 517: 509: 501: 496: 488: 477: 469: 461: 451: 443: 435: 430: 417: 392: 203: 187: 177: 159: 120: 110: 100: 92: 87: 34: 5464:1954 in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 4659:is available for free viewing and download at the 4646:is available for free viewing and download at the 4633:is available for free viewing and download at the 3831: 2503:"Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion" 351:. The remains of the Castle Bravo causeway are at 257:ever detonated by the United States and the first 3552: 3550: 3548: 1384:In terms of energy released (usually measured in 4643:Military Effects Studies Operation Castle (1954) 4582:Republic of the Marshall Islands Embassy website 4476:"Reproductive Outcomes after Radiation Exposure" 4148:"The Radioactive Signature of the Hydrogen Bomb" 3405:Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy 2990:Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Physik 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2045:The Shrimp device design later evolved into the 1114:device delivered via truck awaiting installation 4343:"Radioactive Fallout in the Marshall Islands". 3856:Clark, John C. (July 1957). Robert Cahn (ed.). 3373:"Commander Task Group 7.1 Eniwetok to U.S. AEC" 2879: 2877: 2875: 2656:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). 2564:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1673: 693:, which was slated to be tested as the initial 675:), which required elaborate cooling equipment. 4677:First-person article about conducting the test 3491:"Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore" 3403:Parsons, Keith M.; Zaballa, Robert A. (2017). 2855:T-4 Handbook of Material Properties Data Bases 2707: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 697:. It also used a 3.7-inch-thick (9.5 cm) 261:-fueled thermonuclear weapon tested using the 4702: 3293:"LANL: Los Alamos Science: LA Science No. 28" 2315:layer was thinner it was less opaque for the 1226:, nested in the steel canister. This was the 1218:This secondary assembly device contained the 1063:, as also seen in Bravo's declassified film. 8: 3450:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J. (1977). 3231:. May 12, 1954 – via Internet Archive. 3029: 3027: 2177:Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore 2038:hit upon what the Soviet Union regarded as " 1734:where they were located, with the fire crew 647:wet device, except with a different type of 4656:Nuclear Test Film – Operation Castle (1954) 3983:. London: Jonathan Cape. pp. 196–198. 3710:Keever, Beverly Deepe (February 25, 2004). 3195: 3193: 2927:Co and Au γ-ray albedo of various materials 2887:(1963). "High Energy X-Ray Photon Albedo". 1130:that used a 93.5% enriched fission jacket. 834:shortly before installation in its shot cab 659:(LiD), which is solid at room temperature; 5152: 4709: 4695: 4687: 4076:WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements 3949: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3851: 3849: 2954: 2952: 2950: 1460:from the fissioning plutonium and emit an 1294:stage would prevent pre-detonation of the 935:Possible additional tritium for high-yield 402: 389: 40: 5407:Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie 4630:Operation Castle Commanders Report (1954) 4569:U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History 4491: 4293: 4237: 3640:Sevitt, S. (July 23, 1955). "The Bombs". 3440:(Dose given in roentgens in the 1962 ed.) 3341: 3106:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 3096: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 2594: 2584: 2361:the radiation emitted by the core. Thus, 1972:Learn how and when to remove this message 1838:) was conducted to better understand the 1742:per hour" was recorded above the bunker. 1571:, the task force commander Major General 4006:World-Wide Fallout from Operation Castle 3453:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (3rd ed.) 2395:; both terms can be used interchangeably 2015:their first Teller–Ulam device in 1955. 553:Expected: 5 megatons of TNT (21 PJ) 231:was the first in a series of high-yield 5362:International Day against Nuclear Tests 3255:from the original on December 21, 2021. 2468: 2294: 2186: 2158:song "Memorabilia" from his 2012 album 2022:was a militarily sensitive issue, with 1601:was spread eastward onto the inhabited 820: 556:Actual: 15 megatons of TNT (63 PJ) 3889:"Forgotten atrocity of the atomic age" 3273:from the original on December 23, 2016 2501:Rowberry, Ariana (November 30, 2001). 