741:, who had been arrested as soon as he had arrived in Britain, returned to them. Caesar claims he was negotiating from a position of strength and that the British leaders, blaming their attacks on him on the common people, were in only four days awed into giving hostages, some immediately, some as soon as they could be brought from inland, and disbanding their army. However, after his cavalry had come within sight of the beachhead but then been scattered and turned back to Gaul by storms, and with food running short, Caesar was taken by surprise by high British tides and a storm. His beached warships filled with water, and his transports, riding at anchor, were driven against each other. Some ships were wrecked, and many others were rendered unseaworthy by the loss of rigging or other vital equipment, threatening the return journey.
966:", to stage a diversionary attack on the Roman beach-head to draw Caesar off, but this attack failed, and Cassivellaunus sent ambassadors to negotiate a surrender. Caesar was eager to return to Gaul for the winter due to growing unrest there, and an agreement was mediated by Commius. Cassivellaunus gave hostages, agreed to an annual tribute, and undertook not to make war against Mandubracius or the Trinovantes. Caesar wrote to Cicero on 26 September, confirming the result of the campaign, with hostages but no booty taken, and that his army was about to return to Gaul. He then left, leaving not a single Roman soldier in Britain to enforce his settlement. Whether the tribute was ever paid is unknown.
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leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the meantime withdraw some little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of horse, the firmness of infantry; and by daily practice and exercise attain to such expertness that they are accustomed, even on a declining and steep place, to check their horses at full speed, and manage and turn them in an instant and run along the pole, and stand on the yoke, and thence betake themselves with the greatest celerity to their chariots again.
1068:: many smaller islands besides are supposed to lie there, of which islands some have written that at the time of the winter solstice it is night there for thirty consecutive days. We, in our inquiries about that matter, ascertained nothing, except that, by accurate measurements with water, we perceived the nights to be shorter there than on the continent. The length of this side, as their account states, is 700 miles. The third side is toward the north, to which portion of the island no land is opposite; but an angle of that side looks principally toward Germany. This side is considered to be 800 miles in length. Thus the whole island is about 2,000 miles in circumference.
593:
1144:, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first espoused when a virgin.
405:
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the enemy from the shallows. Eventually, the legion's standard bearer jumped into the sea and waded to shore. To have the legion's standard fall in combat was the greatest humiliation, and the men disembarked to protect the standard bearer. After some delay, a battle line was finally formed, and the
Britons withdrew. The cavalry auxiliaries were unable to make the crossing despite several attempts and so Caesar could not chase down the Britons.
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called by the names of those states from which being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part very like those of the Gauls... They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure.
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The Roman fleet sailed from France in the evening so that the army could land in daylight. They hoped to use the wind to help cross the
Channel but midnight the wind dropped and the channel tide carried them too far northeast and at sunrise they saw Britain in the distance on their left. They managed
526:
from this period shows a complicated pattern of intrusion. The earliest Gallo-Belgic coins that have been found in
Britain date to before 100 BC, perhaps as early as 150 BC, were struck in Gaul, and have been found mainly in Kent. Later coins of a similar type were struck in Britain and are found all
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The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is opposite to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither almost all ships from Gaul are directed, to the east; the lower looks to the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies toward
Hispania and the west, on
1044:
As well as noting elements of
British warfare, particularly the use of chariots, which were unfamiliar to his Roman audience, Caesar also aimed to impress them by making further geographical, meteorological and ethnographic investigations of Britain. He probably gained these by enquiry and hearsay
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However, another interpretation of the details, is Caesar had made a weakly enforced treaty with the
Catuvellauni, suggesting that a decisive victory did not occur upon the Britons. Caesar achieving popularity with the Roman peoples, and Cassivellaunus' achievement of the maintained autonomy of the
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tactics to slow the Roman advance. By the time Caesar reached the Thames, the one fordable place available to him had been fortified with sharpened stakes, both on the shore and under the water, and the far bank was defended. Second
Century sources state that Caesar used a large war elephant, which
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Caesar's approach in the winter of 55–54 BC towards the invasion in 54 BC was far more comprehensive and successful than his initial expedition. New ships had been built over the winter, using experience of
Venetic shipbuilding technology being broader and lower for easier beaching, and Caesar
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Caesar once again narrowly escaped disaster. Taking an understrength army with few provisions to a far-off land was a poor tactical decision, which easily could have led to Caesar's defeat, yet he survived. While he had achieved no significant gains in
Britain, he had accomplished a monumental feat
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near the Roman camp. The foraging party was relieved by the remainder of the Roman force and the
Britons were again driven off, only to regroup after several days of storms with a larger force to attack the Roman camp. This attack was driven off fully, in a bloody rout, with improvised cavalry that
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The Britons had kept pace and fielded an impressive force, including cavalry and chariots, and the legions were hesitant to go ashore. To make matters worse, the loaded Roman ships were too low in the water to go close inshore and the troops had to disembark in deep water, all the while attacked by
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Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse,
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By Claudius's time Roman knowledge of the island would have been considerably increased by a century of trade and diplomacy, and four abortive invasion attempts. However, it is likely that the intelligence gathered in 55 and 54 BC would have been retained in the now-lost state records in Rome, and
973:
summed up Roman sentiment by saying, "It's also been established that there isn't a scrap of silver in the island and no hope of booty except for slaves – and I don't suppose you're expecting them to know much about literature or music!" Regardless, this second trip to Britain was a true invasion,
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tides and storms, but nevertheless, considering the damage he had sustained the previous year, this was poor planning on Caesar's part. However, Caesar may have exaggerated the number of ships wrecked to magnify his own achievement in rescuing the situation. He returned to the coast, recalling the
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was left at Portus Itius to oversee regular food transports from there to the British beachhead. The military ships were joined by a flotilla of trading ships captained by Romans and provincials from across the empire, and local Gauls, hoping to cash in on the trading opportunities. It seems more
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culture, with an estimated population of between one and four million. Archaeological research shows that its economy was broadly divided into lowland and highland zones. In the lowland southeast, large areas of fertile soil made possible extensive arable farming, and communication developed along
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No information about harbours or other landing-places was available to the Romans before Caesar's expeditions, so Caesar was able to make discoveries of benefit to Roman military and trading interests. Volusenus's reconnaissance voyage before the first expedition apparently identified the natural
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The Trinovantes, whom Caesar describes as the most powerful tribe in the region, and who had recently suffered at Cassivellaunus' hands, sent ambassadors, promising him aid and provisions. Mandubracius, who had accompanied Caesar, was restored as their king, and the Trinovantes provided grain and
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gathered on the overlooking hills dissuaded him from landing there. After waiting there at anchor "until the ninth hour" (about 3pm) waiting for his supply ships from the second port to come up and meanwhile convening a council of war, he ordered the fleet to sail north-east along the coast to an
1500:
Caesar, a precocious 21-year-old warrior, invades Britain because one of his knights, Luces, is in love with the wife of the king of England. Afterwards, a Briton called Orsus Bouchesuave takes a lance which Caesar used to kill his uncle, makes twelve iron styluses from the head, and, alongside
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The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they say that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island itself: the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the country of the Belgae for the purpose of plunder and making war; almost all of whom are
695:
Clearly in a hurry, Caesar himself left a garrison at the port and set out "at the third watch" (well after midnight) on 23 August with the legions so that they would arrive at dawn, leaving the cavalry to march to their ships, embark, and join him as soon as possible. In light of later events,
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However, it may have been an excuse to gain stature in the eyes of the Roman people, due to Pompey and Crassus' consulship. On the one hand, they were Caesar's political allies, and Crassus's son had fought under him the year before. But they were also his rivals, and had formidable reputations
1601:, Caesar has successfully conquered Britain because the Britons stop fighting every afternoon for a cup of hot water with milk, tea not yet having been brought to Europe as well as on weekends. This behaviour prompted the Romans to only attack at 5 O'clock during the week and only on weekends.
