Charge-coupled device - Knowledge (XXG)

31: 1414: 1012:(QE) with respect to operation with a gain of unity. This effect is referred to as the Excess Noise Factor (ENF). However, at very low light levels (where the quantum efficiency is most important), it can be assumed that a pixel either contains an electron—or not. This removes the noise associated with the stochastic multiplication at the risk of counting multiple electrons in the same pixel as a single electron. To avoid multiple counts in one pixel due to coincident photons in this mode of operation, high frame rates are essential. The dispersion in the gain is shown in the graph on the right. For multiplication registers with many elements and large gains it is well modelled by the equation: 133: 445:. By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g. by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other processing. 1491:, several frames of the scene are produced. Between acquisitions, the sensor is moved in pixel dimensions, so that each point in the visual field is acquired consecutively by elements of the mask that are sensitive to the red, green, and blue components of its color. Eventually every pixel in the image has been scanned at least once in each color and the resolution of the three channels become equivalent (the resolutions of red and blue channels are quadrupled while the green channel is doubled). 454: 1402: 905: 708:

require the best possible light collection and issues of money, power and time are less important, the full-frame device is the right choice. Astronomers tend to prefer full-frame devices. The frame-transfer falls in between and was a common choice before the fill-factor issue of interline devices was addressed. Today, frame-transfer is usually chosen when an interline architecture is not available, such as in a back-illuminated device.

267:, picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild's effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2D 100 × 100 pixel device. Peter Dillon, a scientist at Kodak Research Labs, invented the first color CCD image sensor by overlaying a color filter array on this Fairchild 100 x 100 pixel Interline CCD starting in 1974. 805:

falls on a cell holding charge during the transfer. These errors are referred to as "vertical smear" and cause a strong light source to create a vertical line above and below its exact location. In addition, the CCD cannot be used to collect light while it is being read out. A faster shifting requires a faster readout, and a faster readout can introduce errors in the cell charge measurement, leading to a higher noise level.

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while a new image is integrating or exposing in the active area. Frame-transfer devices typically do not require a mechanical shutter and were a common architecture for early solid-state broadcast cameras. The downside to the frame-transfer architecture is that it requires twice the silicon real estate of an equivalent full-frame device; hence, it costs roughly twice as much.

1522: 360:. It was first publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure. The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in 4567: 523:

equilibrium is reached. In this case, the well is said to be full. The maximum capacity of each well is known as the well depth, typically about 10 electrons per pixel. CCDs are normally susceptible to ionizing radiation and energetic particles which causes noise in the output of the CCD, and this must be taken into consideration in satellites using CCDs.

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new generation of cameras capable of producing significantly less CIC, higher charge transfer efficiency and an EM gain 5 times higher than what was previously available. These advances in low-light detection lead to an effective total background noise of 0.001 electrons per pixel read, a noise floor unmatched by any other low-light imaging device.

1230: 1310: 657: 983:), with single input electrons giving many thousands of output electrons. Reading a signal from a CCD gives a noise background, typically a few electrons. In an EMCCD, this noise is superimposed on many thousands of electrons rather than a single electron; the devices' primary advantage is thus their negligible readout noise. The use of 496:. However, it takes time to reach this thermal equilibrium: up to hours in high-end scientific cameras cooled at low temperature. Initially after biasing, the holes are pushed far into the substrate, and no mobile electrons are at or near the surface; the CCD thus operates in a non-equilibrium state called deep depletion. Then, when 841:

screen. These three elements are mounted one close behind the other in the mentioned sequence. The photons which are coming from the light source fall onto the photocathode, thereby generating photoelectrons. The photoelectrons are accelerated towards the MCP by an electrical control voltage, applied

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A frame transfer CCD solves both problems: it has a shielded, not light sensitive, area containing as many cells as the area exposed to light. Typically, this area is covered by a reflective material such as aluminium. When the exposure time is up, the cells are transferred very rapidly to the hidden

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This thin layer (= 0.2–0.3 micron) is fully depleted and the accumulated photogenerated charge is kept away from the surface. This structure has the advantages of higher transfer efficiency and lower dark current, from reduced surface recombination. The penalty is smaller charge capacity, by a factor

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camcorders, and some semi-professional camcorders, use this technique, although developments in competing CMOS technology have made CMOS sensors, both with beam-splitters and Bayer filters, increasingly popular in high-end video and digital cinema cameras. Another advantage of 3CCD over a Bayer mask

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An unusual astronomical application of CCDs, called drift-scanning, uses a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky. The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed. In this

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In terms of noise, commercial EMCCD cameras typically have clock-induced charge (CIC) and dark current (dependent on the extent of cooling) that together lead to an effective readout noise ranging from 0.01 to 1 electrons per pixel read. However, recent improvements in EMCCD technology have led to a

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in its cells. After the exposure time is passed, the cells are read out one line at a time. During the readout phase, cells are shifted down the entire area of the CCD. While they are shifted, they continue to collect light. Thus, if the shifting is not fast enough, errors can result from light that

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The choice of architecture comes down to one of utility. If the application cannot tolerate an expensive, failure-prone, power-intensive mechanical shutter, an interline device is the right choice. Consumer snap-shot cameras have used interline devices. On the other hand, for those applications that

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intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor. Once the

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functionality: If the control voltage between the photocathode and the MCP is reversed, the emitted photoelectrons are not accelerated towards the MCP but return to the photocathode. Thus, no electrons are multiplied and emitted by the MCP, no electrons are going to the phosphor screen and no light

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With a frame-transfer CCD, half of the silicon area is covered by an opaque mask (typically aluminum). The image can be quickly transferred from the image area to the opaque area or storage region with acceptable smear of a few percent. That image can then be read out slowly from the storage region

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Aguilar-Arevalo, Alexis; Bertou, Xavier; Bonifazi, Carla; Cancelo, Gustavo; Castañeda, Alejandro; Vergara, Brenda Cervantes; Chavez, Claudio; D'Olivo, Juan C.; Anjos, João C. dos; Estrada, Juan; Neto, Aldo R. Fernandes (2019-11-13). "Exploring low-energy neutrino physics with the Coherent Neutrino

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When a CCD exposure is long enough, eventually the electrons that collect in the "bins" in the brightest part of the image will overflow the bin, resulting in blooming. The structure of the CCD allows the electrons to flow more easily in one direction than another, resulting in vertical streaking.