2094:(hair loss) and skin lesions as well. 2073:estimated that 253 inhabitants of the 1158:The secondary assembly was the actual 31: 4421: 4419: 3745:"50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons" 3398: 3396: 3394: 3229:"Operation CASTLE Commander's Report" 7: 5401:Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test 5326:Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy 4396:Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation 4351:(3181): 1178–1179. January 1, 1955. 3887:Hoffman, Michael (August 28, 2011). 1910:adding citations to reliable sources 1448:bonus provided by Lithium-7 isotope. 618:core was levitated in a type-D pit. 71: 5382:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act 4123:Joseph Rotblat: Visionary for Peace 4100:(6th ed.). New York: Longman. 4096:Nash, Gary B.; et al. (2007). 3774:Hirano, Keiji (February 29, 2004). 3507:from the original on March 10, 2014 2633:Danneskiold, Jim (April 14, 2005). 2622:. Monthly Review Press. p. 73. 2164:mentions both the Castle Bravo and 2053:and entered into production again. 1826:Stratospheric fallout particles of 1024:, and the secondary needs constant 687:and its weaponized derivative, the 3755:from the original on July 19, 2011 2135:bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 2071:United States Department of Energy 1394:bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima 25: 4210:Environmental Health Perspectives 3611:"The Ghost Fleet of Bikini Atoll" 1428:) ≈20 Mt Soviet tests in 1962 at 4667:US tests hydrogen bomb in Bikini 4605:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00014 4493:10.1097/00001648-199903000-00024 4072:"Caesium biological information" 4004:List, Robert J. (May 17, 1955). 3858:"Trapped by Radioactive Fallout" 2242: 2226: 2217: 2198: 2189: 1886: 1714:Bomb test personnel take shelter 872: 854: 839: 823: 586:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 70: 63: 5484:Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll 5479:Nuclear accidents and incidents 5423:Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll 4272:(5496): 1132. January 1, 1966. 4048:Journal of Geophysical Research 3918:"Operation Castle: Bravo Blast" 3589:. University of Hawai'i Press. 3498:Defense Threat Reduction Agency 3295:. June 12, 2007. Archived from 2889:Nuclear Instruments and Methods 2677:Gross Domestic Product deflator 2173:Defense Threat Reduction Agency 1897:needs additional citations for 1648:="danger zone" extended later. 927:was estimated at ≈0.885 (for a 513:455.93 cm (179.50 in) 505:10,659 kg (23,499 lb) 320:The Bravo Crater is located at 5320:National Atomic Testing Museum 5224:Nevada Test and Training Range 4578:(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2004) 4394:Jorgensen, Timothy J. (2017). 4262:"Fallout Radiation And Growth" 3435:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 2639:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2144:Godzilla: King of the Monsters 1660: are equatorial currents. 1516:Li + H → 2 He + n + 15.123 MeV 1454:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1066:The space between the uranium 962: 764:. The final version tested in 747:Los Alamos National Laboratory 521:136.90 cm (53.90 in) 478: 456:Los Alamos National Laboratory 235:design tests conducted by the 1: 5444:1950s in the Marshall Islands 4365:10.1126/science.122.3181.1178 4155:Science & Global Security 3654:10.1016/s0140-6736(55)92780-x 3615:Mystery of Old World Cultures 3583:Smith-Norris, Martha (2016). 3361:. Reno: University of Nevada. 3357:Titus, A. Costandina (2001). 2658:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" 2618:Foster, John Bellamy (2009). 2018:The publication of the Bravo 1416:at 24.2 Mt, and three other ( 883:device, with humans for scale 721:devices later proof-fired in 582:deuterium-tritium gas-boosted 79:Location within Pacific Ocean 5474:March 1954 events in Oceania 3527:"Les cobayes du Dr Folamour" 2909:10.1016/0029-554X(64)90131-4 2334:National Bureau of Standards 439:Ben Diven (project engineer) 4523:Brothers, Peter H. (2009). 4266:The British Medical Journal 4146:Geer, Lars-Erik De (1991). 3960:. Albuquerque, New Mexico: 2445:inertial confinement fusion 2105:. The relationship between 1811:, with incursions into the 1674: 1502:n + Li → H + He + 4.783 MeV 1266:and described by physicist 5505: 4571:(Arlington: AeroFax, 1988) 4544:Donald Fagen – Memorabilia 4400:Princeton University Press 3533:(in French). June 22, 2009 3432:Glasstone, Samuel (1962). 3409:Cambridge University Press 2268:History of nuclear weapons 1821:Southwestern United States 1594:Inhabited islands affected 1505:Li + H → 2 He + 22.373 MeV 1146:of helium, as used in the 50:detonation and subsequent 5449:1954 disasters in Oceania 4278:10.1136/bmj.1.5496.1132-a 4175:10.1080/08929889108426372 3749:The Brookings Institution 3377:National Security Archive 3343:10.1017/S0263034608000499 2250:Nuclear technology portal 1688:St Bartholomew's Hospital 1672:A Japanese fishing boat, 1272:hammer-on-the-nail-impact 1152:Line-of-Sight (LOS) pipes 879:Shot-cab installation of 577:The primary device was a 542:400 kg (880 lb) 525: 401: 285:in the surrounding area. 283:radioactive contamination 208: 58: 39: 5454:1954 in military history 5367:Nevada Desert Experience 3979:DeGroot, Gerard (2004). 