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was equipped with armour and carried archers and slingers in its tower, to put the defenders to flight. When this unknown creature entered the river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over and entered Cassivellaunus' territory. (However, this may be a confusion with
1549:) in which areas of the empire must be conquered and arguing about how many legions it theoretically needs to capture and hold Britain, and again in the speech in which Claudius announces his own invasion ("100 years since the divine Julius left it, Britain is once again a province of Rome").
1053:
Caesar's first-hand discoveries were limited to east Kent and the Thames Valley, but he was able to provide a description of the island's geography and meteorology. Though his measurements are not wholly accurate, and may owe something to Pytheas, his general conclusions even now seem valid:
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and Caesar achieved his goals. One interpretation is that he had beaten the Britons and extracted tribute; they were now effectively Roman subjects. Caesar was lenient towards the tribes as he needed to leave before the stormy season set in, which would make crossing the channel impossible.
724:
where artefacts and massive earthworks dating from this period have been exposed. If Caesar had as large a fleet with him as has been suggested, then it is possible that the beaching of ships would have been spread out over a number of miles stretching from Walmer towards Pegwell Bay.
850:
However, the next morning, as he prepared to advance further, Caesar received word from Atrius that, once again, his ships at anchor had been dashed against each other in a storm and suffered considerable damage. About forty, he says, were lost. The Romans were unused to Atlantic and
605:
Caesar summoned merchants who traded with the island, but they were unable or unwilling to give him any useful information about the inhabitants and their military tactics, or about harbours he could use, presumably not wanting to lose their monopoly on cross-channel trade. He sent a
821:
The Britons had gathered to oppose the landing but as Caesar states, intimidated by the size of the fleet, withdrew 'and concealed themselves on the high ground' perhaps to give them time to gather their forces. Caesar landed and immediately went to find the Britons army.
1389:
gives a garbled account, in which Caesar invades three times, landing at the Thames Estuary rather than on a beach in Kent. His chief opponent is Dolobellus, proconsul of the British king Belinus, son of Minocannus. Caesar finally defeats the Britons at a place called
1012:, describes how Commius and his followers, with Caesar in pursuit, boarded their ships. Although the tide was out and the ships still beached, Commius ordered the sails raised. Caesar, still some distance away, assumed the ships were afloat and called off the pursuit.
580:(Pompey was a great general, and Crassus was fabulously wealthy). Since the consuls could easily sway and buy public opinion, Caesar needed to stay in the public eye. His solution was to cross two water bodies no Roman army had attempted before: the Rhine and the
1097:
100 years later, were not used on either occasion. Caesar may have been unaware of them, may have chosen not to use them, or they may not have existed in a form suitable for sheltering and landing such a large force at that time. Present knowledge of the period
527:
along the south coast as far west as Dorset. It appears that Belgic power was concentrated on the southeastern coast, although their influence spread further west and inland, perhaps through chieftains establishing political control over the native population.
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legions that had gone ahead, and immediately set about repairing his fleet. His men worked day and night for approximately ten days, beaching and repairing the ships, and building a fortified camp around them. Word was sent to Labienus to send more ships.
728:
The site at Ebbsfleet is a defensive enclosure today about 1 km from the sea due to siltation of the former Wantsum Channel but in ancient times was on peninsula projecting into the channel. The defensive ditch enclosed an area of over 20 ha on the shore.
1277:
It was, in fact, the deified Julius who first of all Romans entered Britain with an army: he overawed the natives by a successful battle and made himself master of the coast; but it may be said that he revealed, rather than bequeathed, Britain to
834:
in charge of the beach-head with an equivalent of a legion to build and defend the base. He then made an immediate night march 12 mi (19 km) inland, where he encountered the British forces at a river crossing, probably somewhere on the
780:
fed Rome a steady update of Caesar's exploits (with his own personal spin on events). Caesar's goal of prestige and publicity succeeded enormously: upon his return to Rome, he was hailed as a hero and given an unprecedented 20-day thanksgiving.
2101:
1081:), although Caesar was prevented from landing there and forced to land on an open beach, as he did again the following year, perhaps because Dover was too small for his much larger forces. The great natural harbours further up the coast at
795:
now took 800 ships, five legions (instead of two) and 2,000 cavalry. He left the rest of his army in Gaul to keep order. Caesar took with him a good number of Gallic chiefs whom he considered untrustworthy so he could keep an eye on them.
564:
says that the Venetic rebellion in 56 BC had been intended to prevent Caesar from travelling to Britain and disrupting their commercial activity, suggesting that the possibility of a British expedition had already been considered by then.
1193:"The institution is thought to have originated in Britain, and to have been thence introduced into Gaul; and even now those who wish to become more accurately acquainted with it, generally repair thither, for the sake of learning it."
1463:
also refer to Caesar's invasions. Some of these references appear directly related to Geoffrey's account, but others allude to independent traditions: Caswallawn (Cassivellaunus) is said to have gone to Rome in search of his lover,
1428:, but is greatly expanded. Historical elements are modified – the stakes placed in the Thames by the Britons become anti-ship rather than anti-infantry and anti-cavalry devices – and other elements, such as Cassibelanus's brother
1261:
there, thus bringing the island into Rome's sphere of political influence. Diplomatic and trading links developed further over the next century, opening up the possibility of permanent conquest, which was finally begun by
486:
had begun to be established on lower ground, often at river crossings, suggesting that trade was becoming more important. Commercial contact between Britain and the continent had increased since the Roman conquest of
1348:
contains a brief account of Caesar's invasions, which makes an influential mistake: Quintus Laberius Durus, the tribune who died in Britain, is misnamed "Labienus", an error which is followed by all medieval British
1064:
which part is Ireland, less, as is reckoned, than Britain, by one half: but the passage from it into Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of this voyage, is an island, which is called
1479:
contains an account of Caesar's invasions based partly on Caesar and partly on Geoffrey. It adds an explanation of how Caesar's soldiers overcame the stakes in the Thames – they tied wooden splints filled with
696:
leaving without the cavalry was either a tactical mistake or (along with the fact that the legions came over without baggage or heavy siege gear) confirms the invasion was not intended for complete conquest.
1329:
relates that, when Cassivellaunus was defending a river crossing against him, Caesar gained passage by the use of an armoured elephant, which terrified the Britons into fleeing. This may be a confusion with
756:
The campaigning season was now nearly over, and the legions were in no condition to winter on the coast of Kent. Caesar withdrew back across the Channel with as many of the ships as could be repaired with
1229:
is produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron; but the quantity of it is small: they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and fir.
