31:
1414:
1012:(QE) with respect to operation with a gain of unity. This effect is referred to as the Excess Noise Factor (ENF). However, at very low light levels (where the quantum efficiency is most important), it can be assumed that a pixel either contains an electron—or not. This removes the noise associated with the stochastic multiplication at the risk of counting multiple electrons in the same pixel as a single electron. To avoid multiple counts in one pixel due to coincident photons in this mode of operation, high frame rates are essential. The dispersion in the gain is shown in the graph on the right. For multiplication registers with many elements and large gains it is well modelled by the equation:
133:
445:. By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g. by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other processing.
1491:, several frames of the scene are produced. Between acquisitions, the sensor is moved in pixel dimensions, so that each point in the visual field is acquired consecutively by elements of the mask that are sensitive to the red, green, and blue components of its color. Eventually every pixel in the image has been scanned at least once in each color and the resolution of the three channels become equivalent (the resolutions of red and blue channels are quadrupled while the green channel is doubled).
454:
1402:
905:
708:
require the best possible light collection and issues of money, power and time are less important, the full-frame device is the right choice. Astronomers tend to prefer full-frame devices. The frame-transfer falls in between and was a common choice before the fill-factor issue of interline devices was addressed. Today, frame-transfer is usually chosen when an interline architecture is not available, such as in a back-illuminated device.
267:, picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild's effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2D 100 × 100 pixel device. Peter Dillon, a scientist at Kodak Research Labs, invented the first color CCD image sensor by overlaying a color filter array on this Fairchild 100 x 100 pixel Interline CCD starting in 1974.
805:
falls on a cell holding charge during the transfer. These errors are referred to as "vertical smear" and cause a strong light source to create a vertical line above and below its exact location. In addition, the CCD cannot be used to collect light while it is being read out. A faster shifting requires a faster readout, and a faster readout can introduce errors in the cell charge measurement, leading to a higher noise level.
4591:
4505:
4555:
4516:
4543:
893:
4579:
672:
691:
while a new image is integrating or exposing in the active area. Frame-transfer devices typically do not require a mechanical shutter and were a common architecture for early solid-state broadcast cameras. The downside to the frame-transfer architecture is that it requires twice the silicon real estate of an equivalent full-frame device; hence, it costs roughly twice as much.
1522:
360:. It was first publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure. The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in
4567:
523:
equilibrium is reached. In this case, the well is said to be full. The maximum capacity of each well is known as the well depth, typically about 10 electrons per pixel. CCDs are normally susceptible to ionizing radiation and energetic particles which causes noise in the output of the CCD, and this must be taken into consideration in satellites using CCDs.
774:
1301:
new generation of cameras capable of producing significantly less CIC, higher charge transfer efficiency and an EM gain 5 times higher than what was previously available. These advances in low-light detection lead to an effective total background noise of 0.001 electrons per pixel read, a noise floor unmatched by any other low-light imaging device.
1230:
1310:
657:
983:), with single input electrons giving many thousands of output electrons. Reading a signal from a CCD gives a noise background, typically a few electrons. In an EMCCD, this noise is superimposed on many thousands of electrons rather than a single electron; the devices' primary advantage is thus their negligible readout noise. The use of
496:. However, it takes time to reach this thermal equilibrium: up to hours in high-end scientific cameras cooled at low temperature. Initially after biasing, the holes are pushed far into the substrate, and no mobile electrons are at or near the surface; the CCD thus operates in a non-equilibrium state called deep depletion. Then, when
841:
screen. These three elements are mounted one close behind the other in the mentioned sequence. The photons which are coming from the light source fall onto the photocathode, thereby generating photoelectrons. The photoelectrons are accelerated towards the MCP by an electrical control voltage, applied
808:
A frame transfer CCD solves both problems: it has a shielded, not light sensitive, area containing as many cells as the area exposed to light. Typically, this area is covered by a reflective material such as aluminium. When the exposure time is up, the cells are transferred very rapidly to the hidden
567:
This thin layer (= 0.2–0.3 micron) is fully depleted and the accumulated photogenerated charge is kept away from the surface. This structure has the advantages of higher transfer efficiency and lower dark current, from reduced surface recombination. The penalty is smaller charge capacity, by a factor
1475:
camcorders, and some semi-professional camcorders, use this technique, although developments in competing CMOS technology have made CMOS sensors, both with beam-splitters and Bayer filters, increasingly popular in high-end video and digital cinema cameras. Another advantage of 3CCD over a Bayer mask
1372:
An unusual astronomical application of CCDs, called drift-scanning, uses a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky. The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed. In this
1300:
In terms of noise, commercial EMCCD cameras typically have clock-induced charge (CIC) and dark current (dependent on the extent of cooling) that together lead to an effective readout noise ranging from 0.01 to 1 electrons per pixel read. However, recent improvements in EMCCD technology have led to a
804:
in its cells. After the exposure time is passed, the cells are read out one line at a time. During the readout phase, cells are shifted down the entire area of the CCD. While they are shifted, they continue to collect light. Thus, if the shifting is not fast enough, errors can result from light that
707:
The choice of architecture comes down to one of utility. If the application cannot tolerate an expensive, failure-prone, power-intensive mechanical shutter, an interline device is the right choice. Consumer snap-shot cameras have used interline devices. On the other hand, for those applications that
436:
intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor. Once the
849:
functionality: If the control voltage between the photocathode and the MCP is reversed, the emitted photoelectrons are not accelerated towards the MCP but return to the photocathode. Thus, no electrons are multiplied and emitted by the MCP, no electrons are going to the phosphor screen and no light
690:
With a frame-transfer CCD, half of the silicon area is covered by an opaque mask (typically aluminum). The image can be quickly transferred from the image area to the opaque area or storage region with acceptable smear of a few percent. That image can then be read out slowly from the storage region
2546:
Aguilar-Arevalo, Alexis; Bertou, Xavier; Bonifazi, Carla; Cancelo, Gustavo; Castañeda, Alejandro; Vergara, Brenda
Cervantes; Chavez, Claudio; D'Olivo, Juan C.; Anjos, João C. dos; Estrada, Juan; Neto, Aldo R. Fernandes (2019-11-13). "Exploring low-energy neutrino physics with the Coherent Neutrino
1529:
When a CCD exposure is long enough, eventually the electrons that collect in the "bins" in the brightest part of the image will overflow the bin, resulting in blooming. The structure of the CCD allows the electrons to flow more easily in one direction than another, resulting in vertical streaking.