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An electron-multiplying CCD (EMCCD, also known as an L3Vision CCD, a product commercialized by e2v Ltd., GB, L3CCD or Impactron CCD, a now-discontinued product offered in the past by Texas Instruments) is a charge-coupled device in which a gain register is placed between the shift register and the

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by an equivalent amount. Modern designs have addressed this deleterious characteristic by adding microlenses on the surface of the device to direct light away from the opaque regions and on the active area. Microlenses can bring the fill factor back up to 90 percent or more depending on pixel size

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The interline architecture extends this concept one step further and masks every other column of the image sensor for storage. In this device, only one pixel shift has to occur to transfer from image area to storage area; thus, shutter times can be less than a microsecond and smear is essentially

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CCD manufacturing and operation can be optimized for different uses. The above process describes a frame transfer CCD. While CCDs may be manufactured on a heavily doped p++ wafer it is also possible to manufacture a device inside p-wells that have been placed on an n-wafer. This second method,

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a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. This led to the invention of the charge-coupled device by Boyle and Smith in 1969. They conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook,

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that serve to isolate the charge packets in one column from those in another. These channel stops are produced before the polysilicon gates are, as the LOCOS process utilizes a high-temperature step that would destroy the gate material. The channel stops are parallel to, and exclusive of, the

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or liquid nitrogen—to cool the chip down to temperatures in the range of −65 to −95 °C (−85 to −139 °F). This cooling system adds additional costs to the EMCCD imaging system and may yield condensation problems in the application. However, high-end EMCCD cameras are equipped with a

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The last three processes are known as dark-current generation, and add noise to the image; they can limit the total usable integration time. The accumulation of electrons at or near the surface can proceed either until image integration is over and charge begins to be transferred, or thermal

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Aguilar-Arevalo, A.; Amidei, D.; Baxter, D.; Cancelo, G.; Vergara, B. A. Cervantes; Chavarria, A. E.; Darragh-Ford, E.; Neto, J. R. T. de Mello; D'Olivo, J. C.; Estrada, J.; Gaïor, R. (2019-10-31). "Constraints on Light Dark Matter Particles Interacting with Electrons from DAMIC at SNOLAB".

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The low-light capabilities of EMCCDs find use in astronomy and biomedical research, among other fields. In particular, their low noise at high readout speeds makes them very useful for a variety of astronomical applications involving low light sources and transient events such as

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between photocathode and MCP. The electrons are multiplied inside of the MCP and thereafter accelerated towards the phosphor screen. The phosphor screen finally converts the multiplied electrons back to photons which are guided to the CCD by a fiber optic or a lens.

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is another instrument operating in this mode, rotating about its axis at a constant rate of 1 revolution in 6 hours and scanning a 360° by 0.5° strip on the sky during this time; a star traverses the entire focal plane in about 40 seconds (effective exposure time).

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area. Here, safe from any incoming light, cells can be read out at any speed one deems necessary to correctly measure the cells' charge. At the same time, the exposed part of the CCD is collecting light again, so no delay occurs between successive exposures.

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there is a dispersion (variation) in the number of electrons output by the multiplication register for a given (fixed) number of input electrons (shown in the legend on the right). The probability distribution for the number of output electrons is plotted

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Digital color cameras, including the digital color cameras in smartphones, generally use an integral color image sensor, which has a color filter array fabricated on top of the monochrome pixels of the CCD. The most popular CFA pattern is known as the

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The CCD image sensors can be implemented in several different architectures. The most common are full-frame, frame-transfer, and interline. The distinguishing characteristic of each of these architectures is their approach to the problem of shuttering.

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may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter such effects, astronomers take several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise. Once developed, the

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is 100%, one generated electron per incident photon), linearity of their outputs, ease of use compared to photographic plates, and a variety of other reasons, CCDs were very rapidly adopted by astronomers for nearly all UV-to-infrared applications.

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often require sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations from wind and other sources, along with the tremendous weight of most imaging platforms. To take long exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as

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ICCD cameras are in general somewhat higher in price than EMCCD cameras because they need the expensive image intensifier. On the other hand, EMCCD cameras need a cooling system to cool the EMCCD chip down to temperatures around

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The clocking of the gates, alternately high and low, will forward and reverse bias the diode that is provided by the buried channel (n-doped) and the epitaxial layer (p-doped). This will cause the CCD to deplete, near the

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technology was a simple 8-bit shift register, reported by Tompsett, Amelio and Smith in August 1970. This device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight

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Because of the lower costs and better resolution, EMCCDs are capable of replacing ICCDs in many applications. ICCDs still have the advantage that they can be gated very fast and thus are useful in applications like

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linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate. By 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including

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are generated in the depletion region, they are separated by the electric field, the electrons move toward the surface, and the holes move toward the substrate. Four pair-generation processes can be identified:

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However, the large quality advantage CCDs enjoyed early on has narrowed over time and since the late 2010s CMOS sensors are the dominant technology, having largely if not completely replaced CCD image sensors.

1480:(higher light sensitivity), because most of the light from the lens enters one of the silicon sensors, while a Bayer mask absorbs a high proportion (more than 2/3) of the light falling on each pixel location. 686:

In a full-frame device, all of the image area is active, and there is no electronic shutter. A mechanical shutter must be added to this type of sensor or the image smears as the device is clocked or read out.

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array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a

746:(or near zero lux) video-recording/photography. For normal silicon-based detectors, the sensitivity is limited to 1.1 μm. One other consequence of their sensitivity to infrared is that infrared from 104:

Although CCDs are not the only technology to allow for light detection, CCD image sensors are widely used in professional, medical, and scientific applications where high-quality image data are required.

1225:{\displaystyle P\left(n\right)={\frac {\left(n-m+1\right)^{m-1}}{\left(m-1\right)!\left(g-1+{\frac {1}{m}}\right)^{m}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {n-m+1}{g-1+{\frac {1}{m}}}}\right)\quad {\text{ if }}n\geq m} 850:

is emitted from the image intensifier. In this case no light falls onto the CCD, which means that the shutter is closed. The process of reversing the control voltage at the photocathode is called

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Another version of CCD is called a peristaltic CCD. In a peristaltic charge-coupled device, the charge-packet transfer operation is analogous to the peristaltic contraction and dilation of the

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Tompsett, M.F.; Amelio, G.F.; Bertram, W.J. Jr.; Buckley, R.R.; McNamara, W.J.; Mikkelsen, J.C. Jr.; Sealer, D.A. (November 1971). "Charge-coupled imaging devices: Experimental results".