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3525:
480:, supported by garden cultivation, was more common than settled farming, and communication was more difficult. Settlements were generally built on high ground and fortified, but in the southeast,
1468:, to have allowed Caesar to land in Britain in return for a horse called Meinlas, and pursued Caesar in a great fleet after he returned to Gaul. The 18th-century collection of Triads compiled by
392:, which contains the earliest surviving significant eyewitness descriptions of the island's people, culture and geography. This is effectively the start of the written history, or at least the
626:, but was unable to land, since he "did not dare leave his ship and entrust himself to the barbarians", and after five days returned to give Caesar what intelligence he had managed to gather.
1045:
rather than direct experience, as he did not penetrate that far into the interior, and most historians would be wary of applying them beyond the tribes with whom he came into direct contact.
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1249:
and other traders. However, Caesar only penetrated to Essex and so, receiving reports of the trade whilst there, it would have been easy to perceive the trade as coming from the interior.
440:
at what was to them the edge of the known world, was a land of great mystery. Some Roman writers even insisted that it did not exist, and dismissed reports of Pytheas's voyage as a hoax.
1567:, involves Caesar invading Britain, defeating the Britons who think the battle is a football match and so only send 10 men against the Romans, and occupying Britain for 10 years or more.
629:
By then, ambassadors from some of the British states, warned by merchants of the impending invasion, had arrived promising their submission. Caesar sent them back, along with his ally
1153:
In addition to infantry and cavalry, the Britons employed chariots in warfare, a novelty to the Romans, who used them for transport and racing. Caesar describes their use as follows:
2962:
887:, into exile. But now, facing invasion, the Britons had appointed Cassivellaunus to lead their combined forces. After several indecisive skirmishes, during which a Roman tribune,
552:
Caesar's pretext for the invasion was that "in almost all the wars with the Gauls succours had been furnished to our enemy from that country" with fugitives from among the Gallic
744:
Realising this and hoping to keep Caesar in Britain over the winter and thus starve him into submission, the Britons renewed the attack, ambushing one of the legions as it
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222:
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includes an account of Caesar's invasions. This account is taken almost word for word from Orosius, which suggests Bede read a copy of this work from the library at
1420:, has Caesar invading Britain, and has Cassibelanus (i.e. Cassivellaunus) as Caesar's primary opponent, but otherwise differs from the historical record. As in the
1319:
under Caesar, who, having been deserted by his comrades, held his position alone against a horde of Britons on a small island, before finally swimming to safety.
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customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britons, indeed, dye themselves with
684:, or may have been adapted from Venetic designs Caesar had seen previously, or may even have been requisitioned from the Veneti and other coastal tribes.
859:
Caesar was on the coast on 1 September, from where he wrote a letter to Cicero. News must have reached Caesar at this point of the death of his daughter
1543:
of the two books they are mentioned in a scene during Augustus's reign where young members of the imperial family are playing a board game (not unlike
1122:, with polygamy and other exotic social habits, similar in many ways to the Gauls, yet as brave adversaries whose crushing can bring glory to a Roman:
814:
likely that the figure Caesar quotes for the fleet (800 ships) include these traders and the troop-transports, rather than the troop-transports alone.
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847:, but were again defeated and scattered. As it was late in the day and Caesar was unsure of the territory, he called off the pursuit and made camp.
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Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel
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engaging in hand-to-hand combat with Caesar and stealing his sword, called Crocea Mors, are not known from any earlier source. Adaptations such as
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he keels and ribs were made of light timber, then, the rest of the hull of the ships was wrought with wicker work, and covered over with hides.
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twice: in 55 and 54 BC. On the first occasion, Caesar took with him only two legions, and achieved little beyond a landing on the coast of
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of the Catuvellauni issued coins from Camulodunum, suggesting that he conquered the Trinobantes in direct violation of the treaty.
560:, who controlled seaborne trade to the island, calling in aid from their British allies to fight for them against Caesar in 56 BC.
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Caesar extracted payment of grain, slaves, and an annual tribute to Rome. However, Britain was not particularly rich at the time;
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had previously conducted raids on Britain, establishing settlements in some of its coastal areas, and that within living memory
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believes that this anecdote was a legend, and that Commius was sent to Britain as a friendly king as part of his truce with
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https://archaeology.co.uk/articles/features/ebbsfleet-54-bc-searching-for-the-launch-site-of-caesars-british-invasions.htm
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Caesar not only investigates this for the sake of it, but also to justify Britain as a rich source of tribute and trade:
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1424:, Caesar invades three times, not twice, landing at the Thames Estuary. His story is also largely based on Bede and the
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1002:'s rebellion. After a number of unsuccessful engagements with Caesar's forces, he cut his losses and fled to Britain.
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Ebbsfleet, 54 BC: Searching for the launch site of Caesar’s British invasions, Current Archaeology March 1, 2018,
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did not contest Caesar's landing, waiting instead until he began to move inland. Caesar eventually penetrated into
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to row and use the reversing tide to arrive at the place identified as the best landing-place the previous year.
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Caesar had been conquering Gaul since 58 BC and in 56 BC he took most of northwest Gaul after defeating the
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simply by landing there. It was a fabulous propaganda victory as well, which was chronicled in Caesar's ongoing
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It may also have been a cover for investigating Britain's mineral resources and economic potential: afterwards,
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In late summer 55 BC, even though it was late in the campaigning season, Caesar decided to embark for Britain.
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Caesar made no conquests in Britain, but his enthroning of Mandubracius marked the beginnings of a system of
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Campaign map of 55 BC. Note Caesar's crossing of the Rhine, with Germanic counter movements in orange
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Caesar then returned to the Stour crossing and found the Britons had massed their forces there.
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Caesar initially tried to land but when he came in sight of shore, the massed forces of the
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in the 4th century BC, and may have been explored even earlier, in the 5th century, by the
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1936:
1559:
1373:
1103:
892:
852:
611:
581:
572:
refers to the disappointing discovery that there was no gold or silver in the island; and
113:
2213:
1488:. It also identifies the standard-bearer of the 10th legion as Valerius Maximus's Scaeva.
978:
Britons. This is evidenced via the next identifiable king of the Trinovantes, known from
4219:
4079:
4028:
3982:
3844:
3494:
3397:
3370:
3049:
2947:
2474:
1765:
1539:, Claudius refers to Caesar's invasions when discussing his own invasion. In the 1976
1448:
1341:
940:
899:
872:
831:
810:
750:
700:
672:). Another eighteen transports of cavalry were to sail from a different port, probably
623:
421:
360:
348:
162:
145:
140:
1171:, Caesar made use of a kind of boat he had seen used in Britain, similar to the Irish
59:
4297:
3642:
3505:
3483:
3380:
3375:
3160:
2823:
2611:
2445:
2094:"In the Footsteps of Caesar: The archaeology of the first Roman invasions of Britain"
1673:
1592:
1572:
1524:
1469:
1438:
1099:
999:
542:
340:
336:
157:
97:
42:
4064:
3500:
3407:
3402:
3355:
3274:
1871:
1460:
1008:
884:
844:
799:
665:
645:
592:
465:
461:
453:
393:
368:
3074:
3053:
2939:
1958:
4240:
4023:
3959:
3711:
3666:
3463:
3392:
3279:
2735:
2701:
2227:
1947:) and oysters were later exported from Britain to Rome (Pliny, Natural History)
1694:
1577:
1545:
1529:
1496:
1391:
1086:
1065:
1017:
987:
983:
955:
880:
721:
619:
536:
523:
372:
332:
232:
51:
4235:
4069:
3901:
3296:
2463:
2056:
https://le.ac.uk/archaeology/research/big-antiquity/in-the-footsteps-of-caesar
1485:
979:
924:
673:
669:
519:
469:
4245:
4209:
4130:
3113:
3098:
3080:
2206:
1953:
1907:
1564:
1553:
1511:
1322:
1316:
1286:
1119:
1021:
951:
928:
920:
641:
634:
573:
352:
891:, was killed, the Britons attacked a foraging party of three legions under
1136:, which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the
576:
reports that Caesar was said to have gone to Britain in search of pearls.