3322:Laser and Particle Beams 2768:nuclearweaponarchive.org 2536:nuclearweaponarchive.org 2481:nuclearweaponarchive.org 2425:element mixture, of the 2069:Following the test, the 1611:Atomic Energy Commission 1410:at approximately 50 Mt, 1334:detonation and fireball. 818:through Jetter's cycle. 789:Alloy Development Plants 768:used partially enriched 315:acute radiation syndrome 5459:1954 in the environment 5372:Nuclear weapons testing 5293:Pacific Proving Grounds 4167:1991S&GS....2..351D 3680:Grappling with the Bomb 2586:10.1073/pnas.1903478116 2505:. Brookings Institution 1802:A worldwide network of 1764:in late February 1954. 1627:Nuclear Claims Tribunal 849:’s parabolic projection 735:United States Air Force 299:atolls, while the more 5173:Carson National Forest 4121:Braun, Reiner (2007). 2336:(see more information 2066: 2026:possibly deducing the 1868:The American magazine 1794:International incident 1746:US Navy ships affected 1710: 1661: 1560: 1539:High levels of fallout 1449: 1381: 1335: 1155: 1134:The secondary assembly 1115: 981: 980:SHRIMP device shot-cab 897: 637:The device was called 609:75/25, instead of the 412:device in its shot cab 370:11.70167°N 165.28528°E 339:11.69722°N 165.27194°E 213:Upshot–Knothole Climax 165:; 70 years ago 144:11.69722°N 165.27194°E 5352:Desert Rock exercises 4206:"Trouble in Paradise" 3866:Saturday Evening Post 2064: 2040:Sakharov's third idea 1708: 1639: 1546: 1521:expensive; the later 1443: 1379: 1330: 1141: 1110: 1094:Nuclear weapon design 976: 896: 888: 633:Deuterium and lithium 3206:Swords of Armageddon 3175:Swords of Armageddon 3110:Simon & Schuster 2828:Swords of Armageddon 2718:Swords of Armageddon 2208:crater, relative to 2051:Mark 36 nuclear bomb 2047:Mark 21 nuclear bomb 1906:improve this article 1046:successfully in the 953:emergency capability 584:atomic bomb made by 425:thermonuclear weapon 233:thermonuclear weapon 4446:10.1511/2006.57.982 4357:1955Sci...122.1178. 3928:on October 22, 2013 3496:. Albuquerque, NM: 3334:2008LPB....26..479C 3069:1992PhT....45i..32L 3002:1981ZaMP...32....1P 2923:Bulatov and Garusov 2901:1964NucIM..27...23P 2851:Holian, Kathleen S. 2752:. Vol. Part I. 2679:figures follow the 2577:2019PNAS..11615420H 2571:(31): 15420–15424. 2319:emitted by the pit. 2141:. In the 2019 film 1736:sheltering in place 1599:Radioactive fallout 1513:Li + n → H + He + n 1263:Operation Sandstone 539:Filling weight 534:Lithium-6 deuteride 375:11.70167; 165.28528 366: / 344:11.69722; 165.27194 335: / 149:11.69722; 165.27194 140: / 5469:Explosions in 1954 5219:Sand Springs Range 4433:American Scientist 3712:"Shot in the Dark" 3411:. pp. 53–56. 3010:10.1007/BF00953545 2532:"Operation Castle" 2477:"Operation Castle" 2130:Daigo Fukuryū Maru 2123:In popular culture 2067: 1809:tropical latitudes 1722:Lucky Dragon No. 5 1711: 1684:Sir Joseph Rotblat 1676:Daigo Fukuryū Maru 1662: 1561: 1485:energetic neutrons 1450: 1382: 1336: 1156: 1116: 1102:equilibrium supers 1081:random-phase plate 982: 898: 431:Production history 422:Teller-Ulam design 310:Daigo Fukuryū Maru 305:radiation sickness 263:Teller-Ulam design 163:March 1, 1954 5431: 5430: 5377:Project Plowshare 5306: 5305: 4574:Holly M. Barker, 4409:978-0-691-17834-9 4132:978-3-527-40690-6 4107:978-0-205-80553-2 3990:978-0-224-06232-9 3786:on April 29, 2013 3689:978-1-76046-137-9 3648:(6882): 199–201. 3596:978-0-8248-5814-8 3564:on April 24, 2016 3463:978-0-318-20369-0 3418:978-1-108-50874-2 3299:on June 12, 2007. 3119:978-0-68-480400-2 3104:(1 August 1995). 2986:Pritzker, Andreas 2789:Sutherland, Karen 2746:Glasstone, Samuel 2376:quantum tunneling 1982: 1981: 1974: 1956: 1849:The fallout from 1813:temperate regions 1652:=position of the 1244:mortise and tenon 1220:lithium deuteride 1165:mortise and tenon 1098:Rosseland opacity 943:, along with the 867:s cylindrical end 657:lithium deuteride 563: 562: 447:February 24, 1953 265:. Castle Bravo's 259:lithium deuteride 226: 225: 16:(Redirected from 5496: 5189:Nevada Test Site 5153: 4711: 4704: 4697: 4688: 4661:Internet Archive 4648:Internet Archive 4635:Internet Archive 4616: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4551: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4520: 4514: 4513: 4495: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4423: 4414: 4413: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4297: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4241: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4152: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4039: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4001: 3995: 3994: 3981:The Bomb: A Life 3976: 3970: 3969: 3951: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3924:. Archived from 3913: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3862: 3853: 3844: 3843: 3842:. July 21, 2018. 