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Channel stops often have a p+ doped region underlying them, providing a further barrier to the electrons in the charge packets (this discussion of the physics of CCD devices assumes an

2357: 2073: 1369:. Most autoguiders use a second CCD chip to monitor deviations during imaging. This chip can rapidly detect errors in tracking and command the mount motors to correct for them. 413:(yellow) created by applying positive voltage at the gate electrodes (G). Applying positive voltage to the gate electrode in the correct sequence transfers the charge packets. 4473: 796:

The normal functioning of a CCD, astronomical or otherwise, can be divided into two phases: exposure and readout. During the first phase, the CCD passively collects incoming

317:. Before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982. Subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. The first mass-produced consumer CCD 2806: 2283: 1505:

Sensors (CCD / CMOS) come in various sizes, or image sensor formats. These sizes are often referred to with an inch fraction designation such as 1/1.8″ or 2/3″ called the

1342:, hot pixels, etc.) in the CCD. Newer Skipper CCDs counter noise by collecting data with the same collected charge multiple times and has applications in precision light 981: 757:, improving the sensitivity of the CCD to low light intensities, even for ultraviolet and visible wavelengths. Professional observatories often cool their detectors with 4420: 2669:

Deckert, V.; Kiefer, W. (1992). "Scanning multichannel technique for improved spectrochemical measurements with a CCD camera and its application to Raman spectroscopy".

182:. They realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to 648:

interface and generates a large lateral electric field from one gate to the next. This provides an additional driving force to aid in transfer of the charge packets.

30: 488:-doped or intrinsic. The gate is then biased at a positive potential, above the threshold for strong inversion, which will eventually result in the creation of an 1634: 857:

Besides the extremely high sensitivity of ICCD cameras, which enable single photon detection, the gateability is one of the major advantages of the ICCD over the

290:. To further reduce smear from bright light sources, the frame-interline-transfer (FIT) CCD architecture was developed by K. Horii, T. Kuroda and T. Kunii at 4463: 4415: 1277:

and high-resolution spectroscopy. More recently, these types of CCDs have broken into the field of biomedical research in low-light applications including

390: 1413: 4200: 594:, and etched in such a way that the separately phased gates lie perpendicular to the channels. The channels are further defined by utilization of the 97:, the basic building blocks of a CCD, are biased above the threshold for inversion when image acquisition begins, allowing the conversion of incoming 2223: 1629: 1422: 3065: 2411: 551:

material, often p++. In buried-channel devices, the type of design utilized in most modern CCDs, certain areas of the surface of the silicon are

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Some anti-blooming features that can be built into a CCD reduce its sensitivity to light by using some of the pixel area for a drain structure.

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information is collected in each row and column using a checkerboard pattern, and the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution.

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An intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) is a CCD that is optically connected to an image intensifier that is mounted in front of the CCD.

393:, for pioneering work and electronic technologies including the design and development of the first CCD imagers. He was also awarded the 2012 3171: 2918: 2379: 2317: 2160: 1821: 286:

The interline transfer (ILT) CCD device was proposed by L. Walsh and R. Dyck at Fairchild in 1973 to reduce smear and eliminate a mechanical

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gain that has been applied to a pixel's charge is impossible to know. At high gains (> 30), this uncertainty has the same effect on the

2192:; Kohono, A.; Ishihara, Yasuo; Oda, E.; Arai, K. (December 1982). "No image lag photodiode structure in the interline CCD image sensor". 2063: 1537:

developed a vertical anti-blooming drain that would not detract from the light collection area, and so did not reduce light sensitivity.

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The disadvantage of such a CCD is the higher cost: the cell area is basically doubled, and more complex control electronics are needed.

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started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their

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The frame transfer CCD imager was the first imaging structure proposed for CCD Imaging by Michael Tompsett at Bell Laboratories. A

1662: 1357:, in particular, has a highly developed series of steps ("data reduction pipeline") to convert the raw CCD data to useful images. 877:). This cooling system adds additional costs to the EMCCD camera and often yields heavy condensation problems in the application. 4138: 2803: 1390: 183: 4430: 3924: 900:. The high voltages used in these serial transfers induce the creation of additional charge carriers through impact ionisation. 432:

onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the

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output amplifier. The gain register is split up into a large number of stages. In each stage, the electrons are multiplied by

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has greater acuity for luminance, which is more heavily weighted in green than in either red or blue). As a result, the

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eliminated. The advantage is not free, however, as the imaging area is now covered by opaque strips dropping the

587: 4344: 3939: 3667: 3459: 1896: 1374: 1314: 1248:. For very large numbers of input electrons, this complex distribution function converges towards a Gaussian. 225: 132: 1436:. In the Bayer pattern, each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green pixels (the 1377:

is the most famous example of this, using the technique to produce a survey of over a quarter of the sky. The

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to the CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low

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into electron charges at the semiconductor-oxide interface; the CCD is then used to read out these charges.

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The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on an

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in 1980. They recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the

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techniques thanks to greater SNR in low-light conditions in comparison with traditional CCDs and ICCDs.

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and red response. This method of manufacture is used in the construction of interline-transfer devices.

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For still scenes, for instance in microscopy, the resolution of a Bayer mask device can be enhanced by

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Electrons are transferred serially through the gain stages making up the multiplication register of an

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and will collect and move the charge packets beneath the gates—and within the channels—of the device.

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for "pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras and thermal imagers".

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on the vertical axis for a simulation of a multiplication register. Also shown are results from the

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M. F. Tompsett; G. F. Amelio; G. E. Smith (1 August 1970). "Charge Coupled 8-bit Shift Register".

938:< 2%), but as the number of elements is large (N > 500), the overall gain can be very high ( 453: 4583: 4547: 4359: 4022: 3972: 3797: 3652: 3611: 3591: 3529: 3484: 3449: 3424: 2981: 2946: 2767: 2694: 2592: 2556: 2502: 2460: 2205: 2189: 2144: 2038: 1578: 1477: 1322: 1286: 1009: 941: 700: 506: 353: 337: 306: 246: 51: 1385:

In addition to imagers, CCDs are also used in an array of analytical instrumentation including

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often appears on CCD-based digital cameras or camcorders if they do not have infrared blockers.

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Auvergne, Michel; Ecoffet, Robert; Bardoux, Alain; Gilard, Olivier; Penquer, Antoine (2017).

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light (meaning a quantum efficiency of about 70 percent) making them far more efficient than

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Daigle, Olivier; Djazovski, Oleg; Laurin, Denis; Doyon, René; Artigau, Étienne (July 2012).

2365: 2259: 2197: 2030: 1995: 1960: 1912: 1874: 1811: 1731: 1612: 1606: 1600: 1594: 1488: 1361: 644:. The peristaltic CCD has an additional implant that keeps the charge away from the silicon/ 641: 591: 552: 438: 2286:

specifies a dark current of 0.3 electron per pixel per hour at −110 °C (−166 °F).

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x80 microscope view of an RGGB Bayer filter on a 240 line Sony CCD PAL Camcorder CCD sensor

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way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view. The

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into the depletion region; in n-channel CCDs, the silicon under the bias gate is slightly

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and George Smith in April 1970. This was the first experimental application of the CCD in

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Dillon, P.L.P.; Brault, A.T.; Horak, J.R.; Garcia, E.; Martin, T.W.; Light, W.A. (1976).