4135:
4094:
3938:
3769:
3131:
Nearing, Homer (1949). "The Legend of Julius Caesar's British Conquest".
2847:
1754:
1727:
1331:
1263:
1238:
1090:
1082:
1029:
963:
908:
840:
745:
657:
557:
492:
477:
429:
294:
1058:
The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the colds being less severe.
2436:
1924:
1581:
1481:
1443:
1386:
1270:
1246:
1176:
1172:
959:
932:
758:
738:
677:
637:, to use their influence to win over as many other states as possible.
630:
607:
482:
437:
425:
364:
3152:
1501:
Brutus, Cassius and other senators, uses them to stab Caesar to death.
3190:
2932:
2876:
1882:
1833:
1743:
1709:
1222:
1207:
1074:
1025:
970:
876:
681:
661:
569:
561:
553:
507:
500:
356:
89:
1580:(not present during either invasion) invading Britain and enslaving
3144:
614:, to scout the coast in a single warship. He probably examined the
1465:
1293:...run away in terror from the Britons whom he had come to attack!
1282:
1242:
1211:
1078:
936:
863:, as Cicero refrained from replying "on account of his mourning".
93:
1315:(1st century AD) praises the bravery of Marcus Caesius Scaeva, a
3611:
2912:
1520:
depicts Caesar on the shores of Gaul, contemplating an invasion.
1433:
1359:
1215:
1141:
1137:
1133:
615:
511:
380:
344:
85:
3615:
3194:
737:
The Romans established a camp and received ambassadors and had
204:
1234:
1226:
895:, but were repulsed and routed by the pursuing Roman cavalry.
417:
200:
2660:
2658:
1832:– although whether Iron Age settlements of this period were "
1132:
The most civilised of all these nations are they who inhabit
436:. But to many Romans, the island, lying as it did beyond the
2121:
2119:
2054:
Julius Caesar and the Roman base at Ebbsfleet, Thanet, Kent
1972:
1970:
1968:
1966:
720:
indicates that the likely landing beach was at Ebbsfleet in
556:
fleeing to Belgic settlements in Britain, and the Veneti of
1408:, and gives Caesar an inspirational speech to his troops.
476:, arable land was available only in isolated pockets, so
898:
Cassivellaunus realised he could not defeat Caesar in a
749:
Commius had gathered from pro-Roman Britons and a Roman
522:, had held power in Britain as well as in Gaul. British
2981:"Tide and time: Re-dating Caesar's invasion of Britain"
1657:
1655:
1110:
been used by Claudius in the planning of his landings.
491:
in 124 BC, and Italian wine was being imported via the
178:
7,000–10,000 legionaries plus cavalry and auxiliaries
4228:
4179:
4144:
4118:
4087:
4078:
4047:
4011:
3974:
3923:
3886:
3793:
3710:
3692:
3649:
3514:
3228:
2362:cf. his similar ethnographic treatment of them in
506:Caesar's written account of Britain says that the
386:Caesar included accounts of both invasions in his
1233:This reference to the 'midland' is inaccurate as
443:Britain during the reign of Julius Caesar had an
946:Cassivellaunus sent word to his allies in Kent,
2202:
2200:
1472:contains expanded versions of these traditions.
408:Southern Britain in the Late pre-Roman Iron Age
41:
468:. In the highlands, north of the line between
3627:
3206:
1770:The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek
1024:area, known from coins of Gallo-Belgic type.
660:, at an unnamed port in the territory of the
656:), and an unknown number of warships under a
216:
8:
3590:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
3058:(3rd ed.). Routledge & Kegan Paul.
2461:Actorum et Dictorum Memorabilium Libri Novem
3139:(4). Modern Language Association: 889–929.
1036:of AD 43, styled himself a son of Commius.
4084:
3707:
3634:
3620:
3612:
3213:
3199:
3191:
2330:
2328:
2326:
998:Commius later switched sides, fighting in
223:
209:
201:
38:
2303:
1289:(II,572) makes the jibe that Caesar had:
1237:occurred in the southwest of England, in
943:, which he proceeded to put under siege.
640:He gathered a fleet consisting of eighty
420:. The coastline had been explored by the
3031:Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain
2223:
2221:
2125:
2014:
1976:
1365:History of the English Church and People
591:
403:
3878:Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire
3361:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
2664:
1661:
1623:
1404:gives an account based on Bede and the
1020:. Commius established a dynasty in the
2479:Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII
1836:" in our sense of the word is debated.
1646:
1630:
3055:Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
2967:– via Ghent University Library.
2245:
2162:
2104:from the original on 30 November 2017
2002:
1810:
1780:
30:For the conquest begun in AD 43, see
7:
4314:1st century BC in the Roman Republic
4304:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
4195:Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar
3469:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
1106:that created that haven is limited.
1484:around them, and burned them using
1118:The Britons are defined as typical
919:hostages. Five further tribes, the
704:open beach probably at Ebbsfleet.
464:, and navigable rivers such as the
412:Britain had long been known to the
1456:s largely follow Geoffrey's story.
962:, described as the "four kings of
495:peninsula, much of it arriving at
383:without conquering any territory.
27:Military campaigns in 55 and 54 BC
25:
3997:Ut est rerum omnium magister usus
1933:temple to her that he later built
1927:decorated with British pearls to
18:Caesar's invasion of Britain
4275:
4274:
3602:Military history of ancient Rome
3109:The Celts: Bronze Age to New Age
3007:Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire
2979:Blaschke, Jayme (23 June 2008).
1028:, the king whose exile prompted
58:
4309:1st century BC in Great Britain
3585:Civil wars of the Third Century
3168:Snyder, Christopher A. (2008).
1417:History of the Kings of Britain
1334:'s use of elephants during his
1298:In later literature and culture
1049:Geographical and meteorological
911:'s use of elephants during his
64:Roman invasion of Britain 54 BC
3076:Caesar's Gallic wars, 58–50 BC
3034:. Cambridge University Press.
2776:Letters to his brother Quintus
2190:Letters to his brother Quintus
1923:. Caesar did later dedicate a
875:, a warlord from north of the
379:. The Romans then returned to
359:, forcing the British warlord
1:
1753:, written soon after Caesar;
1475:The 13th-century French work
1376:had brought from Rome itself.
4152:Gaius Julius Caesar (father)
3953:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
3073:Gilliver, Catherine (2003).