925:
An electron-multiplying CCD (EMCCD, also known as an L3Vision CCD, a product commercialized by e2v Ltd., GB, L3CCD or
Impactron CCD, a now-discontinued product offered in the past by Texas Instruments) is a charge-coupled device in which a gain register is placed between the shift register and the
703:
by an equivalent amount. Modern designs have addressed this deleterious characteristic by adding microlenses on the surface of the device to direct light away from the opaque regions and on the active area. Microlenses can bring the fill factor back up to 90 percent or more depending on pixel size
694:
The interline architecture extends this concept one step further and masks every other column of the image sensor for storage. In this device, only one pixel shift has to occur to transfer from image area to storage area; thus, shutter times can be less than a microsecond and smear is essentially
628:
CCD manufacturing and operation can be optimized for different uses. The above process describes a frame transfer CCD. While CCDs may be manufactured on a heavily doped p++ wafer it is also possible to manufacture a device inside p-wells that have been placed on an n-wafer. This second method,
186:
a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. This led to the invention of the charge-coupled device by Boyle and Smith in 1969. They conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook,
609:
that serve to isolate the charge packets in one column from those in another. These channel stops are produced before the polysilicon gates are, as the LOCOS process utilizes a high-temperature step that would destroy the gate material. The channel stops are parallel to, and exclusive of, the
1260:
or liquid nitrogen—to cool the chip down to temperatures in the range of −65 to −95 °C (−85 to −139 °F). This cooling system adds additional costs to the EMCCD imaging system and may yield condensation problems in the application. However, high-end EMCCD cameras are equipped with a
522:
The last three processes are known as dark-current generation, and add noise to the image; they can limit the total usable integration time. The accumulation of electrons at or near the surface can proceed either until image integration is over and charge begins to be transferred, or thermal
2450:
Aguilar-Arevalo, A.; Amidei, D.; Baxter, D.; Cancelo, G.; Vergara, B. A. Cervantes; Chavarria, A. E.; Darragh-Ford, E.; Neto, J. R. T. de Mello; D'Olivo, J. C.; Estrada, J.; Gaïor, R. (2019-10-31). "Constraints on Light Dark Matter
Particles Interacting with Electrons from DAMIC at SNOLAB".
406:
1017:
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The low-light capabilities of EMCCDs find use in astronomy and biomedical research, among other fields. In particular, their low noise at high readout speeds makes them very useful for a variety of astronomical applications involving low light sources and transient events such as
842:
between photocathode and MCP. The electrons are multiplied inside of the MCP and thereafter accelerated towards the phosphor screen. The phosphor screen finally converts the multiplied electrons back to photons which are guided to the CCD by a fiber optic or a lens.
1381:
is another instrument operating in this mode, rotating about its axis at a constant rate of 1 revolution in 6 hours and scanning a 360° by 0.5° strip on the sky during this time; a star traverses the entire focal plane in about 40 seconds (effective exposure time).
809:
area. Here, safe from any incoming light, cells can be read out at any speed one deems necessary to correctly measure the cells' charge. At the same time, the exposed part of the CCD is collecting light again, so no delay occurs between successive exposures.
912:
there is a dispersion (variation) in the number of electrons output by the multiplication register for a given (fixed) number of input electrons (shown in the legend on the right). The probability distribution for the number of output electrons is plotted
1427:
Digital color cameras, including the digital color cameras in smartphones, generally use an integral color image sensor, which has a color filter array fabricated on top of the monochrome pixels of the CCD. The most popular CFA pattern is known as the
682:
The CCD image sensors can be implemented in several different architectures. The most common are full-frame, frame-transfer, and interline. The distinguishing characteristic of each of these architectures is their approach to the problem of shuttering.
1333:
may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter such effects, astronomers take several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise. Once developed, the
1325:
is 100%, one generated electron per incident photon), linearity of their outputs, ease of use compared to photographic plates, and a variety of other reasons, CCDs were very rapidly adopted by astronomers for nearly all UV-to-infrared applications.
1364:
often require sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations from wind and other sources, along with the tremendous weight of most imaging platforms. To take long exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as
868:
ICCD cameras are in general somewhat higher in price than EMCCD cameras because they need the expensive image intensifier. On the other hand, EMCCD cameras need a cooling system to cool the EMCCD chip down to temperatures around
2385:
620:
The clocking of the gates, alternately high and low, will forward and reverse bias the diode that is provided by the buried channel (n-doped) and the epitaxial layer (p-doped). This will cause the CCD to deplete, near the
249:
technology was a simple 8-bit shift register, reported by
Tompsett, Amelio and Smith in August 1970. This device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight
1251:
Because of the lower costs and better resolution, EMCCDs are capable of replacing ICCDs in many applications. ICCDs still have the advantage that they can be gated very fast and thus are useful in applications like
254:
linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate. By 1971, Bell researchers led by
Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including
500:
are generated in the depletion region, they are separated by the electric field, the electrons move toward the surface, and the holes move toward the substrate. Four pair-generation processes can be identified:
123:
However, the large quality advantage CCDs enjoyed early on has narrowed over time and since the late 2010s CMOS sensors are the dominant technology, having largely if not completely replaced CCD image sensors.
1480:(higher light sensitivity), because most of the light from the lens enters one of the silicon sensors, while a Bayer mask absorbs a high proportion (more than 2/3) of the light falling on each pixel location.
686:
In a full-frame device, all of the image area is active, and there is no electronic shutter. A mechanical shutter must be added to this type of sensor or the image smears as the device is clocked or read out.
437:
array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a
746:(or near zero lux) video-recording/photography. For normal silicon-based detectors, the sensitivity is limited to 1.1 μm. One other consequence of their sensitivity to infrared is that infrared from
104:
Although CCDs are not the only technology to allow for light detection, CCD image sensors are widely used in professional, medical, and scientific applications where high-quality image data are required.
1225:{\displaystyle P\left(n\right)={\frac {\left(n-m+1\right)^{m-1}}{\left(m-1\right)!\left(g-1+{\frac {1}{m}}\right)^{m}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {n-m+1}{g-1+{\frac {1}{m}}}}\right)\quad {\text{ if }}n\geq m}
850:
is emitted from the image intensifier. In this case no light falls onto the CCD, which means that the shutter is closed. The process of reversing the control voltage at the photocathode is called
640:
Another version of CCD is called a peristaltic CCD. In a peristaltic charge-coupled device, the charge-packet transfer operation is analogous to the peristaltic contraction and dilation of the
1978:
Tompsett, M.F.; Amelio, G.F.; Bertram, W.J. Jr.; Buckley, R.R.; McNamara, W.J.; Mikkelsen, J.C. Jr.; Sealer, D.A. (November 1971). "Charge-coupled imaging devices: Experimental results".
613:
Channel stops often have a p+ doped region underlying them, providing a further barrier to the electrons in the charge packets (this discussion of the physics of CCD devices assumes an
2357:
2073:
1369:. Most autoguiders use a second CCD chip to monitor deviations during imaging. This chip can rapidly detect errors in tracking and command the mount motors to correct for them.
413:(yellow) created by applying positive voltage at the gate electrodes (G). Applying positive voltage to the gate electrode in the correct sequence transfers the charge packets.
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796:
The normal functioning of a CCD, astronomical or otherwise, can be divided into two phases: exposure and readout. During the first phase, the CCD passively collects incoming
317:. Before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982. Subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. The first mass-produced consumer CCD
2806:
2283:
1505:
Sensors (CCD / CMOS) come in various sizes, or image sensor formats. These sizes are often referred to with an inch fraction designation such as 1/1.8″ or 2/3″ called the
1342:, hot pixels, etc.) in the CCD. Newer Skipper CCDs counter noise by collecting data with the same collected charge multiple times and has applications in precision light
981:
757:, improving the sensitivity of the CCD to low light intensities, even for ultraviolet and visible wavelengths. Professional observatories often cool their detectors with
4415:
2669:
Deckert, V.; Kiefer, W. (1992). "Scanning multichannel technique for improved spectrochemical measurements with a CCD camera and its application to Raman spectroscopy".