723:, and video cameras as light-sensing devices. They commonly respond to 70 percent of the 2728: 2682: 2474: 1991: 1956: 1870: 1401: 4595: 4166: 3992: 3934: 3702: 3383: 3289: 3274: 3269: 3164: 2971: 2961: 2951: 1916: 1878: 1534: 1506: 1452: 1274: 747: 716: 422: 195: 109: 1471:

components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color. Many

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pixels) technology for imaging was launched in December 1976. Under the leadership of

198:. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a 108:

In applications with less exacting quality demands, such as consumer and professional

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from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects (

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from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the

4590: 4485: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4324: 4210: 4205: 3859: 3579: 3549: 3331: 3326: 3309: 3154: 2976: 2966: 2956: 2715:(1993). "On a generalized interference equation and interferometric measurements". 2712: 2482: 1429: 1406: 1386: 830: 739: 724: 599: 318: 298: 229: 75: 2401:"CCD Radiation Effects and Test Issues for Satellite Designers (Review Draft 1.0)" 1261:

permanent hermetic vacuum system confining the chip to avoid condensation issues.

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cameras. The highest performing ICCD cameras enable shutter times as short as 200

4490: 4354: 4349: 4282: 4195: 4032: 4007: 3837: 3832: 3817: 3672: 3554: 3534: 3403: 3304: 3196: 3159: 3129: 3082: 3050: 3045: 3006: 2927: 2570: 1903:(April 1970). "Experimental Verification of the Charge Coupled Device Concept". 1433: 1343: 676: 583: 372: 329: 117: 35: 4542: 2751: 2521: 2022: 1857:

W. S. Boyle; G. E. Smith (April 1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices".

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Due to the high quantum efficiencies of charge-coupled device (CCD) (the ideal

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The initial paper describing the concept in April 1970 listed possible uses as

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for their invention of the CCD concept. Michael Tompsett was awarded the 2010

345: 321:, the CCD-G5, was released by Sony in 1983, based on a prototype developed by 238: 232:

technology, and used a depleted MOS structure as the photodetector. The first

221: 90: 2763: 2690: 2588: 2490: 2201: 2120:

We Were Burning: Japanese Entrepreneurs and the Forging of the Electronic Age

2034: 2007: 734:

Most common types of CCDs are sensitive to near-infrared light, which allows

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U.S. Patent 4,484,210: Solid-state imaging device having a reduced image lag

2152: 1999: 1658: 1521: 1441: 1437: 914: 786: 661: 573: 560: 532: 468: 464: 314: 291: 178:

at Bell Labs were researching MOS technology while working on semiconductor

144: 58:. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its 55: 2626: 2498: 1575:– The prevailing video capture technology prior to the introduction of CCDs 1309: 461: 194:, a delay line, and an imaging device. The device could also be used as a 17: 3987: 3802: 3299: 3229: 3097: 3018: 3013: 2886: 1347: 838: 801: 634: 614: 460:

ICX493AQA 10.14-megapixel APS-C (23.4 × 15.6 mm) CCD from digital camera

2579: 4027: 3176: 3122: 2655: 2642:"Retouching of astronomical data for the production of outreach images" 2370: 874: 773: 536: 481: 442: 418: 371:. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then 217: 207: 62:

to a neighboring capacitor. CCD sensors are a major technology used in

2094: 1964: 3574: 2991: 2941: 987:

for amplification of photo charges had already been described in the

870: 797: 493: 233: 98: 656: 301:

reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array (

220:

surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. It was demonstrated by

2611: 2561: 2465: 4242: 3657: 3117: 2430:"Characterization results of EMCCDs for extreme low light imaging" 1720:"A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors" 1520: 1464: 1456: 1412: 1400: 1308: 903: 891: 772: 712: 670: 655: 606: 595: 544: 452: 433: 404: 272: 251: 79: 29: 2342: 2064:"Kodak engineer had revolutionary idea: the first digital camera" 1256:. EMCCD cameras indispensably need a cooling system—using either 1244:

input electrons and a total mean multiplication register gain of

417:

In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an

2360:. In Cugny, Bruno; Karafolas, Nikos; Armandillo, Errico (eds.). 1509:. This measurement originates back in the 1950s and the time of 1468: 1448: 934:. The gain probability at every stage of the register is small ( 457: 310: 2900: 1782:"1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" 2896: 1460: 743: 341: 260: 1447:

Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices (

731:, which captures only about 2 percent of the incident light. 34:

A specially developed CCD in a wire-bonded package used for

829:

An image intensifier includes three functional elements: a

421:

layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a

854:

and therefore ICCDs are also called gateable CCD cameras.

2399:

Marshall, Cheryl J.; Marshall, Paul W. (6 October 2003).

1317:

telescope imaging camera, an example of "drift-scanning".

793:, designed for high exposure efficiency and correctness. 480:

Before the MOS capacitors are exposed to light, they are

993:

in 1973 by George E. Smith/Bell Telephone Laboratories.

579:, is grown on top of the epitaxial layer and substrate. 2752:"Integral color filter arrays for solid state imagers" 2023:"Integral color filter arrays for solid state imagers" 997: 409:

The charge packets (electrons, blue) are collected in

332:. This was largely resolved with the invention of the 4531: 1020: 944: 2362:

International Conference on Space Optics — ICSO 2012

617:

transfer device, though hole transfer is possible).