2952:Histories Against the Pagans
2905:Abridgement of Roman History
2423:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2392:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2378:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2364:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2349:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2335:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2316:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2258:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2175:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2079:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2041:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2027:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
1989:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
1846:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
1823:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
1793:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
1679:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
1506:20th century popular culture
773:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
676:. These ships may have been
389:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
290:Ambiorix's revolt (54–53 BC)
3946:Commentarii de Bello Civili
2831:Lives of the Twelve Caesars
2408:Commentarii de Bello Civili
1913:Lives of the Twelve Caesars
1612:Devil's Dyke, Hertfordshire
1491:In the 14th-century French
1370:Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory
601:Planning and reconnaissance
4345:
3050:Frere, Sheppard Sunderland
1346:History Against the Pagans
1221:, determined at a certain
1210:is great. They use either
1179:. He describes them thus:
830:Upon landing, Caesar left
716:Recent archaeology by the
644:, sufficient to carry two
534:
29:
4269:
3598:
3543:Roman conquest of Britain
3174:. John Wiley & Sons.
2883:Epitome of Gallic History
2570:Historia Regum Britanniae
2547:Historia Regum Britanniae
1514:'s 1906 children's novel
1313:Memorable Words and Deeds
1040:Discoveries about Britain
240:
186:17,500–25,000 legionaries
168:
151:
134:
68:
57:
49:
32:Roman conquest of Britain
4034:Temple of Venus Genetrix
3004:Bunson, Matthew (2014).
1714:Epitome of Roman History
1527:'s 1934 and 1935 novels
1235:tin production and trade
802:as the departure point.
761:from the wrecked ships.
3240:Roman conquest of Italy
3010:. Infobase Publishing.
2961:Dheere, Luc (c. 1550).
2926:7 November 2018 at the
2098:University of Leicester
1517:The Story of the Amulet
1004:Sextus Julius Frontinus
785:Second invasion (54 BC)
718:University of Leicester
367:to Rome and setting up
45:'s invasions of Britain
4215:Julio-Claudian dynasty
4039:Caesar's Rhine bridges
3966:Poems by Julius Caesar
3932:Laudatio Iuliae amitae
3908:Constitutional reforms
3895:Lex Julia de maiestate
3106:Haywood, John (2014).
2985:Texas State University
2494:Ecclesiastical History
1868:Loeb Classical Library
1089:), which were used by
889:Quintus Laberius Durus
776:. The writings in the
597:
588:First invasion (55 BC)
409:
152:Commanders and leaders
4324:Amphibious operations
3657:Early life and career
3570:Domitian's Dacian War
3489:Liberators' civil war
2139:"Invasion of Britain"
633:, king of the Belgae
595:
407:
400:Britain before Caesar
331:In the course of his
4329:European expeditions
4256:Marcus Junius Brutus
4167:Julia Minor (sister)
4162:Julia Major (sister)
3760:Invasions of Britain
3677:Crossing the Rubicon
3575:Trajan's Dacian Wars
3260:Roman–Hernician wars
2748:Letters of Cicero –
2542:Geoffrey of Monmouth
1576:features Caesar and
1412:Geoffrey of Monmouth
1245:, and was what drew
883:and forced his son,
806:Crossing and landing
396:, of Great Britain.
280:Octodurus (57–56 BC)
4095:Cossutia (disputed)
3474:Roman–Parthian Wars
3265:Roman–Volscian wars
3245:Roman–Etruscan Wars
2865:Velleius Paterculus
2667:, pp. 889–929.
2524:Henry of Huntingdon
1732:Life of Caesar 23.2
1398:Henry of Huntingdon
1336:conquest of Britain
913:conquest of Britain
798:This time he named
664:, almost certainly
320:Uxellodunum (51 BC)
245:Magetobriga (63 BC)
180:100 transport ships
4136:Augustus (adopted)
4060:Chiaramonti Caesar
3838:Battle of the Nile
3694:Military campaigns
3672:Caesar's civil war
3580:Roman–Persian Wars
3479:Caesar's civil war
3351:Roman–Seleucid war
3250:Roman-Aequian wars
3222:Ancient Roman wars
2793:Letters to Atticus
2752:Letters to friends
2272:Letters to Atticus
1894:Letters to Atticus
1887:Letters to friends
1860:Strabo's Geography
1598:Asterix in Britain
1477:Li Fet des Romains
1269:. In the words of
1225:, as their money.
1198:Economic resources
845:Bigbury Wood, Kent
598:
547:Battle of Morbihan
410:
285:Britain (55-54 BC)
4291:
4290:
4175:
4174:
4055:Tusculum portrait
3914:Dictator perpetuo
3873:
3872:
3765:Ambiorix's revolt
3662:First Triumvirate
3650:Major life events
3609:
3608:
3565:Jewish–Roman wars
3437:Sulla's civil war
3431:Bellum Octavianum
3319:Illyro-Roman Wars
3292:Roman–Gallic wars
3270:Roman–Sabine wars
3181:978-0-470-75821-2
3123:978-1-317-87017-3
3090:978-0-203-49484-4
3065:978-0-7102-1215-3
3041:978-1-139-43172-9
3017:978-1-4381-1027-1
2616:Triads of Britain
2587:; Hergest Triads
2528:Historia Anglorum
2509:Historia Britonum
2128:, pp. 49–50.
1979:, pp. 43–49.
1864:Book IV Chapter 4
1558:The Histories of
1426:Historia Britonum
1422:Historia Britonum
1406:Historia Britonum
1402:Historia Anglorum
1382:Historia Britonum
328:
327:
310:Vingeanne (52 BC)
199:
198:
130:
129:
16:(Redirected from
4336:
4319:50s BC conflicts
4278:
4277:
4200:Temple of Caesar
4157:Aurelia (mother)
4085:
3990:Veni, vidi, vici
3708:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3613:
3531:Marcomannic Wars
3442:Mithridatic Wars
3366:Celtiberian Wars
3255:Roman–Latin wars
3215:
3208:
3201:
3192:
3185:
3164:
3127:
3102:
3069:
3045:
3021:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2991:on 1 August 2013
2987:. Archived from
2968:
2723:De Bello Gallico
2688:De Bello Gallico
2668:
2662:
2653:
2609:
2603:
2583:Peniarth Triads
2581:
2575:
2563:De Bello Gallico
2559:
2553:
2539:
2533:
2521:
2515:
2505:
2499:
2490:
2484:
2472:
2466:
2457:Valerius Maximus
2454:
2448:
2434:
2428:
2420:
2414:
2403:
2397:
2389:
2383:
2375:
2369:
2360:
2354:
2346:
2340:
2332:
2321:
2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2283:
2277:
2269:
2263:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2225:
2216:
2204:
2195:
2186:
2180:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2090:
2084:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2038:
2032:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1986:
1980:
1974:
1961:
1905:
1899:
1880:
1874:
1857:
1851:
1843:
1837:
1820:
1814:
1813:, pp. 9–15.