182:. They realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to
648:
interface and generates a large lateral electric field from one gate to the next. This provides an additional driving force to aid in transfer of the charge packets.
30:
488:-doped or intrinsic. The gate is then biased at a positive potential, above the threshold for strong inversion, which will eventually result in the creation of an
1634:
857:
Besides the extremely high sensitivity of ICCD cameras, which enable single photon detection, the gateability is one of the major advantages of the ICCD over the
290:. To further reduce smear from bright light sources, the frame-interline-transfer (FIT) CCD architecture was developed by K. Horii, T. Kuroda and T. Kunii at
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and high-resolution spectroscopy. More recently, these types of CCDs have broken into the field of biomedical research in low-light applications including
390:
1413:
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594:, and etched in such a way that the separately phased gates lie perpendicular to the channels. The channels are further defined by utilization of the
97:, the basic building blocks of a CCD, are biased above the threshold for inversion when image acquisition begins, allowing the conversion of incoming
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1422:
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material, often p++. In buried-channel devices, the type of design utilized in most modern CCDs, certain areas of the surface of the silicon are
1533:
Some anti-blooming features that can be built into a CCD reduce its sensitivity to light by using some of the pixel area for a drain structure.
1444:
information is collected in each row and column using a checkerboard pattern, and the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution.
826:
An intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) is a CCD that is optically connected to an image intensifier that is mounted in front of the CCD.
393:, for pioneering work and electronic technologies including the design and development of the first CCD imagers. He was also awarded the 2012
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The interline transfer (ILT) CCD device was proposed by L. Walsh and R. Dyck at
Fairchild in 1973 to reduce smear and eliminate a mechanical
4468:
1004:
gain that has been applied to a pixel's charge is impossible to know. At high gains (> 30), this uncertainty has the same effect on the
2192:; Kohono, A.; Ishihara, Yasuo; Oda, E.; Arai, K. (December 1982). "No image lag photodiode structure in the interline CCD image sensor".
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developed a vertical anti-blooming drain that would not detract from the light collection area, and so did not reduce light sensitivity.
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812:
The disadvantage of such a CCD is the higher cost: the cell area is basically doubled, and more complex control electronics are needed.
1781:
313:
started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their
4405:
3952:
152:
86:
4161:
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2127:
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781:
The frame transfer CCD imager was the first imaging structure proposed for CCD Imaging by
Michael Tompsett at Bell Laboratories. A
1662:
1357:, in particular, has a highly developed series of steps ("data reduction pipeline") to convert the raw CCD data to useful images.
877:). This cooling system adds additional costs to the EMCCD camera and often yields heavy condensation problems in the application.
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1390:
183:
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900:. The high voltages used in these serial transfers induce the creation of additional charge carriers through impact ionisation.
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onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the
379:
160:
926:
output amplifier. The gain register is split up into a large number of stages. In each stage, the electrons are multiplied by
559:, giving them an n-doped designation. This region defines the channel in which the photogenerated charge packets will travel.
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has greater acuity for luminance, which is more heavily weighted in green than in either red or blue). As a result, the
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eliminated. The advantage is not free, however, as the imaging area is now covered by opaque strips dropping the
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1248:. For very large numbers of input electrons, this complex distribution function converges towards a Gaussian.
225:
132:
1436:. In the Bayer pattern, each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green pixels (the
1377:
is the most famous example of this, using the technique to produce a survey of over a quarter of the sky. The
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to the CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low
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into electron charges at the semiconductor-oxide interface; the CCD is then used to read out these charges.
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The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on an
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in 1980. They recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the
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techniques thanks to greater SNR in low-light conditions in comparison with traditional CCDs and ICCDs.
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and red response. This method of manufacture is used in the construction of interline-transfer devices.
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For still scenes, for instance in microscopy, the resolution of a Bayer mask device can be enhanced by
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Electrons are transferred serially through the gain stages making up the multiplication register of an
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and will collect and move the charge packets beneath the gates—and within the channels—of the device.
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for "pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras and thermal imagers".
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1987:
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1000:(ICCDs). However, as with ICCDs, the gain that is applied in the gain register is stochastic and the
881:
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242:) on the application of CCDs to imaging was assigned to Tompsett, who filed the application in 1971.
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on the vertical axis for a simulation of a multiplication register. Also shown are results from the
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1943:
M. F. Tompsett; G. F. Amelio; G. E. Smith (1 August 1970). "Charge
Coupled 8-bit Shift Register".
938:< 2%), but as the number of elements is large (N > 500), the overall gain can be very high (
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In addition to imagers, CCDs are also used in an array of analytical instrumentation including
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often appears on CCD-based digital cameras or camcorders if they do not have infrared blockers.
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Auvergne, Michel; Ecoffet, Robert; Bardoux, Alain; Gilard, Olivier; Penquer, Antoine (2017).
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light (meaning a quantum efficiency of about 70 percent) making them far more efficient than
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Daigle, Olivier; Djazovski, Oleg; Laurin, Denis; Doyon, René; Artigau, Étienne (July 2012).
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644:. The peristaltic CCD has an additional implant that keeps the charge away from the silicon/
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specifies a dark current of 0.3 electron per pixel per hour at −110 °C (−166 °F).
1417:
x80 microscope view of an RGGB Bayer filter on a 240 line Sony CCD PAL Camcorder CCD sensor
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way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view. The
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into the depletion region; in n-channel CCDs, the silicon under the bias gate is slightly
228:
and George Smith in April 1970. This was the first experimental application of the CCD in
191:
175:
136:
63:
59:
2791:
2750:
Dillon, P.L.P.; Brault, A.T.; Horak, J.R.; Garcia, E.; Martin, T.W.; Light, W.A. (1976).
723:, and video cameras as light-sensing devices. They commonly respond to 70 percent of the
2728:
2682:
2474:
1991:
1956:
1870:
1401:
4595:
4156:
3982:
3924:
3692:
3378:
3284:
3269:
3264:
3159:
2971:
2961:
2951:
1916:
1878:
1534:
1506:
1452:
1274:
747:
716:
422:
195:
109:
1471:
components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color. Many
305:
pixels) technology for imaging was launched in
December 1976. Under the leadership of
198:. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a
108:
In applications with less exacting quality demands, such as consumer and professional
4605:
4309:
4277:
4262:
4227:
3987:
3832:
3797:
3747:
3388:
3361:
3341:
3309:
3254:
2736:
2641:
2596:
2506:
1484:
1338:
from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects (
1266:
762:
720:
429:
364:
268:
199:
179:
171:
164:
156:
140:
94:
2771:
2698:
2209:
2042:
202:
from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the
4590:
4485:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4314:
4200:
4195:
3849:
3574:
3544:
3326:
3321:
3304:
3149:
2976:
2966:
2956:
2715:(1993). "On a generalized interference equation and interferometric measurements".
2712:
2482:
1429:
1406:
1386:
830:
739:
724:
599:
318:
298:
229:
75:
2401:"CCD Radiation Effects and Test Issues for Satellite Designers (Review Draft 1.0)"
1261:
permanent hermetic vacuum system confining the chip to avoid condensation issues.