4456: 4403: 4308: 4251: 4157: 4041: 3953: 3905: 3645: 3412: 3212: 2934: 1432:, which is named for its inventor, Kodak scientist 563:details the advantages of a buried-channel device: 1224: 975: 531:The photoactive region of a CCD is, generally, an 378:In January 2006, Boyle and Smith were awarded the 120:(complementary MOS sensors), are generally used. 1757:The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future 159:being the basic building blocks of a CCD, and a 2844:Solid-State Imaging With Charge-Coupled Devices 1635:Category: Digital cameras with CCD image sensor 761:to reduce the dark current, and therefore the 699:to approximately 50 percent and the effective 2912: 1667:Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology 909: 897: 858: 8: 1724:IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1697: 27:Device for the movement of electrical charge 4464:Conservation and restoration of photographs 2821:Thomas J. Fellers and Michael W. Davidson. 2756:1976 International Electron Devices Meeting 2194:1982 International Electron Devices Meeting 2095:"NRO review and redaction guide (2006 ed.)" 2027:1976 International Electron Devices Meeting 1336:dark frame average image is then subtracted 845:An image intensifier inherently includes a 568:of 2–3 compared to the surface-channel CCD. 391:National Medal of Technology and Innovation 54:containing an array of linked, or coupled, 4201:Comparison of digital and film photography 2919: 2905: 2897: 2547:Nucleus Interaction Experiment (CONNIE)". 2408:NASA/GSFC Radiation Effects & Analysis 2282:For instance, the specsheet of PI/Acton's 1749: 1747: 340:, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at 4421:Photographs considered the most important 2578: 2560: 2464: 2369: 2145:"Microelectronics for Home Entertainment" 1735: 1208: 1189: 1157: 1134: 1119: 1066: 1038: 1019: 967: 943: 704:and the overall system's optical design. 271:, an electrical engineer working for the 2804:"Why, King Triton, how nice to see you!" 1718:Fossum, E. R.; Hondongwa, D. B. (2014). 1630:List of digital cameras with CCD sensors 1423:List of digital cameras with CCD sensors 884:and in various scientific applications. 675:One-dimensional CCD image sensor from a 610:channel, or "charge carrying", regions. 131: 4538: 1647: 2882:Concepts in Digital Imaging Technology 2296: 2294: 2292: 2877:Nikon microscopy introduction to CCDs 1980:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 1653: 1651: 996:EMCCDs show a similar sensitivity to 7: 2610:Hainaut, Oliver R. (December 2006). 2364:. SPIE Digital Library. p. 12. 2358:"Radiation effects on image sensors" 2076:from the original on 25 January 2012 1293:as well as a wide variety of modern 785:is a specialized CCD, often used in 385:, and in 2009 they were awarded the 4416:Museums devoted to one photographer 2640:Hainaut, Oliver R. (May 20, 2009). 2625:Hainaut, Oliver R. (June 1, 2005). 512:generation in the depletion region, 441:, which converts the charge into a 3963:Timeline of photography technology 2417:from the original on Feb 14, 2024. 2388:from the original on Mar 21, 2022. 2100:. National Reconnaissance Office. 1917:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01791.x 1879:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01790.x 1487:technology. During the process of 605:Channel stops are thermally grown 25: 2872:Journal Article On Basics of CCDs 2654:(Hainaut is an astronomer at the 2149:The Computer Engineering Handbook 2147:. In Oklobdzija, Vojin G. (ed.). 1813:Scientific charge-coupled devices 816:Intensified charge-coupled device 4589: 4577: 4565: 4553: 4541: 4514: 4504: 4503: 2841:Albert J. P. Theuwissen (1995). 2792:"The Planet X Saga: SOHO Images" 2341:. March 29, 2001. Archived from 2306:Physics of semiconductor devices 2107:from the original on 2007-07-15. 2062:Dobbin, Ben (8 September 2005). 921:fit equation shown on this page. 428:An image is projected through a 328:Early CCD sensors suffered from 245:The first working CCD made with 4515: 1615:– Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras 1609:- Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras 1603:- Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras 1597:– Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras 1207: 518:generation in the neutral bulk. 505:photo-generation (up to 95% of 492:channel below the gate as in a 380:National Academy of Engineering 275:Apparatus Division, invented a 2847:. Springer. pp. 177–180. 2483:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.181802 1236:is the probability of getting 964: 951: 515:generation at the surface, and 425:(the CCD, properly speaking). 206:(BBD), which was developed at 1: 4013:Painted photography backdrops 3945:Golden triangle (composition) 3220:35 mm equivalent focal length 2823:"CCD Saturation and Blooming" 2656:European Southern Observatory 2627:"Signal, Noise and Detection" 1661:; Lee, Ming-Kwei (May 2012). 1313:Array of 30 CCDs used on the 449:Detailed physics of operation 151:The basis for the CCD is the 2737:10.1016/0030-4018(93)90634-H 2612:"Basic CCD image processing" 2224:"Charles Stark Draper Award" 1453:dichroic beam splitter prism 753:Cooling reduces the array's 3723:Intentional camera movement 2887:More statistical properties 2571:10.1103/PhysRevD.100.092005 2143:Hagiwara, Yoshiaki (2001). 1291:super resolution microscopy 1269:of faint stars, high speed 976:{\displaystyle g=(1+P)^{N}} 777:A frame transfer CCD sensor 629:reportedly, reduces smear, 187:"Charge 'Bubble' Devices". 4658: 4411:Most expensive photographs 3768:Multi-exposure HDR capture 2069:Seattle Post-Intelligencer 1810:James R. Janesick (2001). 1663:"MOS Capacitor and MOSFET" 1619:Time delay and integration 1498: 1420: 819: 791:professional video cameras 383:Charles Stark Draper Prize 336:(PPD). It was invented by 279:using this same Fairchild 163:MOS structure used as the 143:, 2009, photographed on a 4499: 2122:. New York: Basic Books. 1816:. SPIE Press. p. 4. 1760:. Springer. p. 245. 1737:10.1109/JEDS.2014.2306412 711:CCDs containing grids of 588:chemical vapor deposition 572:The gate oxide, i.e. the 294:(now Panasonic) in 1981. 153:metal–oxide–semiconductor 147:, which uses a CCD sensor 87:metal–oxide–semiconductor 4345:Digital image processing 2892:L3CCDs used in astronomy 2764:10.1109/IEDM.1976.189067 2691:10.1366/0003702924125500 2260:"Charge-Coupled Devices" 2202:10.1109/IEDM.1982.190285 2035:10.1109/IEDM.1976.189067 1897:Michael Francis Tompsett 1754:Williams, J. B. (2017). 1375:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 1315:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 1275:Fabry-Pérot spectroscopy 888:Electron-multiplying CCD 765:, to negligible levels. 527:Design and manufacturing 226:Michael Francis Tompsett 4018:Photography and the law 2453:Physical Review Letters 2021:Dillon, P.L.P. (1976). 2000:10.1109/T-ED.1971.17321 1945:Applied Physics Letters 1790:Computer History Museum 1625:Glossary of video terms 1584:Hole accumulation diode 1295:fluorescence microscopy 1283:single-molecule imaging 1240:output electrons given 930:in a similar way to an 598:process to produce the 586:gates are deposited by 387:Nobel Prize for Physics 257:Fairchild Semiconductor 210:during the late 1960s. 4365:Gelatin silver process 3389:Science of photography 3374:Photographic processes 3352:Perspective distortion 2828:July 27, 2012, at the 2304:; Ng, Kwok K. (2007). 2118:Johnstone, B. (1999). 