3835: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3782:. Archived from 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3727: 3722:on July 12, 2011 3718:. Archived from 3707: 3701: 3700: 3675: 3666: 3665: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3621:on April 2, 2019 3607: 3601: 3600: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3571: 3569: 3560:. Archived from 3558:"Nuclear Issues" 3554: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3506: 3495: 3486: 3473: 3467: 3447: 3441: 3439: 3429: 3423: 3422: 3400: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3319: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3197: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3156:Internet Archive 3098: 3081: 3080: 3077:10.1063/1.881318 3049: 3043: 3042: 3031: 3022: 3021: 2982: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2956: 2945: 2944: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2881: 2870: 2865: 2859: 2858: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2819: 2806: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2794:Density of Steel 2785: 2779: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2742: 2731: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2709: 2684: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2641:. Archived from 2630: 2624: 2623: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2598: 2588: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2528: 2515: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2473: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2436: 2430: 2411: 2405: 2402: 2396: 2389: 2383: 2372: 2366: 2351: 2345: 2326: 2320: 2308: 2302: 2299: 2252: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2230: 2221: 2202: 2193: 2075:Marshall Islands 2020:fallout analysis 1977: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1957: 1955: 1914: 1890: 1882: 1871:Consumer Reports 1723: 1693: 1679: 1569:Operation Castle 1209: 1208: 1204: 1201: 1144:partial pressure 969:s indirect drive 968: 929:Lawson criterion 876: 866: 858: 843: 827: 547:Blast yield 480: 406: 397: 390: 381: 380: 378: 377: 376: 371: 367: 364: 363: 362: 359: 350: 349: 347: 346: 345: 340: 336: 333: 332: 331: 328: 250:Operation Castle 245:Marshall Islands 173: 171: 166: 155: 154: 152: 151: 150: 145: 141: 138: 137: 136: 133: 105:Operation Castle 74: 73: 67: 44: 32: 21: 5504: 5503: 5499: 5498: 5497: 5495: 5494: 5493: 5434: 5433: 5432: 5427: 5388:The Atomic Cafe 5332:Alvin C. Graves 5312: 5302: 5281: 5260: 5244: 5228: 5177: 5148: 5142: 5123:Upshot–Knothole 5116:Tumbler–Snapper 4720: 4715: 4653:The short film 4640:The short film 4627:The short film 4624: 4619: 4586: 4558: 4549: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4522: 4521: 4517: 4473: 4472: 4468: 4458: 4456: 4425: 4424: 4417: 4410: 4393: 4392: 4388: 4342: 4341: 4337: 4327: 4325: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4260: 4259: 4255: 4222:10.2307/3433870 4203: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4179: 4177: 4150: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4120: 4119: 4115: 4108: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4080: 4078: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4041: 4040: 4036: 4026: 4024: 4014:10.2172/4279860 4003: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3953: 3952: 3941: 3931: 3929: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3900: 3898: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3871: 3869: 3860: 3855: 3854: 3847: 3839:The Japan Times 3830: 3829: 3825: 3815: 3813: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3773: 3772: 3768: 3758: 3756: 3751:. August 1996. 3743: 3742: 3738: 3725: 3723: 3716:Honolulu Weekly 3709: 3708: 3704: 3690: 3677: 3676: 3669: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3582: 3581: 3577: 3567: 3565: 3556: 3555: 3546: 3536: 3534: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3493: 3488: 3487: 3476: 3468:(Dose given in 3464: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3431: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3402: 3401: 3392: 3382: 3380: 3379:. March 6, 1954 3371: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3317: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3291: 3290: 3286: 3276: 3274: 3265: 3264: 3260: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3227: 3226: 3222: 3212: 3210: 3199: 3198: 3191: 3181: 3179: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3120: 3102:Rhodes, Richard 3100: 3099: 3084: 3051: 3050: 3046: 3033: 3032: 3025: 2984: 2983: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2958: 2957: 2948: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2883: 2882: 2873: 2866: 2862: 2857:. Vol. Ic. 2849: 2848: 2844: 2834: 2832: 2831:. Vol. III 2821: 2820: 2809: 2799: 2797: 2787: 2786: 2782: 2772: 2770: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2744: 2743: 2734: 2724: 2722: 2721:. Vol. III 2711: 2710: 2687: 2668: 2666: 2655: 2654: 2650: 2645:on May 7, 2009. 