861:
cameras. The highest performing ICCD cameras enable shutter times as short as 200
4490:
4349:
4344:
4272:
4185:
4022:
3997:
3827:
3822:
3807:
3667:
3549:
3529:
3398:
3299:
3191:
3154:
3124:
3077:
3045:
3040:
3006:
2927:
2570:
1903:(April 1970). "Experimental Verification of the Charge Coupled Device Concept".
1433:
1343:
676:
583:
372:
329:
117:
35:
4542:
2751:
2521:
2022:
1857:
W. S. Boyle; G. E. Smith (April 1970). "Charge
Coupled Semiconductor Devices".
1321:
Due to the high quantum efficiencies of charge-coupled device (CCD) (the ideal
190:
The initial paper describing the concept in April 1970 listed possible uses as
4554:
4480:
3992:
3972:
3886:
3876:
3737:
3702:
3677:
3611:
3351:
3336:
3316:
3198:
3134:
3050:
3001:
2176:
1930:
1892:
1844:
1838:
1736:
1719:
1547:
1366:
1339:
1330:
1253:
989:
918:
892:
862:
671:
576:
556:
389:
for their invention of the CCD concept. Michael Tompsett was awarded the 2010
345:
321:, the CCD-G5, was released by Sony in 1983, based on a prototype developed by
238:
232:
technology, and used a depleted MOS structure as the photodetector. The first
221:
90:
2763:
2690:
2588:
2490:
2201:
2120:
We Were Burning: Japanese Entrepreneurs and the Forging of the Electronic Age
2034:
2007:
734:
Most common types of CCDs are sensitive to near-infrared light, which allows
4389:
4329:
3957:
3919:
3881:
3777:
3139:
3102:
3097:
3082:
3035:
3023:
2301:
2177:
U.S. Patent 4,484,210: Solid-state imaging device having a reduced image lag
2152:
1999:
1658:
1521:
1441:
1437:
914:
786:
661:
573:
560:
532:
468:
464:
314:
291:
178:
at Bell Labs were researching MOS technology while working on semiconductor
144:
58:. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its
55:
2626:
2498:
1575:– The prevailing video capture technology prior to the introduction of CCDs
1309:
461:
194:, a delay line, and an imaging device. The device could also be used as a
17:
3977:
3792:
3294:
3224:
3092:
3018:
3013:
2886:
1347:
838:
801:
634:
614:
460:
ICX493AQA 10.14-megapixel APS-C (23.4 × 15.6 mm) CCD from digital camera
2579:
4017:
3171:
3117:
2655:
2642:"Retouching of astronomical data for the production of outreach images"
2370:
874:
773:
536:
481:
442:
418:
371:. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then
217:
207:
62:
to a neighboring capacitor. CCD sensors are a major technology used in
2094:
1964:
3569:
2991:
2941:
987:
for amplification of photo charges had already been described in the
870:
797:
493:
233:
98:
656:
301:
reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array (
220:
surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. It was demonstrated by
2611:
2561:
2465:
4232:
3652:
3112:
2430:"Characterization results of EMCCDs for extreme low light imaging"
1720:"A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors"
1520:
1464:
1456:
1412:
1400:
1308:
903:
891:
772:
712:
670:
655:
606:
595:
544:
452:
433:
404:
272:
251:
79:
29:
2342:
2064:"Kodak engineer had revolutionary idea: the first digital camera"
1256:. EMCCD cameras indispensably need a cooling system—using either
1244:
input electrons and a total mean multiplication register gain of
417:
In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an
2360:. In Cugny, Bruno; Karafolas, Nikos; Armandillo, Errico (eds.).
1509:. This measurement originates back in the 1950s and the time of
1468:
1448:
934:. The gain probability at every stage of the register is small (
457:
310:
2900:
1782:"1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated"
2896:
1460:
743:
341:
260:
1447:
Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices (
731:, which captures only about 2 percent of the incident light.
34:
A specially developed CCD in a wire-bonded package used for
829:
An image intensifier includes three functional elements: a
421:
layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a
854:
and therefore ICCDs are also called gateable CCD cameras.
2399:
Marshall, Cheryl J.; Marshall, Paul W. (6 October 2003).
1317:
telescope imaging camera, an example of "drift-scanning".
793:, designed for high exposure efficiency and correctness.
480:
Before the MOS capacitors are exposed to light, they are
993:
in 1973 by George E. Smith/Bell Telephone Laboratories.
579:, is grown on top of the epitaxial layer and substrate.
2752:"Integral color filter arrays for solid state imagers"
2023:"Integral color filter arrays for solid state imagers"
997:
409:
The charge packets (electrons, blue) are collected in
332:. This was largely resolved with the invention of the
4531:
1020:
944:
2362:
International Conference on Space Optics — ICSO 2012
617:
transfer device, though hole transfer is possible).
4456:
4398:
4298:
4241:
4147:
4031:
3943:
3895:
3640:
3407:
3207:
2934:
1432:, which is named for its inventor, Kodak scientist
563:details the advantages of a buried-channel device:
1224:
975:
531:The photoactive region of a CCD is, generally, an
378:In January 2006, Boyle and Smith were awarded the
120:(complementary MOS sensors), are generally used.
1757:The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future
159:being the basic building blocks of a CCD, and a
2844:Solid-State Imaging With Charge-Coupled Devices
1635:Category: Digital cameras with CCD image sensor
761:to reduce the dark current, and therefore the
699:to approximately 50 percent and the effective
2912:
1667:Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology
909:
897:
858:
8:
1724:IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
27:Device for the movement of electrical charge
4464:Conservation and restoration of photographs
2821:Thomas J. Fellers and Michael W. Davidson.
2756:1976 International Electron Devices Meeting
2194:1982 International Electron Devices Meeting
2095:"NRO review and redaction guide (2006 ed.)"
2027:1976 International Electron Devices Meeting
1336:dark frame average image is then subtracted
845:An image intensifier inherently includes a
568:of 2–3 compared to the surface-channel CCD.
391:National Medal of Technology and Innovation
54:containing an array of linked, or coupled,
4191:Comparison of digital and film photography
2919:
2905:
2897:
2547:Nucleus Interaction Experiment (CONNIE)".
2408:NASA/GSFC Radiation Effects & Analysis
2282:For instance, the specsheet of PI/Acton's
1749:
1747:
340:, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at
4416:Photographs considered the most important
2578:
2560:
2464:
2369:
2145:"Microelectronics for Home Entertainment"
1735:
1208:
1189:
1157:
1134:
1119:
1066:
1038:
1019:
967:
943:
704:and the overall system's optical design.
271:, an electrical engineer working for the
2804:"Why, King Triton, how nice to see you!"
1718:Fossum, E. R.; Hondongwa, D. B. (2014).
1630:List of digital cameras with CCD sensors
1423:List of digital cameras with CCD sensors
884:and in various scientific applications.
675:One-dimensional CCD image sensor from a
610:channel, or "charge carrying", regions.
131:
4538:
1647:
2882:Concepts in Digital Imaging Technology
2296:
2294:
2292:
2877:Nikon microscopy introduction to CCDs
1980:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
1653:
1651:
996:EMCCDs show a similar sensitivity to
7:
2610:Hainaut, Oliver R. (December 2006).
2364:. SPIE Digital Library. p. 12.
2358:"Radiation effects on image sensors"
2076:from the original on 25 January 2012
1293:as well as a wide variety of modern
785:is a specialized CCD, often used in
385:, and in 2009 they were awarded the
4411:Museums devoted to one photographer
2640:Hainaut, Oliver R. (May 20, 2009).