1808:
1802:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1740:
1734:
1725:
1719:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1628:
1563:, a pastiche of
1536:Claudius the God
1400:'s 12th-century
1379:The 9th-century
1309:Valerius Maximus
510:of northeastern
497:Hengistbury Head
489:Transalpine Gaul
355:and crossed the
300:Gergovia (52 BC)
295:Avaricum (52 BC)
275:Atuatuci (57 BC)
255:Bibracte (58 BC)
235:
225:
218:
211:
202:
114:tributary tribes
70:
69:
62:
39:
21:
4344:
4343:
4339:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4334:
4333:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4287:
4265:
4261:Curia of Pompey
4224:
4171:
4140:
4114:
4074:
4043:
4019:Forum of Caesar
4007:
3970:
3919:
3882:
3869:
3828:Alexandrian war
3789:
3706:
3688:
3645:
3640:
3610:
3605:
3594:
3560:Civil war of 69
3548:Boudican revolt
3517:
3510:
3386:Cantabrian Wars
3324:Macedonian Wars
3231:
3224:
3219:
3182:
3167:
3130:
3124:
3105:
3091:
3072:
3066:
3048:
3042:
3026:Creighton, John
3024:
3018:
3003:
2994:
2992:
2978:
2975:
2960:
2937:Epitome of Livy
2928:Wayback Machine
2814:
2718:
2716:Second invasion
2682:
2677:
2672:
2671:
2663:
2656:
2610:
2606:
2582:
2578:
2560:
2556:
2540:
2536:
2522:
2518:
2506:
2502:
2491:
2487:
2473:
2469:
2455:
2451:
2435:
2431:
2421:
2417:
2404:
2400:
2390:
2386:
2376:
2372:
2361:
2357:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2324:
2314:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2284:
2280:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2252:
2244:
2240:
2226:
2219:
2205:
2198:
2187:
2183:
2173:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2124:
2117:
2107:
2105:
2092:
2091:
2087:
2077:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1964:
1941:Natural History
1906:
1902:
1881:
1877:
1858:
1854:
1844:
1840:
1821:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1791:
1787:
1783:, pp. 6–9.
1779:
1775:
1741:
1737:
1726:
1722:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1608:
1560:Pliny the Elder
1508:
1374:Benedict Biscop
1356:
1344:'s 5th-century
1325:'s 2nd-century
1305:
1303:Classical works
1300:
1259:client kingdoms
1255:
1200:
1190:
1165:
1151:
1116:
1104:Wantsum Channel
1051:
1042:
996:
893:Gaius Trebonius
869:
828:
808:
792:
787:
767:
735:
714:
693:
642:transport ships
612:Gaius Volusenus
603:
590:
582:English Channel
539:
533:
416:as a source of
414:classical world
402:
329:
324:
305:Lutetia (52 BC)
236:
231:
229:
191:
189:
187:
185:
181:
179:
177:
122:
100:
63:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4342:
4340:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4296:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4285:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4232:
4230:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4222:
4220:Caesar (title)
4217:
4212:
4207:
4205:Caesar's Comet
4202:
4197:
4192:
4188:Life of Caesar
4183:
4181:
4177:
4176:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4091:
4089:
4082:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4029:Basilica Julia
4026:
4021:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4005:
4000:
3993:
3986:
3983:Alea iacta est
3978:
3976:
3972:
3971:
3969:
3968:
3963:
3956:
3949:
3942:
3935:
3927:
3925:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3910:
3905:
3898:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3880:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3841:
3840:
3835:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3799:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3716:
3714:
3705:
3704:
3698:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3616:
3607:
3606:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3522:
3520:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3495:Bellum Siculum
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3439:
3434:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3405:
3400:
3398:Jugurthine War
3395:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3371:Lusitanian War
3368:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3321:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3294:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3236:
3234:
3232:Roman Republic
3226:
3225:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3195:
3187:
3186:
3180:
3165:
3145:10.2307/459639
3128:
3122:
3103:
3089:
3070:
3064:
3046:
3040:
3022:
3016:
3001:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2958:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2930:
2910:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2888:
2874:
2862:
2845:
2826:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2790:
2773:
2746:
2733:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2699:
2681:
2680:First invasion
2678:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2654:
2604:
2576:
2554:
2534:
2516:
2500:
2485:
2467:
2449:
2429:
2415:
2398:
2384:
2370:
2355:
2341:
2322:
2308:
2304:Creighton 2000
2296:
2278:
2264:
2250:
2238:
2217:
2196:
2181:
2167:
2155:
2130:
2115:
2085:
2071:
2059:
2047:
2033:
2019:
2007:
1995:
1981:
1962:
1929:Venus Genetrix
1900:
1875:
1852:
1838:
1815:
1803:
1785:
1773:
1766:Barry Cunliffe
1735:
1720:
1666:
1651:
1639:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1595:'s 1965 comic
1585:
1570:The 1964 film
1568:
1550:
1521:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1489:
1473:
1457:
1452:and the Welsh
1409:
1395:
1385:attributed to
1377:
1355:
1354:Medieval works
1352:
1351:
1350:
1339:
1320:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1280:
1279:
1254:
1251:
1231:
1230:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1129:
1128:
1115:
1112:
1070:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1050:
1047:
1041:
1038:
1014:John Creighton
995:
992:
982:evidence, was
941:Wheathampstead
900:pitched battle
873:Cassivellaunus
868:
865:
832:Quintus Atrius
827:
824:
811:Titus Labienus
807:
804:
791:
788:
786:
783:
766:
763:
751:scorched earth
734:
731:
713:
710:
692:
689:
618:coast between
602:
599:
589:
586:
532:
529:
518:, king of the
452:, such as the
401:
398:
361:Cassivellaunus
349:Celtic Britons
326:
325:
323:
322:
317:
315:Alesia (52 BC)
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
260:Vosges (58 BC)
257:
252:
247:
241:
238:
237:
230:
228:
227:
220:
213:
205:
197:
196:
193:
190:600 transports
171:
170:
166:
165:
163:Cassivellaunus
160:
154:
153:
149:
148:
146:Celtic Britons
143:
141:Roman Republic
137:
136:
132:
131:
128:
127:
124:
118:
117:
116:set up by Rome
106:
102:
101:
84:
82:
78:
77:
74:
66:
65:
55:
54:
47:
46:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4341:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4284:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4271:
4268:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4227:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4189:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4117:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3943:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3903:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3885:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3685:
3684:Assassination
3682:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3643:Julius Caesar
3637:
3632:
3630:
3625:
3623:
3618:
3617:
3614:
3604:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3526:Germanic wars
3524:
3523:
3521:
3519:
3513:
3507:
3506:War of Actium
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3484:War of Mutina
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3381:Sertorian War
3379:
3377:
3376:Numantine War
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3233:
3227:
3223:
3216:
3211:
3209:
3204:
3202:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3173:
3172:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3110:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3002:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2869:Roman History
2866:
2863:
2860:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2612:Iolo Morganwg
2608:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2564:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2525:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2336:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2309:
2306:, p. 63.
2305:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2251:
2248:, p. 25.
2247:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2232:Roman History
2229:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2168:
2165:, p. 22.
2164:
2159:
2156:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2126:Gilliver 2003
2122:
2120:
2116:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2015:Blaschke 2008
2011:
2008:
2005:, p. 19.
2004:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1977:Gilliver 2003
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1951:and Juvenal,
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1699:Roman History
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1664:, p. 64.
1663:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1649:, p. 70.