1568:Superconducting camera 1526: 1489:color co-site sampling 1418: 1410: 1355:Hubble Space Telescope 1318: 1258:thermoelectric cooling 1226: 977: 922: 901: 778: 679: 668: 582:Later in the process, 570: 547:) and is grown upon a 472: 414: 167:in early CCD devices. 155:(MOS) structure, with 148: 39: 3823:Schlieren photography 3362:Photographic printing 3285:Exposure compensation 2242:"Nobel Prize website" 1931:U.S. patent 4,085,456 1845:U.S. patent 3,796,927 1839:U.S. patent 3,792,322 1671:John Wiley & Sons 1558:Angle-sensitive pixel 1524: 1416: 1404: 1312: 1227: 1008:(SNR) as halving the 1006:signal-to-noise ratio 990:U.S. patent 3,761,744 978: 907: 895: 776: 674: 659: 565: 456: 408: 369:digital still cameras 239:U.S. patent 4,085,456 208:Philips Research Labs 204:bucket-brigade device 135: 44:charge-coupled device 33: 4637:Astronomical imaging 3607:Straight photography 3245:Chromatic aberration 2758:. pp. 400–403. 2196:. pp. 324–327. 2029:. pp. 400–403. 1893:Gilbert Frank Amelio 1563:Rotating line camera 1379:Gaia space telescope 1360:CCD cameras used in 1279:small animal imaging 1018: 942: 882:night vision devices 736:infrared photography 543:doped (usually with 277:digital still camera 114:active pixel sensors 4617:Integrated circuits 4612:American inventions 4474:photographic plates 4159:Digital photography 3337:Hyperfocal distance 3250:Circle of confusion 2729:1993OptCo.103....8D 2683:1992ApSpe..46..322D 2475:2019PhRvL.123r1802A 2310:John Wiley and Sons 2265:Scientific American 2190:Teranishi, Nobuzaku 1992:1971ITED...18..992T 1957:1970ApPhL..17..111T 1871:1970BSTJ...49..587B 1501:Image sensor format 1254:range-gated imaging 985:avalanche breakdown 835:micro-channel plate 498:electron–hole pairs 401:Basics of operation 362:consumer electronic 170:In the late 1960s, 82:are represented by 3978:Autochrome Lumière 3973:Analog photography 3798:Pigeon photography 3587:Social documentary 3066:discontinued films 2809:2012-09-04 at the 2371:10.1117/12.2309026 2339:Apogee Instruments 1905:Bell Syst. Tech. J 1859:Bell Syst. Tech. J 1786:The Silicon Engine 1579:Wide dynamic range 1527: 1478:quantum efficiency 1473:professional video 1455:, that splits the 1419: 1411: 1329:Thermal noise and 1323:quantum efficiency 1319: 1287:Raman spectroscopy 1222: 1010:quantum efficiency 973: 923: 902: 880:ICCDs are used in 783:frame transfer CCD 779: 769:Frame transfer CCD 742:devices, and zero 701:quantum efficiency 680: 669: 507:quantum efficiency 473: 415: 354:quantum efficiency 338:Nobukazu Teranishi 247:integrated circuit 149: 52:integrated circuit 40: 4529: 4528: 4330:Collodion process 4266:Chromogenic print 4253:Color photography 3763:Multiple exposure 3738:Lo-fi photography 3265:Color temperature 2549:Physical Review D 2381:978-1-5106-1617-2 2319:978-0-471-14323-9 2258:(February 1974). 2256:Gilbert F. Amelio 2162:978-0-8493-0885-7 2155:. pp. 41–6. 1965:10.1063/1.1653327 1823:978-0-8194-3698-6 1573:Video camera tube 1476:device is higher 1211: 1200: 1197: 1141: 1127: 928:impact ionization 822:Image intensifier 729:photographic film 590:, patterned with 476:Charge generation 395:IEEE Edison Medal 334:pinned photodiode 323:Yoshiaki Hagiwara 265:Texas Instruments 16:(Redirected from 4649: 4622:Image processing 4594: 4593: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4570: 4569: 4568: 4558: 4557: 4546: 4545: 4537: 4518: 4517: 4507: 4506: 4385:Print permanence 4335:Cross processing 4293:CMYK color model 4278:Color management 4231:Foveon X3 sensor 4226:Three-CCD camera 3870:Miniature faking 3828:Sabattier effect 3440:Astrophotography 3295:Zebra patterning 2921: 2914: 2907: 2898: 2859: 2858: 2838: 2832: 2819: 2813: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2782: 2781: 2779: 2778: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2666: 2660: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2582: 2564: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2468: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2434: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2405: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2373: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2331: 2325: 2323: 2298: 2287: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2252: 2246: 2245: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2226:. 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It is lightly 439:charge amplifier 304: 282: 241: 116:, also known as 21: 4657: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4602: 4601: 4600: 4588: 4578: 4576: 4566: 4564: 4552: 4540: 4532: 4530: 4525: 4495: 4452: 4399: 4390:Push processing 4311: 4304: 4298:RGB color model 4247: 4153: 4037: 3949: 3915:Diagonal method 3901: 3641: 3545:Photojournalism 3408: 3240:Black-and-white 3208: 3187:Slide projector 3182:Movie projector 3061:available films 2930: 2925: 2868: 2863: 2862: 2855: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2830:Wayback Machine 2820: 2816: 2811:Wayback Machine 2801: 2797: 2789: 2785: 2776: 2774: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2711: 2710: 2706: 2671:Appl. Spectrosc 2668: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2653: 2646: 2644: 2639: 2638: 2631: 2629: 2624: 2623: 2616: 2614: 2609: 2608: 2604: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2530: 2528: 2520:Abramoff, Orr. 2519: 2518: 2514: 2449: 2448: 2444: 2432: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2414: 2403: 2398: 2397: 2393: 2382: 2355: 2354: 2350: 2345:on Jun 5, 2002. 2335:"Pixel Binning" 2333: 2332: 2328: 2320: 2300: 2299: 2290: 2281: 2277: 2254: 2253: 2249: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2188: 2187: 2183: 2175: 2174: 2170: 2163: 2142: 2141: 2137: 2130: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2104: 2097: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2079: 2077: 2061: 2060: 2056: 2047: 2045: 2020: 2019: 2015: 1986:(11): 992–996. 1977: 1976: 1972: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1929: 1928: 1924: 1901:George E. Smith 1891: 1890: 1886: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1843: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1824: 1809: 1808: 1804: 1794: 1792: 1780: 1779: 1775: 1768: 1753: 1752: 1745: 1717: 1716: 1695: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1657: 1656: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1590:Multi-layer CCD 1543: 1519: 1503: 1497: 1425: 1399: 1391:interferometers 1307: 1271:photon counting 1176: 1159: 1153: 1149: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1083: 1079: 1078: 1045: 1041: 1040: 1024: 1016: 1015: 988: 963: 940: 939: 932:avalanche diode 915:logarithmically 890: 824: 818: 771: 759:liquid nitrogen 748:remote controls 717:digital cameras 660:CCD from a 2.1- 654: 646:silicon dioxide 529: 478: 451: 411:potential wells 403: 302: 280: 237: 176:George E. Smith 137:George E. Smith 130: 110:digital cameras 72: 64:digital imaging 60:electric charge 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4655: 4653: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4632:Image scanners 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4598: 4586: 4574: 4562: 4550: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4523: 4512: 4500: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4477: 4476: 4471: 4460: 4458: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4407: 4405: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4316: 4314: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4301: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4275: 