2625:Hainaut, Oliver R. (June 1, 2005).
512:generation in the depletion region,
441:, which converts the charge into a
3953:Timeline of photography technology
2417:from the original on Feb 14, 2024.
2388:from the original on Mar 21, 2022.
2100:. National Reconnaissance Office.
1917:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01791.x
1879:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01790.x
1487:technology. During the process of
605:Channel stops are thermally grown
25:
2872:Journal Article On Basics of CCDs
2654:(Hainaut is an astronomer at the
2149:The Computer Engineering Handbook
2147:. In Oklobdzija, Vojin G. (ed.).
1813:Scientific charge-coupled devices
816:Intensified charge-coupled device
4589:
4577:
4565:
4553:
4541:
4514:
4504:
4503:
2841:Albert J. P. Theuwissen (1995).
2792:"The Planet X Saga: SOHO Images"
2341:. March 29, 2001. Archived from
2306:Physics of semiconductor devices
2107:from the original on 2007-07-15.
2062:Dobbin, Ben (8 September 2005).
921:fit equation shown on this page.
428:An image is projected through a
328:Early CCD sensors suffered from
245:The first working CCD made with
4515:
1615:– Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras
1609:- Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras
1603:- Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras
1597:– Manufacturer of EMCCD cameras
1207:
518:generation in the neutral bulk.
505:photo-generation (up to 95% of
492:channel below the gate as in a
380:National Academy of Engineering
275:Apparatus Division, invented a
2847:. Springer. pp. 177–180.
2483:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.181802
1236:is the probability of getting
964:
951:
515:generation at the surface, and
425:(the CCD, properly speaking).
206:(BBD), which was developed at
1:
4003:Painted photography backdrops
3935:Golden triangle (composition)
3215:35 mm equivalent focal length
2823:"CCD Saturation and Blooming"
2656:European Southern Observatory
2627:"Signal, Noise and Detection"
1661:; Lee, Ming-Kwei (May 2012).
1313:Array of 30 CCDs used on the
449:Detailed physics of operation
151:The basis for the CCD is the
2737:10.1016/0030-4018(93)90634-H
2612:"Basic CCD image processing"
2224:"Charles Stark Draper Award"
1453:dichroic beam splitter prism
753:Cooling reduces the array's
3713:Intentional camera movement
2887:More statistical properties
2571:10.1103/PhysRevD.100.092005
2143:Hagiwara, Yoshiaki (2001).
1291:super resolution microscopy
1269:of faint stars, high speed
976:{\displaystyle g=(1+P)^{N}}
777:A frame transfer CCD sensor
629:reportedly, reduces smear,
187:"Charge 'Bubble' Devices".
4658:
4406:Most expensive photographs
3758:Multi-exposure HDR capture
2069:Seattle Post-Intelligencer
1810:James R. Janesick (2001).
1663:"MOS Capacitor and MOSFET"
1619:Time delay and integration
1498:
1420:
819:
791:professional video cameras
383:Charles Stark Draper Prize
336:(PPD). It was invented by
279:using this same Fairchild
163:MOS structure used as the
143:, 2009, photographed on a
4499:
2122:. New York: Basic Books.
1816:. SPIE Press. p. 4.
1760:. Springer. p. 245.
1737:10.1109/JEDS.2014.2306412
711:CCDs containing grids of
588:chemical vapor deposition
572:The gate oxide, i.e. the
294:(now Panasonic) in 1981.
153:metal–oxide–semiconductor
147:, which uses a CCD sensor
87:metal–oxide–semiconductor
4340:Digital image processing
2892:L3CCDs used in astronomy
2764:10.1109/IEDM.1976.189067
2691:10.1366/0003702924125500
2260:"Charge-Coupled Devices"
2202:10.1109/IEDM.1982.190285
2035:10.1109/IEDM.1976.189067
1897:Michael Francis Tompsett
1754:Williams, J. B. (2017).
1375:Sloan Digital Sky Survey
1315:Sloan Digital Sky Survey
1275:Fabry-Pérot spectroscopy
888:Electron-multiplying CCD
765:, to negligible levels.
527:Design and manufacturing
226:Michael Francis Tompsett
4448:Photography periodicals
4008:Photography and the law
2453:Physical Review Letters
2021:Dillon, P.L.P. (1976).
2000:10.1109/T-ED.1971.17321
1945:Applied Physics Letters
1790:Computer History Museum
1625:Glossary of video terms
1584:Hole accumulation diode
1295:fluorescence microscopy
1283:single-molecule imaging
1240:output electrons given
930:in a similar way to an
598:process to produce the
586:gates are deposited by
387:Nobel Prize for Physics
257:Fairchild Semiconductor
210:during the late 1960s.
4360:Gelatin silver process
3384:Science of photography
3369:Photographic processes
3347:Perspective distortion
2828:July 27, 2012, at the
2304:; Ng, Kwok K. (2007).
2118:Johnstone, B. (1999).
1568:Superconducting camera
1526:
1489:color co-site sampling
1418:
1410:
1355:Hubble Space Telescope
1318:
1258:thermoelectric cooling
1226:
977:
922:
901:
778:
679:
668:
582:Later in the process,
570:
547:) and is grown upon a
472:
414:
167:in early CCD devices.
155:(MOS) structure, with
148:
39:
3813:Schlieren photography
3357:Photographic printing
3280:Exposure compensation
2242:"Nobel Prize website"
1931:U.S. patent 4,085,456
1845:U.S. patent 3,796,927
1839:U.S. patent 3,792,322
1671:John Wiley & Sons
1558:Angle-sensitive pixel
1524:
1416:
1404:
1312:
1227:
1008:(SNR) as halving the
1006:signal-to-noise ratio
990:U.S. patent 3,761,744
978:
907:
895:
776:
674:
659:
565:
456:
408:
369:digital still cameras
239:U.S. patent 4,085,456
208:Philips Research Labs
204:bucket-brigade device
135:
44:charge-coupled device
33:
4637:Astronomical imaging
3602:Straight photography
3240:Chromatic aberration
2758:. pp. 400–403.
2196:. pp. 324–327.
2029:. pp. 400–403.