1648:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1624:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1573:Carry On Cleo
1569:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1541:TV adaptation
1538:
1537:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1525:Robert Graves
1522:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1474:
1471:
1470:Iolo Morganwg
1467:
1462:
1459:The medieval
1458:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1439:Roman de Brut
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1206:he number of
1205:
1204:
1203:
1197:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1100:geomorphology
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1067:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1001:
1000:Vercingetorix
993:
991:
989:
985:
981:
975:
972:
971:Marcus Cicero
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
916:
914:
910:
905:
901:
896:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
866:
864:
862:
857:
854:
848:
846:
842:
838:
833:
826:Kent campaign
825:
823:
819:
815:
812:
805:
803:
801:
796:
789:
784:
782:
779:
775:
774:
764:
762:
760:
754:
752:
747:
742:
740:
732:
730:
726:
723:
719:
711:
709:
705:
702:
697:
690:
688:
685:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
638:
636:
632:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
600:
594:
587:
585:
583:
577:
575:
571:
566:
563:
559:
555:
550:
548:
545:in the naval
544:
538:
530:
528:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
485:
484:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
458:Pilgrims' Way
455:
451:
446:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
406:
399:
397:
395:
391:
390:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
337:Julius Caesar
334:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
270:Sabis (57 BC)
268:
266:
265:Axona (57 BC)
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
242:
239:
234:
226:
221:
219:
214:
212:
207:
206:
203:
194:
188:2,000 cavalry
184:
176:
173:
172:
167:
164:
161:
159:
158:Julius Caesar
156:
155:
150:
147:
144:
142:
139:
138:
133:
125:
120:
119:
115:
111:
107:
104:
103:
99:
98:Hertfordshire
95:
91:
87:
83:
80:
79:
75:
72:
71:
67:
61:
56:
53:
48:
44:
43:Julius Caesar
40:
37:
33:
19:
4280:
4273:
4187:
4065:Green Caesar
3995:
3988:
3981:
3958:
3951:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3912:
3900:
3893:
3759:
3600:
3555:Armenian War
3518:Roman Empire
3501:Perusine War
3493:
3468:
3429:
3408:Servile Wars
3403:Cimbrian War
3356:Galatian War
3275:Samnite Wars
3188:
3171:The Briannas
3170:
3136:
3132:
3108:
3079:. New York:
3075:
3054:
3030:
3006:
2993:. Retrieved
2989:the original
2963:
2951:
2936:
2917:
2904:
2890:
2882:
2868:
2851:
2835:
2829:
2818:
2792:
2775:
2751:
2722:
2686:
2665:Nearing 1949
2615:
2607:
2579:
2569:
2562:
2557:
2545:
2537:
2527:
2519:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2488:
2478:
2470:
2460:
2452:
2440:
2432:
2422:
2418:
2406:
2401:
2391:
2387:
2377:
2373:
2363:
2358:
2348:
2344:
2334:
2315:
2311:
2299:
2290:Strategemata
2289:
2281:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2253:
2241:
2231:
2211:Strategemata
2210:
2189:
2184:
2174:
2170:
2158:
2146:. Retrieved
2142:
2133:
2106:. Retrieved
2088:
2078:
2074:
2062:
2050:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2022:
2010:
1998:
1988:
1984:
1952:
1917:
1911:
1903:
1893:
1886:
1878:
1872:LacusCurtius
1859:
1855:
1845:
1841:
1822:
1818:
1806:
1792:
1788:
1776:
1769:
1758:
1747:
1738:
1723:
1713:
1698:
1677:
1669:
1662:Haywood 2014
1642:
1626:
1596:
1571:
1557:
1544:
1534:
1528:
1515:
1495:
1476:
1461:Welsh Triads
1453:
1447:
1437:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1405:
1401:
1380:
1363:
1345:
1327:Strategemata
1326:
1312:
1281:
1256:
1232:
1201:
1166:
1152:
1117:
1108:
1071:
1052:
1043:
1009:Strategemata
1007:
997:
976:
968:
945:
917:
897:
885:Mandubracius
870:
867:March inland
858:
849:
829:
820:
816:
809:
800:Portus Itius
797:
793:
777:
771:
768:
755:
743:
736:
727:
715:
706:
698:
694:
686:
666:Portus Itius
639:
628:
604:
578:
567:
551:
540:
505:
481:
462:Jurassic Way
454:Icknield Way
442:
430:Carthaginian
411:
394:protohistory
387:
385:
369:Mandubracius
330:
250:Arar (58 BC)
182:
174:
135:Belligerents
110:client kings
76:55 and 54 BC
50:Part of the
36:
4241:Mark Antony
4190:by Plutarch
4024:Curia Julia
3960:De analogia
3887:Legislation
3818:Dyrrhachium
3785:Uxellodunum
3712:Gallic Wars
3667:Gallic wars
3516:Wars of the
3464:Gallic Wars
3393:Achaean War
3280:Pyrrhic War
3230:Wars of the
2828:Suetonius,
2736:Cassius Dio
2702:Dio Cassius
2228:Cassius Dio
2108:30 November
1695:Dio Cassius
1647:Bunson 2014
1631:Snyder 2008
1578:Mark Antony
1530:I, Claudius
1497:Perceforest
1392:Trinovantum
1167:During the
1114:Ethnography
1087:Richborough
1073:harbour at
1018:Mark Antony
988:Tasciovanus
984:Addedomarus
956:Taximagulus
915:in AD 43.)
881:Trinovantes
837:River Stour
790:Preparation
778:Commentarii
722:Pegwell Bay
537:Gallic Wars
478:pastoralism
424:geographer
377:client king
373:Trinovantes
333:Gallic Wars
233:Gallic Wars
192:28 warships
121:Territorial
52:Gallic Wars
4298:Categories
4236:Julia gens
4070:Arles bust
4003:Last words
3902:Lex Roscia
3808:Brundisium
3536:Gothic War
3297:Punic Wars
3285:Social War
2891:Civil Wars
2246:Frere 1987
2163:Frere 1987
2003:Frere 1987
1811:Frere 1987
1781:Frere 1987
1633:, p.
1618:References
1565:epic films
1486:Greek fire
1163:Technology
1120:barbarians
980:numismatic
948:Cingetorix
925:Segontiaci
765:Conclusion
733:Skirmishes
712:Beach-head
674:Ambleteuse
670:Saint-Omer
535:See also:
531:Motivation
520:Suessiones
516:Diviciacus
470:Gloucester
4246:Cleopatra
4210:Caesarism
4131:Caesarion
4110:Calpurnia
4048:Portraits
4012:Buildings
3823:Pharsalus
3803:Corfinium
3795:Civil War
3750:Octodurus
3161:164097308
3114:Routledge
3081:Routledge
2918:Perochiae
2901:Eutropius
2817:Tacitus,
2286:Frontinus
2207:Polyaenus
1954:Satire IV
1908:Suetonius
1759:Histories
1748:Geography
1554:Goon Show
1552:The 1957
1512:E. Nesbit
1414:, in his
1349:accounts.
1338:in AD 43.
1323:Polyaenus
1317:centurion
1287:Pharsalia
1175:or Welsh
1169:civil war
1022:Hampshire
1006:, in his
994:Aftermath
952:Carvilius
929:Ancalites
921:Cenimagni
904:guerrilla
650:Legio VII
635:Atrebates
574:Suetonius
493:Armorican
450:trackways
353:Middlesex
4282:Category
4251:Servilia
4119:Children
4100:Cornelia
3939:Anticato
3775:Gergovia
3770:Avaricum
3755:Morbihan
3745:Atuatuci
3725:Bibracte
3702:Mytilene
3099:57577646
3052:(1987).