2632: 2631: 2627: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2541: 2539: 2530: 2529: 2518: 2508: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2485: 2483: 2475: 2474: 2470: 2461: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2437: 2433: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2390: 2386: 2373: 2369: 2352: 2348: 2327: 2323: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2286: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2231: 2222: 2213: 2203: 2194: 2185: 2168:nuclear tests. 2125: 2116: 2059: 2036:Andrei Sakharov 2005:Andrei Sakharov 1990:boosted fission 1978: 1967: 1961: 1958: 1915: 1913: 1903: 1891: 1880: 1796: 1748: 1721: 1716: 1691: 1670: 1596: 1580:Alvin C. Graves 1541: 1438: 1386:TNT equivalence 1354:Kwajalein Atoll 1325: 1291: 1241: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1136: 1043:Natural uranium 1030: 1019: 1011: 971: 966: 937: 918:alpha particles 891: 884: 877: 868: 864: 859: 850: 844: 835: 828: 674: 635: 626:Greenhouse Item 591:Upshot-Knothole 568: 559: 526: 413: 393: 388: 374: 372: 368: 365: 360: 357: 355: 353: 352: 343: 341: 337: 334: 329: 326: 324: 322: 321: 281:, which led to 271:megatons of TNT 222: 221: 215: 204:Test chronology 193:megatons of TNT 169: 167: 164: 148: 146: 142: 139: 134: 131: 129: 127: 126: 83: 82: 81: 80: 77: 76: 75: 54: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5502: 5500: 5492: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5436: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5403: 5398: 5391: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5322: 5316: 5314: 5308: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5301: 5300: 5298:South Atlantic 5295: 5289: 5287: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5274: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5258: 5252: 5250: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5236: 5234: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5214:Central Nevada 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5194:Frenchman Flat 5191: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5159: 5157: 5150: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5133: 5126: 5119: 5112: 5105: 5098: 5091: 5084: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5046:Roller Coaster 5042: 5035: 5028: 5021: 5019:Project 58/58A 5016: 5011: 5006: 4999: 4992: 4985: 4978: 4971: 4964: 4957: 4950: 4943: 4936: 4929: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4906: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4885: 4878: 4871: 4864: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4831:Starfish Prime 4820: 4813: 4806: 4799: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4764: 4757: 4750: 4743: 4736: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4706: 4699: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4664: 4651: 4638: 4623: 4622:External links 4620: 4618: 4617: 4599:(1): 176–186. 4593:Health Physics 4584: 4579: 4572: 4567:Chuck Hansen, 4564: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4556: 4534: 4515: 4486:(2): 202–203. 4466: 4415: 4408: 4386: 4335: 4309: 4253: 4216:(9): 914–917. 4196: 4187: 4138: 4131: 4113: 4106: 4088: 4070:Winter, Mark. 4062: 4043:Machta, Lester 4034: 3996: 3989: 3971: 3939: 3908: 3879: 3845: 3823: 3812:. May 10, 2016 3797: 3766: 3736: 3702: 3698:j.ctt1ws7w90.9 3688: 3667: 3632: 3602: 3595: 3575: 3544: 3518: 3474: 3462: 3442: 3424: 3417: 3390: 3364: 3349: 3302: 3284: 3258: 3234: 3220: 3209:. Vol. IV 3189: 3178:. Vol. II 3161: 3118: 3082: 3044: 3023: 2977: 2965: 2946: 2932: 2914: 2871: 2860: 2842: 2807: 2780: 2755: 2732: 2685: 2681:MeasuringWorth 2675:United States 2663:MeasuringWorth 2648: 2625: 2610: 2549: 2538:. May 17, 2006 2516: 2493: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2449: 2431: 2406: 2397: 2384: 2367: 2346: 2321: 2313:high explosive 2303: 2293: 2292: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2282: 2281: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2254: 2253: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2225: 2223: 2216: 2214: 2204: 2197: 2195: 2188: 2184: 2181: 2124: 2121: 2111:hypothyroidism 2103:thyroid cancer 2058: 2057:Health impacts 2055: 2028:staging nature 2024:Joseph Rotblat 1980: 1979: 1921:"Castle Bravo" 1894: 1892: 