1893:Gilbert Frank Amelio
1563:Rotating line camera
1379:Gaia space telescope
1360:CCD cameras used in
1279:small animal imaging
1018:
942:
882:night vision devices
736:infrared photography
543:doped (usually with
277:digital still camera
114:active pixel sensors
4617:Integrated circuits
4612:American inventions
4474:photographic plates
4149:Digital photography
3332:Hyperfocal distance
3245:Circle of confusion
2729:1993OptCo.103....8D
2683:1992ApSpe..46..322D
2475:2019PhRvL.123r1802A
2310:John Wiley and Sons
2265:Scientific American
2190:Teranishi, Nobuzaku
1992:1971ITED...18..992T
1957:1970ApPhL..17..111T
1871:1970BSTJ...49..587B
1501:Image sensor format
1254:range-gated imaging
985:avalanche breakdown
835:micro-channel plate
498:electron–hole pairs
401:Basics of operation
362:consumer electronic
170:In the late 1960s,
82:are represented by
3968:Autochrome Lumière
3963:Analog photography
3788:Pigeon photography
3582:Social documentary
3061:discontinued films
2809:2012-09-04 at the
2371:10.1117/12.2309026
2339:Apogee Instruments
1905:Bell Syst. Tech. J
1859:Bell Syst. Tech. J
1786:The Silicon Engine
1579:Wide dynamic range
1527:
1478:quantum efficiency
1473:professional video
1455:, that splits the
1419:
1411:
1329:Thermal noise and
1323:quantum efficiency
1319:
1287:Raman spectroscopy
1222:
1010:quantum efficiency
973:
923:
902:
880:ICCDs are used in
783:frame transfer CCD
779:
769:Frame transfer CCD
742:devices, and zero
701:quantum efficiency
680:
669:
507:quantum efficiency
473:
415:
354:quantum efficiency
338:Nobukazu Teranishi
247:integrated circuit
149:
52:integrated circuit
40:
4529:
4528:
4320:Collodion process
4256:Chromogenic print
4243:Color photography
3753:Multiple exposure
3728:Lo-fi photography
3260:Color temperature
2549:Physical Review D
2381:978-1-5106-1617-2
2319:978-0-471-14323-9
2258:(February 1974).
2256:Gilbert F. Amelio
2162:978-0-8493-0885-7
2155:. pp. 41–6.
1965:10.1063/1.1653327
1823:978-0-8194-3698-6
1573:Video camera tube
1476:device is higher
1211:
1200:
1197:
1141:
1127:
928:impact ionization
822:Image intensifier
729:photographic film
590:, patterned with
476:Charge generation
395:IEEE Edison Medal
334:pinned photodiode
323:Yoshiaki Hagiwara
265:Texas Instruments
16:(Redirected from
4649:
4622:Image processing
4594:
4593:
4582:
4581:
4580:
4570:
4569:
4568:
4558:
4557:
4546:
4545:
4537:
4518:
4517:
4507:
4506:
4380:Print permanence
4325:Cross processing
4283:CMYK color model
4268:Color management
4221:Foveon X3 sensor
4216:Three-CCD camera
3860:Miniature faking
3818:Sabattier effect
3435:Astrophotography
3290:Zebra patterning
2921:
2914:
2907:
2898:
2859:
2858:
2838:
2832:
2819:
2813:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2666:
2660:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2582:
2564:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2468:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2434:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2405:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2373:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2298:
2287:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2226:. Archived from
2220:
2214:
2213:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2099:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1841:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1751:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1715:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1655:
1595:Andor Technology
1362:astrophotography
1305:Use in astronomy
1231:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1175:
1158:
1142:
1140:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1120:
1097:
1093:
1077:
1076:
1065:
1061:
1039:
1034:
998:intensified CCDs
992:
982:
980:
979:
974:
972:
971:
721:optical scanners
642:digestive system
592:photolithography
539:. It is lightly
439:charge amplifier
304:
282:
241:
116:, also known as
21:
4657:
4656:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4647:
4646:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4588:
4578:
4576:
4566:
4564:
4552:
4540:
4532:
4530:
4525:
4495:
4452:
4394:
4385:Push processing
4301:
4294:
4288:RGB color model
4237:
4143:
4027:
3939:
3905:Diagonal method
3891:
3636:
3540:Photojournalism
3403:
3235:Black-and-white
3203:
3182:Slide projector
3177:Movie projector
3056:available films
2930:
2925:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2855:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2830:Wayback Machine
2820:
2816:
2811:Wayback Machine
2801:
2797:
2789:
2785:
2776:
2774:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2671:Appl. Spectrosc
2668:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2646:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2631:
2629:
2624:
2623:
2616:
2614:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2530:
2528:
2520:Abramoff, Orr.
2519:
2518:
2514:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2432:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2382:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2345:on Jun 5, 2002.
2335:"Pixel Binning"
2333:
2332:
2328:
2320:
2300:
2299:
2290:
2281:
2277:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2104:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2079:
2077:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2045:
2020:
2019:
2015:
1986:(11): 992–996.
1977:
1976:
1972:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1901:George E. Smith
1891:
1890:
1886:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1794:
1792:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1753:
1752:
1745:
1717:
1716:
1695:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1657:
1656:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1590:Multi-layer CCD
1543:
1519:
1503:
1497:
1425:
1399:
1391:interferometers
1307:
1271:photon counting
1176:
1159:
1153:
1149:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1024:
1016:
1015:
988:
963:
940:
939:
932:avalanche diode
915:logarithmically
890:
824:
818:
771:
759:liquid nitrogen
748:remote controls
717:digital cameras
660:CCD from a 2.1-
654:
646:silicon dioxide
529:
478:
451:
411:potential wells
403:
302:
280:
237:
176:George E. Smith
137:George E. Smith
130:
110:digital cameras
72:
64:digital imaging
60:electric charge
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4655:
4653:
4645:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4632:Image scanners
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4604:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4586:
4574:
4562:
4550:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4512:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4471:
4460:
4458:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4306:
4304:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4265:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4247:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4182:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4157:Digital camera
4153:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3983:Camera obscura
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3949:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3925:Rule of thirds
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3901:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3852:
3847:
3846:
3845:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3693:Harris shutter
3690:
3688:Hand-colouring
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3644:
3642:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3379:Red-eye effect
3376:
3371:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3307:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3285:Exposure value
3282:
3277:
3272:
3270:Depth of focus
3267:
3265:Depth of field
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3070:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2916:
2909:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2867:
2866:External links
2864:
2861:
2860:
2853:
2833:
2814:
2795:
2783:
2742:
2704:
2677:(2): 322–328.
2661:
2602:
2538:
2512:
2459:(18): 181802.
2442:
2437:auniontech.com
2420:
2391:
2380:
2348:
2326:
2318:
2308:(3 ed.).
2288:
2284:SPEC-10 camera
2275:
2247:
2233:
2230:on 2007-12-28.
2215:
2181:
2168:
2161:
2135:
2128:
2110:
2086:
2054:
2013:
1970:
1951:(3): 111–115.
1935:
1922:
1911:(4): 593–600.
1884:
1865:(4): 587–593.
1849:
1829:
1822:
1802:
1773:
1766:
1743:
1693:
1679:
1659:Sze, Simon Min
1646:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1587:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1535:James M. Early
1525:Vertical smear
1518:
1515:
1507:optical format
1499:Main article:
1496:
1493:
1398:
1395:
1350:measurements.
1306:
1303:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1210: if
1205:
1196:
1193:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1023:
970:
966:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
947:
889:
886:
820:Main article:
817:
814:
770:
767:
667:digital camera
653:
650:
528:
525:
520:
519:
516:
513:
510:
477:
474:
450:
447:
423:shift register
402:
399:
196:shift register
157:MOS capacitors
129:
126:
95:MOS capacitors
71:
68:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4654:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4627:Image sensors
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4585:
4575:
4573:
4563:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4522:
4513:
4511:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4455:
4449:
4446:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4423:
4422:
4421:Photographers
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4310:Bleach bypass
4308:
4307:
4305:
4303:
4297:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4278:primary color
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4263:Reversal film
4261:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4244:
4240:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4228:Image sharing
4226:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4129:United States
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4036:
4034:
4030:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3988:Daguerreotype
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3833:Stopping down
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3798:Rephotography
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3733:Long-exposure
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3430:Architectural
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3389:Shutter speed
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3342:Metering mode
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3255:Color balance
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3220:Angle of view
3218:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3167:Manufacturers
3165:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2917:
2915:
2910:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2856:
2854:9780792334569
2850:
2846:
2845:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2827:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2787:
2784:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2723:(1–2): 8–14.