3028:(2000).
2924:Archived
2848:Plutarch
2820:Agricola
2721:Caesar,
2685:Caesar,
2561:Compare
2442:Agricola
2405:Caesar,
2188:Cicero,
2148:25 April
2143:unrv.com
2102:Archived
1943: :
1755:Polybius
1728:Plutarch
1702:39.50–53
1606:See also
1589:Goscinny
1556:episode
1332:Claudius
1267:in AD 43
1264:Claudius
1239:Cornwall
1188:Religion
1149:Military
1095:invasion
1093:for his
1091:Claudius
1083:Rutupiae
1034:conquest
1030:Claudius
909:Claudius
841:hillfort
753:policy.
678:triremes
658:quaestor
624:Sandwich
558:Armorica
460:and the
445:Iron Age
339:invaded
169:Strength
81:Location
4229:Related
4105:Pompeia
3860:Thapsus
3855:Corduba
3850:Ruspina
2948:Orosius
2872:2.46–47
2812:General
2675:Sources
2531:1.12–14
2475:Orosius
2437:Tacitus
2367:6.11.20
2293:2:13.11
2100:. n.d.
1931:in the
1683:4.20–35
1582:cavemen
1493:romance
1482:sulphur
1444:Layamon
1430:Nennius
1387:Nennius
1342:Orosius
1271:Tacitus
1253:Outcome
1247:Pytheas
1177:coracle
1173:currach
1102:of the
964:Cantium
960:Segovax
933:Bibroci
853:Channel
759:flotsam
746:foraged
739:Commius
701:Britons
691:Landing
682:biremes
654:Legio X
646:legions
631:Commius
608:tribune
524:coinage
474:Lincoln
434:Himilco
432:sailor
426:Pytheas
371:of the
365:tribute
363:to pay
341:Britain
195:Unknown
123:changes
4180:Legacy
4080:Family
3975:Quotes
3813:Ilerda
3780:Alesia
3730:Vosges
3452:Second
3418:Second
3344:Fourth
3334:Second
3307:Second
3178:
3159:
3153:459639
3151:
3120:
3097:
3087:
3062:
3038:
3014:
2995:2 July
2973:Modern
2933:Florus
2877:Appian
2852:Caesar
2836:Julius
2551:4.1–10
2492:Bede,
2464:3:2.23
2214:8:23.5
1949:IX.169
1945:IX.116
1925:thorax
1918:Julius
1883:Cicero
1870:, via
1834:Belgic
1744:Strabo
1710:Florus
1706:40.1–3
1674:Caesar
1593:Uderzo
1584:there.
1372:which
1223:weight
1208:cattle
1138:Gallic
1075:Dubris
1026:Verica
877:Thames
662:Morini
570:Cicero
562:Strabo
554:Belgae
543:Veneti
508:Belgae
501:Dorset
483:oppida
466:Thames
456:, the
357:Thames
108:Local
105:Result
90:Thames
88:, the
4145:Other
4126:Julia
4088:Wives
3924:Works
3865:Munda
3833:Siege
3740:Sabis
3735:Axona
3457:Third
3447:First
3423:Third
3413:First
3339:Third
3329:First
3312:Third
3302:First
3157:S2CID
3149:JSTOR
2921:105.5
2894:2.150
2706:39.50
2568:with
2513:19–20
2235:60.21
1937:Pliny
1849:3.8–9
1751:2:4.1
1742:e.g.
1466:Fflur
1283:Lucan
1278:Rome.
1243:Devon
1219:rings
1212:brass
1079:Dover
937:Cassi
861:Julia
620:Hythe
438:Ocean
422:Greek
375:as a
183:54 BC
175:55 BC
94:Essex
3845:Zela
3720:Arar
3176:ISBN
3133:PLMA
3118:ISBN
3095:OCLC
3085:ISBN
3060:ISBN
3036:ISBN
3012:ISBN
2997:2008
2940:1.45
2913:Livy
2908:6.17
2859:23.2
2855:16.5
2804:4.18
2800:4.17
2796:4.15
2783:2.15
2779:2.13
2771:7.17
2767:7.10
2740:40.1
2693:4.20
2566:5.18
2426:6.13
2412:1.54
2395:4.33
2381:5.14
2352:5.13
2338:5.12
2319:8.48
2275:4.18
2261:5.22
2178:5.23
2150:2009
2110:2017
2082:4.25
2044:4.23
2030:4.30
1992:4.22
1897:4.17
1830:5.12
1800:5.12
1762:34.5
1717:1.45
1691:8–23
1591:and
1546:Risk
1533:and
1454:Brut
1449:Brut
1434:Wace
1360:Bede
1241:and
1216:iron
1142:woad
1134:Kent
1066:Mona
958:and
935:and
652:and
622:and
616:Kent
512:Gaul
472:and
381:Gaul
345:Kent
126:None
112:and
96:and
86:Kent
73:Date
3141:doi
2955:6.9
2787:3.1
2763:7.8
2759:7.7
2755:7.6
2731:.24
2727:5.2
2710:.53
2697:.37
2651:124
2647:102
2643:100
2573:4.6
2497:1.2
2482:6.9
2193:3.1
1959:141
1890:7.7
1826:2.4
1796:2.4
1687:5.1
1587:In
1523:In
1446:'s
1436:'s
1362:'s
1311:'s
1285:'s
1227:Tin
1214:or
1032:'s
843:at
680:or
499:in
418:tin
4300::
3155:.
3147:.
3137:64
3135:.
3116:.
3112:.
3093:.
3083:.
2983:.
2950:,
2935:,
2903:,
2879:,
2867:,
2857:,
2850:,
2843:47
2841:,
2839:25
2834:,
2824:13
2802:,
2798:,
2785:,
2781:,
2769:,
2765:,
2761:,
2757:,
2744:.4
2742:–
2738:,
2729:–
2725:,
2708:–
2704:,
2695:–
2691:,
2657:^
2649:,
2645:,
2641:,
2639:51
2637:,
2635:24
2633:,
2631:21
2629:,
2627:17
2625:,
2623:14
2621:,
2614:,
2601:58
2599:,
2597:50
2595:,
2593:21
2591:,
2585:32
2544:,
2526:,
2477:,
2459:,
2446:13
2439:,
2325:^
2288:,
2230:,
2220:^
2209:,
2199:^
2141:.
2118:^
2096:.
1965:^
1939:,
1921:47
1916::
1910:,
1892:;
1885:,
1866:,
1862:–
1828:,
1798:,
1768:,
1757:,
1746:,
1730:,
1712:,
1708:;
1704:,
1697:,
1693:;
1689:,
1685:,
1676:,
1654:^
1635:22
1442:,
1273::
954:,
950:,
931:,
927:,
923:,
610:,
584:.
549:.
503:.
335:,
92:,
3635:e
3628:t
3621:v
3214:e
3207:t
3200:v
3184:.
3163:.
3143::
3126:.
3101:.
3068:.
3044:.
3020:.
2999:.
2957:.
2942:;
2886:5
2861:;
2789:,
2619:8
2589:5
2152:.
2112:.
2017:.
1957:.
1935:(
1637:.
1394:.
1085:(
1077:(
668:(
648:(
224:e
217:t
210:v
34:.
20:)
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