4270: 4269: 4268: 4257: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4246: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4234: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4192: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4180: 4179: 4167:Digital camera 4163: 4161: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3993:Camera obscura 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3935:Rule of thirds 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3911: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3862: 3857: 3856: 3855: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3703:Harris shutter 3700: 3698:Hand-colouring 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3649: 3647: 3643: 3642: 3640: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3583: 3582: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3416: 3414: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3384:Red-eye effect 3381: 3376: 3371: 3370: 3369: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3290:Exposure value 3287: 3282: 3277: 3275:Depth of focus 3272: 3270:Depth of field 3267: 3262: 3257: 3252: 3247: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3209: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3200: 3199: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3168: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3127: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3075: 3070: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3033: 3028: 3027: 3026: 3021: 3011: 3010: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2938: 2936: 2932: 2931: 2926: 2924: 2923: 2916: 2909: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2867: 2866:External links 2864: 2861: 2860: 2853: 2833: 2814: 2795: 2783: 2742: 2704: 2677:(2): 322–328. 2661: 2602: 2538: 2512: 2459:(18): 181802. 2442: 2437:auniontech.com 2420: 2391: 2380: 2348: 2326: 2318: 2308:(3 ed.). 2288: 2284:SPEC-10 camera 2275: 2247: 2233: 2230:on 2007-12-28. 2215: 2181: 2168: 2161: 2135: 2128: 2110: 2086: 2054: 2013: 1970: 1951:(3): 111–115. 1935: 1922: 1911:(4): 593–600. 1884: 1865:(4): 587–593. 1849: 1829: 1822: 1802: 1773: 1766: 1743: 1693: 1679: 1659:Sze, Simon Min 1646: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1598: 1592: 1587: 1581: 1576: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1535:James M. Early 1525:Vertical smear 1518: 1515: 1507:optical format 1499:Main article: 1496: 1493: 1398: 1395: 1350:measurements. 1306: 1303: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1210: if 1205: 1196: 1193: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1145: 1137: 1132: 1126: 1123: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1044: 1037: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1023: 970: 966: 962: 959: 956: 953: 950: 947: 889: 886: 820:Main article: 817: 814: 770: 767: 667:digital camera 653: 650: 528: 525: 520: 519: 516: 513: 510: 477: 474: 450: 447: 423:shift register 402: 399: 196:shift register 157:MOS capacitors 129: 126: 95:MOS capacitors 71: 68: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4654: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4627:Image sensors 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4585: 4575: 4573: 4563: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4522: 4513: 4511: 4502: 4501: 4498: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4466: 4465: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4455: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4427: 4426:Photographers 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4406: 4402: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4320:Bleach bypass 4318: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4307: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4288:primary color 4286: 4284: 4281: 4280: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4273:Reversal film 4271: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4262: 4259: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4250: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4238:Image sharing 4236: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4139:United States 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3998:Daguerreotype 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3854: 3851: 3850: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3843:Stopping down 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3808:Rephotography 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3743:Long-exposure 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3435:Architectural 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3394:Shutter speed 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3368: 3365: 3364: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3347:Metering mode 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3261: 3260:Color balance 3258: 3256: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3225:Angle of view 3223: 3221: 3218: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3195: 3194: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3172:Manufacturers 3170: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3071: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3038: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2922: 2917: 2915: 2910: 2908: 2903: 2902: 2899: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2865: 2856: 2854:9780792334569 2850: 2846: 2845: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2818: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2805: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2787: 2784: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2746: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2723:(1–2): 8–14. 2722: 2718: 2714: 2713:Duarte, F. J. 2708: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2662: 2657: 2643: 2628: 2613: 2606: 2603: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2555:(9): 092005. 2554: 2550: 2542: 2539: 2527: 2523: 2522:"Skipper CCD" 2516: 2513: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2443: 2438: 2431: 2424: 2421: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2395: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2352: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2330: 2327: 2324:Chapter 13.6. 2321: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2279: 2276: 2271: 2267: 2266: 2261: 2257: 2251: 2248: 2243: 2237: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2216: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2185: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2164: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2136: 2131: 2129:0-465-09117-2 2125: 2121: 2114: 2111: 2103: 2096: 2090: 2087: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2058: 2055: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2017: 2014: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1974: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1926: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1853: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1833: 1830: 1825: 1819: 1815: 1814: 1806: 1803: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1774: 1769: 1767:9783319490885 1763: 1759: 1758: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1738: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1682: 1680:9780470537947 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1641: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1531: 