2722:
2718:
2714:
2713:Duarte, F. J.
2708:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2665:
2662:
2657:
2643:
2628:
2613:
2606:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2555:(9): 092005.
2554:
2550:
2542:
2539:
2527:
2523:
2522:"Skipper CCD"
2516:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2431:
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2336:
2330:
2327:
2324:Chapter 13.6.
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2315:
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2307:
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2297:
2295:
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2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
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2185:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2164:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2129:0-465-09117-2
2125:
2121:
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2111:
2103:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2058:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1910:
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1898:
1894:
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1853:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1833:
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1825:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1806:
1803:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1769:
1767:9783319490885
1763:
1759:
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1721:
1714:
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1680:9780470537947
1676:
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1561:
1559:
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1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1531:
1523:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1511:Vidicon tubes
1508:
1502:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1485:microscanning
1481:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1415:
1408:
1403:
1397:Color cameras
1396:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1387:spectrometers
1383:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1346:searches and
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1324:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1267:lucky imaging
1262:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1203:
1194:
1191:
1186:
1183:
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1177:
1172:
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1103:
1098:
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1090:
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1073:
1070:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1055:
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1049:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
986:
968:
960:
957:
954:
948:
945:
937:
933:
929:
920:
916:
911:
906:
899:
894:
887:
885:
883:
878:
876:
872:
866:
864:
860:
855:
853:
848:
843:
840:
836:
832:
827:
823:
815:
813:
810:
806:
803:
799:
794:
792:
788:
784:
775:
768:
766:
764:
763:thermal noise
760:
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
737:
732:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
705:
702:
698:
692:
688:
684:
678:
673:
666:
663:
658:
651:
649:
647:
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632:
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611:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
580:
578:
575:
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
553:ion implanted
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
526:
524:
517:
514:
511:
508:
504:
503:
502:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
475:
471:, sensor side
470:
466:
463:
459:
455:
448:
446:
444:
440:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
412:
407:
400:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
381:
376:
374:
370:
366:
365:video cameras
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
300:
295:
293:
289:
284:
283:CCD in 1975.
278:
274:
270:
269:Steven Sasson
266:
262:
258:
253:
248:
243:
240:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
216:
211:
209:
205:
201:
200:semiconductor
197:
193:
188:
185:
181:
180:bubble memory
177:
173:
172:Willard Boyle
168:
166:
165:photodetector
162:
158:
154:
146:
142:
141:Willard Boyle
138:
134:
127:
125:
121:
119:
115:
111:
106:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
85:
81:
77:
69:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
37:
32:
19:
4486:Polaroid art
4375:K-14 process
4370:Instant film
4365:Gum printing
4315:C-41 process
4300:Photographic
4210:
4201:Image sensor
4196:Film scanner
3850:Sun printing
3783:Print toning
3575:space selfie
3545:Pictorialism
3475:Ethnographic
3455:Conservation
3327:Guide number
3322:Focal length
2843:
2836:
2817:
2802:Phil Plait.
2798:
2790:Phil Plait.
2786:
2775:. Retrieved
2755:
2745:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2645:. Retrieved
2630:. Retrieved
2615:. Retrieved
2605:
2580:11336/123886
2552:
2548:
2541:
2529:. Retrieved
2525:
2515:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2436:
2423:
2407:
2394:
2361:
2351:
2343:the original
2338:
2329:
2305:
2278:
2269:
2263:
2250:
2236:
2228:the original
2218:
2193:
2184:
2171:
2148:
2138:
2119:
2113:
2089:
2078:. Retrieved
2067:
2057:
2046:. Retrieved
2026:
2016:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1925:
1908:
1904:
1887:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1832:
1812:
1805:
1793:. Retrieved
1785:
1776:
1756:
1730:(3): 33–43.
1727:
1723:
1684:. Retrieved
1666:
1601:Photometrics
1532:
1528:
1504:
1495:Sensor sizes
1482:
1446:
1430:Bayer filter
1426:
1407:Bayer filter
1384:
1371:
1367:auto-guiding
1359:
1352:
1328:
1320:
1299:
1273:photometry,
1263:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1014:
1001:
995:
935:
924:
879:
867:
856:
851:
844:
837:(MCP) and a
831:photocathode
828:
825:
811:
807:
795:
782:
780:
755:dark current
752:
740:night-vision
733:
715:are used in
710:
706:
693:
689:
685:
681:
652:Architecture
639:
631:dark current
627:
623:p–n junction
619:
612:
604:
600:channel stop
581:
571:
566:
540:
530:
521:
489:
485:
479:
427:
416:
410:
377:
373:CMOS sensors
358:dark current
327:
319:video camera
299:KH-11 KENNEN
296:
285:
244:
230:image sensor
212:
189:
169:
150:
122:
118:CMOS sensors
107:
103:
76:image sensor
73:
47:
43:
41:
4584:Spaceflight
4548:Electronics
4491:Stereoscopy
4350:E-6 process
4345:Dye coupler
4273:color space
4186:Digiscoping
4179:camera back
4094:Philippines
4023:Visual arts
4013:Glass plate
3998:Heliography
3897:Composition
3872:Ultraviolet
3828:Stereoscopy
3823:Slow motion
3808:Scanography
3723:Kite aerial
3668:Contre-jour
3560:Post-mortem
3550:Pornography
3530:Neues Sehen
3465:Documentary
3399:Zone System
3374:Reciprocity
3300:Film format
3230:Backscatter
3208:Terminology
3078:beauty dish
2982:rangefinder
2947:light-field
2928:Photography
2717:Opt. Commun
2617:January 15,
1553:CMOS sensor
1434:Bryce Bayer
1344:Dark Matter
1340:dead pixels
1331:cosmic rays
873:(−103
863:picoseconds
697:fill factor
677:fax machine
584:polysilicon
330:shutter lag
307:Kazuo Iwama
36:ultraviolet
4606:Categories
4560:Technology
4481:Lomography
4302:processing
4251:Print film
4167:comparison
4134:Uzbekistan
4084:Luxembourg
4044:Bangladesh
3993:Dufaycolor
3973:Box camera
3930:Simplicity
3887:Zoom burst
3882:Xerography
3877:Vignetting
3867:Time-lapse
3855:Tilt–shift
3748:Mordançage
3738:Luminogram
3703:Holography
3698:High-speed
3678:Fill flash
3663:Burst mode
3641:Techniques
3622:Vernacular
3617:Underwater
3612:Toy camera
3592:Still life
3520:Monochrome
3510:High-speed
3460:Cloudscape
3450:Conceptual
3352:Photograph
3337:Lens flare
3317:Film speed
3199:Zone plate
3145:wide-angle
3130:long-focus
2777:2023-12-11
2647:October 7,
2632:October 7,
2562:1906.02200
2466:1907.12628
2302:Sze, S. M.