1885: 1879: 1878:Weapon history 1876: 1863:periodic table 1836:Project Ashcan 1795: 1792: 1762:Enewetak Atoll 1747: 1744: 1715: 1712: 1669: 1666: 1658:NE, EC, and SE 1656:fishing boat. 1595: 1592: 1573:Percy Clarkson 1540: 1537: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1462:alpha particle 1437: 1434: 1358:mushroom cloud 1324: 1321: 1290: 1287: 1239: 1135: 1132: 1077:channel filler 1028: 1017: 1009: 970: 961: 936: 933: 912:. It consumes 890: 889:Jetter's cycle 887: 886: 885: 878: 871: 869: 860: 853: 851: 845: 838: 836: 829: 822: 739:B-47 Stratojet 672: 634: 631: 567: 566:Primary system 564: 561: 560: 558: 557: 554: 550: 548: 544: 543: 540: 536: 535: 532: 528: 527: 523: 522: 519: 515: 514: 511: 507: 506: 503: 499: 498: 497:Specifications 494: 493: 490: 486: 485: 482: 475: 474: 471: 467: 466: 463: 462:Unit cost 459: 458: 453: 449: 448: 445: 441: 440: 437: 433: 432: 428: 427: 419: 415: 414: 407: 399: 398: 387: 384: 255:nuclear device 224: 223: 216: 210: 209: 206: 205: 201: 200: 189: 185: 184: 179: 175: 174: 161: 157: 156: 124: 118: 117: 112: 108: 107: 102: 98: 97: 94: 90: 89: 85: 84: 78: 69: 68: 62: 61: 60: 59: 56: 55: 52:mushroom cloud 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5501: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5408: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5396: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5347:Corbin Harney 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5327: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5317: 5315: 5309: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5284: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5263: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5231: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5154: 5151: 5145: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5127: 5124: 5120: 5117: 5113: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5099: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5071: 5068: 5064: 5061: 5057: 5054: 5050: 5047: 5043: 5040: 5036: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5004: 5000: 4997: 4993: 4990: 4986: 4983: 4979: 4976: 4972: 4969: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4955: 4954:Little Feller 4951: 4948: 4944: 4941: 4937: 4934: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4917:Hardtack Teak 4914: 4913: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4886: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4869: 4865: 4862: 4858: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4776: 4775:Buster–Jangle 4772: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4758: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4700: 4698: 4693: 4692: 4689: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4672: 4668: 4665: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4652: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4631: 4626: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4577: 4573: 4570: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4559: 4546: 4545: 4538: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4519: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4467: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4434: 4429: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4390: 4387: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4339: 4336: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4257: 4254: 4249: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4197: 4191: 4188: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4142: 4139: 4134: 4128: 4125:. Wiley-VCH. 4124: 4117: 4114: 4109: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4089: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4044: 4038: 4035: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3997: 3992: 3986: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3958: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3940: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3909: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3883: 3880: 3868: 3867: 3859: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3841: 3840: 3834: 3827: 3824: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3770: 3767: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3706: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3685: 3681: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3633: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3606: 3603: 3598: 3592: 3588: 3587: 3579: 3576: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3446: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3428: 3425: 3420: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3378: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3288: 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