1523: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1511:Vidicon tubes 1508: 1502: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1485:microscanning 1481: 1479: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1415: 1408: 1403: 1397:Color cameras 1396: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1387:spectrometers 1383: 1380: 1376: 1370: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1346:searches and 1345: 1341: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1324: 1316: 1311: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1267:lucky imaging 1262: 1259: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1203: 1194: 1191: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1143: 1135: 1130: 1124: 1121: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1042: 1035: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 991: 986: 968: 960: 957: 954: 948: 945: 937: 933: 929: 920: 916: 911: 906: 899: 894: 887: 885: 883: 878: 876: 872: 866: 864: 860: 855: 853: 848: 843: 840: 836: 832: 827: 823: 815: 813: 810: 806: 803: 799: 794: 792: 788: 784: 775: 768: 766: 764: 763:thermal noise 760: 756: 751: 749: 745: 741: 737: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 709: 705: 702: 698: 692: 688: 684: 678: 673: 666: 663: 658: 651: 649: 647: 643: 638: 636: 632: 626: 624: 618: 616: 611: 608: 603: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 580: 578: 575: 569: 564: 562: 558: 554: 553:ion implanted 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 526: 524: 517: 514: 511: 508: 504: 503: 502: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 475: 471:, sensor side 470: 466: 463: 459: 455: 448: 446: 444: 440: 435: 431: 426: 424: 420: 412: 407: 400: 398: 396: 392: 388: 384: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 365:video cameras 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 326: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 300: 295: 293: 289: 284: 283:CCD in 1975. 278: 274: 270: 269:Steven Sasson 266: 262: 258: 253: 248: 243: 240: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 216: 211: 209: 205: 201: 200:semiconductor 197: 193: 188: 185: 181: 180:bubble memory 177: 173: 172:Willard Boyle 168: 166: 165:photodetector 162: 158: 154: 146: 142: 141:Willard Boyle 138: 134: 127: 125: 121: 119: 115: 111: 106: 102: 100: 96: 92: 88: 85: 81: 77: 69: 67: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 37: 32: 19: 4486:Polaroid art 4380:K-14 process 4375:Instant film 4370:Gum printing 4325:C-41 process 4310:Photographic 4220: 4211:Image sensor 4206:Film scanner 3860:Sun printing 3793:Print toning 3580:space selfie 3550:Pictorialism 3480:Ethnographic 3460:Conservation 3332:Guide number 3327:Focal length 2843: 2836: 2817: 2802:Phil Plait. 2798: 2790:Phil Plait. 2786: 2775:. Retrieved 2755: 2745: 2720: 2716: 2707: 2674: 2670: 2664: 2645:. Retrieved 2630:. Retrieved 2615:. Retrieved 2605: 2580:11336/123886 2552: 2548: 2541: 2529:. Retrieved 2525: 2515: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2436: 2423: 2407: 2394: 2361: 2351: 2343:the original 2338: 2329: 2305: 2278: 2269: 2263: 2250: 2236: 2228:the original 2218: 2193: 2184: 2171: 2148: 2138: 2119: 2113: 2089: 2078:. Retrieved 2067: 2057: 2046:. Retrieved 2026: 2016: 1983: 1979: 1973: 1948: 1944: 1938: 1925: 1908: 1904: 1887: 1862: 1858: 1852: 1832: 1812: 1805: 1793:. Retrieved 1785: 1776: 1756: 1730:(3): 33–43. 1727: 1723: 1684:. Retrieved 1666: 1601:Photometrics 1532: 1528: 1504: 1495:Sensor sizes 1482: 1446: 1430:Bayer filter 1426: 1407:Bayer filter 1384: 1371: 1367:auto-guiding 1359: 1352: 1328: 1320: 1299: 1273:photometry, 1263: 1250: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1014: 1001: 995: 935: 924: 879: 867: 856: 851: 844: 837:(MCP) and a 831:photocathode 828: 825: 811: 807: 795: 782: 780: 755:dark current 752: 740:night-vision 733: 715:are used in 710: 706: 693: 689: 685: 681: 652:Architecture 639: 631:dark current 627: 623:p–n junction 619: 612: 604: 600:channel stop 581: 571: 566: 540: 530: 521: 489: 485: 479: 427: 416: 410: 377: 373:CMOS sensors 358:dark current 327: 319:video camera 299:KH-11 KENNEN 296: 285: 244: 230:image sensor 212: 189: 169: 150: 122: 118:CMOS sensors 107: 103: 76:image sensor 73: 47: 43: 41: 4584:Spaceflight 4548:Electronics 4491:Stereoscopy 4355:E-6 process 4350:Dye coupler 4283:color space 4196:Digiscoping 4189:camera back 4104:Philippines 4033:Visual arts 4023:Glass plate 4008:Heliography 3907:Composition 3882:Ultraviolet 3838:Stereoscopy 3833:Slow motion 3818:Scanography 3733:Kite aerial 3673:Contre-jour 3565:Post-mortem 3555:Pornography 3535:Neues Sehen 3470:Documentary 3404:Zone System 3379:Reciprocity 3305:Film format 3235:Backscatter 3213:Terminology 3083:beauty dish 2982:rangefinder 2947:light-field 2928:Photography 2717:Opt. Commun 2617:January 15, 1553:CMOS sensor 1434:Bryce Bayer 1344:Dark Matter 1340:dead pixels 1331:cosmic rays 873:(−103 863:picoseconds 697:fill factor 677:fax machine 584:polysilicon 330:shutter lag 307:Kazuo Iwama 36:ultraviolet 4606:Categories 4560:Technology 4481:Lomography 4312:processing 4261:Print film 4177:comparison 4144:Uzbekistan 4094:Luxembourg 4054:Bangladesh 4003:Dufaycolor 3983:Box camera 3940:Simplicity 3897:Zoom burst 3892:Xerography 3887:Vignetting 3877:Time-lapse 3865:Tilt–shift 3758:Mordançage 3748:Luminogram 3713:Holography 3708:High-speed 3688:Fill flash 3668:Burst mode 3646:Techniques 3627:Vernacular 3622:Underwater 3617:Toy camera 3597:Still life 3525:Monochrome 3515:High-speed 3465:Cloudscape 3455:Conceptual 3357:Photograph 3342:Lens flare 3322:Film speed 3204:Zone plate 3150:wide-angle 3135:long-focus 2777:2023-12-11 2647:October 7, 2632:October 7, 2562:1906.02200 2466:1907.12628 2302:Sze, S. M. 2080:2011-11-15 2048:2023-10-21 1795:August 31, 1642:References 1548:Photodiode 1421:See also: 800:, storing 577:dielectric 557:phosphorus 346:photodiode 315:camcorders 297:The first 292:Matsushita 222:Gil Amelio 91:capacitors 56:capacitors 18:CCD camera 4572:Astronomy 4431:Norwegian 4395:Stop bath 4340:Developer 3968:Ambrotype 3930:Lead room 3853:Slit-scan 3788:Photogram 3783:Panoramic 3693:Fireworks 3678:Cyanotype 3520:Landscape 3165:telephoto 3113:reflector 3108:monolight 3103:lens hood 3088:cucoloris 3024:safelight 2935:Equipment 2597:174802422 2589:2470-0010 2507:198985735 2491:0031-9007 2153:CRC Press 2008:0018-9383 1686:6 October 1442:luminance 1438:human eye 1217:≥ 1181:− 1164:− 1155:− 1147:⁡ 1111:− 1088:− 1071:− 1050:− 919:empirical 869:170 802:electrons 789:and some 787:astronomy 662:megapixel 574:capacitor 561:Simon Sze 549:substrate 535:layer of 533:epitaxial 469:DSLR-A300 465:DSLR-A200 419:epitaxial 367:and then 325:in 1981. 303:800 × 800 281:100 × 100 184:fabricate 145:Nikon D80 74:In a CCD 4510:Category 4216:CMOS APS 4114:Slovenia 4042:Regional 3988:Calotype 3925:Headroom 3803:Redscale 3718:Infrared 3663:Brenizer 3637:Wildlife 3560:Portrait 3505:Forensic 3495:Fine-art 3430:Aircraft 3420:Abstract 3300:F-number 3280:Exposure 3255:Clipping 3230:Aperture 3098:hot shoe 3019:enlarger 3014:Darkroom 2826:Archived 2807:Archived 2772:35103154 2699:95441651 2531:11 April 2499:31763884 2412:Archived 2386:Archived 2210:44669969 2102:Archived 2074:Archived 2043:35103154 1613:PI/Acton 1607:QImaging 1541:See also 1517:Blooming 1451:) and a 1409:on a CCD 1348:neutrino 839:phosphor 725:incident 635:infrared 615:electron 602:region. 356:and low 215:oxidized 161:depleted 93:. 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