2080:2011-11-15
2048:2023-10-21
1795:August 31,
1642:References
1548:Photodiode
1421:See also:
800:, storing
577:dielectric
557:phosphorus
346:photodiode
315:camcorders
297:The first
292:Matsushita
222:Gil Amelio
91:capacitors
56:capacitors
18:CCD sensor
4572:Astronomy
4426:Norwegian
4390:Stop bath
4335:Developer
4330:Cyanotype
3958:Ambrotype
3920:Lead room
3843:Slit-scan
3778:Photogram
3773:Panoramic
3683:Fireworks
3515:Landscape
3160:telephoto
3108:reflector
3103:monolight
3098:lens hood
3083:cucoloris
3024:safelight
2935:Equipment
2597:174802422
2589:2470-0010
2507:198985735
2491:0031-9007
2153:CRC Press
2008:0018-9383
1686:6 October
1442:luminance
1438:human eye
1217:≥
1181:−
1164:−
1155:−
1147:
1111:−
1088:−
1071:−
1050:−
919:empirical
869:170
802:electrons
789:and some
787:astronomy
662:megapixel
574:capacitor
561:Simon Sze
549:substrate
535:layer of
533:epitaxial
469:DSLR-A300
465:DSLR-A200
419:epitaxial
367:and then
325:in 1981.
303:800 × 800
281:100 × 100
184:fabricate
145:Nikon D80
74:In a CCD
4510:Category
4206:CMOS APS
4104:Slovenia
4032:Regional
3978:Calotype
3915:Headroom
3793:Redscale
3708:Infrared
3658:Brenizer
3632:Wildlife
3555:Portrait
3500:Forensic
3490:Fine-art
3425:Aircraft
3415:Abstract
3295:F-number
3275:Exposure
3250:Clipping
3225:Aperture
3093:hot shoe
3019:enlarger
3014:Darkroom
2826:Archived
2807:Archived
2772:35103154
2699:95441651
2531:11 April
2499:31763884
2412:Archived
2386:Archived
2210:44669969
2102:Archived
2074:Archived
2043:35103154
1613:PI/Acton
1607:QImaging
1541:See also
1517:Blooming
1451:) and a
1409:on a CCD
1348:neutrino
839:phosphor
725:incident
635:infrared
615:electron
602:region.
356:and low
215:oxidized
161:depleted
93:. These
70:Overview
50:) is an
38:imaging
4642:MOSFETs
4596:Science
4534:Portals
4521:Outline
4457:Related
4139:Vietnam
4124:Ukraine
4059:Denmark
4039:Albania
4018:Tintype
3945:History
3910:Framing
3803:Rollout
3768:Panning
3718:Kirlian
3627:Wedding
3505:Glamour
3485:Fashion
3470:Eclipse
3440:Banquet
3362:Albumen
3172:Monopod
3150:fisheye
3118:softbox
2972:pinhole
2962:instant
2952:digital
2725:Bibcode
2679:Bibcode
2471:Bibcode
1988:Bibcode
1953:Bibcode
1867:Bibcode
847:shutter
798:photons
537:silicon
443:voltage
352:, high
288:shutter
218:silicon
128:History
99:photons
84:p-doped
4519:
4508:
4436:street
4431:Polish
4119:Turkey
4114:Taiwan
4099:Serbia
4089:Norway
4064:Greece
4049:Canada
3648:Afocal
3607:Street
3587:Sports
3570:Selfie
3525:Nature
3480:Erotic
3445:Candid
3420:Aerial
3408:Genres
3310:medium
3187:Tripod
3155:swivel
3068:Filter
3046:holder
3041:format
2942:Camera
2851:
2770:
2697:
2595:
2587:
2526:SENSEI
2505:
2497:
2489:
2378:
2316:
2208:
2159:
2126:
2041:
2006:
1820:
1764:
1677:
1232:where
908:in an
852:gating
713:pixels
633:, and
607:oxides
494:MOSFET
482:biased
462:Sony α
234:patent
192:memory
89:(MOS)
80:pixels
4441:women
4399:Lists
4355:Fixer
4233:Pixel
4162:D-SLR
4109:Sudan
4079:Korea
4074:Japan
4069:India
4054:China
3838:Strip
3763:Night
3743:Macro
3653:Bokeh
3597:Stock
3565:Ruins
3305:large
3135:prime
3113:snoot
3073:Flash
3051:stock
2992:still
2977:press
2967:phone
2957:field
2768:S2CID
2695:S2CID
2593:S2CID
2557:arXiv
2503:S2CID
2461:arXiv
2433:(PDF)
2415:(PDF)
2404:(PDF)
2206:S2CID
2105:(PDF)
2098:(PDF)
2039:S2CID
1621:(TDI)
1586:(HAD)
1465:green
1459:into
1457:image
1002:exact
910:EMCCD
898:EMCCD
859:EMCCD
665:Argus
596:LOCOS
555:with
545:boron
434:light
350:noise
273:Kodak
252:pixel
4469:film
4174:MILC
3673:ETTR
3535:Nude
3495:Fire
3394:Sync
3192:head
3140:zoom
3125:Lens
3088:gobo
3036:base
3031:Film
3007:view
2849:ISBN
2649:2009
2634:2009
2619:2011
2585:ISSN
2533:2021
2495:PMID
2487:ISSN
2376:ISBN
2314:ISBN
2272:(2).
2157:ISBN
2124:ISBN
2004:ISSN
1842:and
1836:See
1818:ISBN
1797:2019
1762:ISBN
1688:2019
1675:ISBN
1469:blue
1467:and
1449:3CCD
1389:and
1353:The
833:, a
458:Sony
430:lens
311:Sony
263:and
174:and
139:and
4211:CCD
3002:toy
2997:TLR
2987:SLR
2760:doi
2733:doi
2721:103
2687:doi
2575:hdl
2567:doi
2553:100
2479:doi
2457:123
2366:doi
2270:230
2198:doi
2031:doi
1996:doi
1961:doi
1913:doi
1875:doi
1732:doi
1461:red
1144:exp
744:lux
467:or
342:NEC
261:RCA
48:CCD
4608::
2766:.
2754:.
2731:.
2719:.
2693:.
2685:.
2675:46
2673:.
2658:)
2591:.
2583:.
2573:.
2565:.
2551:.
2524:.
2501:.
2493:.
2485:.
2477:.
2469:.
2455:.
2435:.
2410:.
2406:.
2384:.
2374:.
2337:.
2312:.
2291:^
2268:.
2262:.
2204:.
2151:.
2072:.
2066:.
2037:.
2025:.
2002:.
1994:.
1984:18
1982:.
1959:.
1949:17
1947:.
1909:49
1907:.
1899:;
1895:;
1873:.
1863:49
1861:.
1788:.
1784:.
1746:^
1726:.
1722:.
1696:^
1673:.
1669:.
1665:.
1650:^
1513:.
1463:,
1405:A
1393:.
1289:,
1285:,
1281:,
875:°C
865:.
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375:.
309:,
259:,
224:,
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2780:.
2762::
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2727::
2701:.
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2244:.
2212:.
2200::
2165:.
2132:.
2083:.
2051:.
2033::
2010:.
1998::
1990::
1967:.
1963::
1955::
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1770:.
1740:.
1734::
1728:2
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1238:n
1234:P
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1095:)
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1081:(
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1029:n
1026:(
1022:P
969:N
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958:+
955:1
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936:P
871:K
541:p
490:n
486:p
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