139:. The results may be confounded by other factors, to the extent of giving the opposite answer to better studies. A meta-analysis of what was considered 30 high-quality studies concluded that use of a product halved a risk, when in fact the risk was, if anything, increased. It may also be more difficult to establish the timeline of exposure to disease outcome in the setting of a case–control study than within a prospective cohort study design where the exposure is ascertained prior to following the subjects over time in order to ascertain their outcome status. The most important drawback in case–control studies relates to the difficulty of obtaining reliable information about an individual's exposure status over time. Case–control studies are therefore placed low in the
107:
breast cancer, were retrospective investigations. Most sources of error due to confounding and bias are more common in retrospective studies than in prospective studies. For this reason, retrospective investigations are often criticised. If the outcome of interest is uncommon, however, the size of prospective investigation required to estimate relative risk is often too large to be feasible. In retrospective studies the odds ratio provides an estimate of relative risk. One should take special care to avoid sources of
180:). The validity of the odds ratio depends highly on the nature of the disease studied, on the sampling methodology and on the type of follow-up. Although in classical case–control studies, it remains true that the odds ratio can only approximate the relative risk in the case of rare diseases, there is a number of other types of studies (case–cohort, nested case–control, cohort studies) in which it was later shown that the
2785:
103:
interest should be common; otherwise, the number of outcomes observed will be too small to be statistically meaningful (indistinguishable from those that may have arisen by chance). All efforts should be made to avoid sources of bias such as the loss of individuals to follow up during the study. Prospective studies usually have fewer potential sources of bias and confounding than retrospective studies.
159:. They showed a statistically significant association in a large case–control study. Opponents argued for many years that this type of study cannot prove causation, but the eventual results of cohort studies confirmed the causal link which the case–control studies suggested, and it is now accepted that tobacco smoking is the cause of about 87% of all lung cancer mortality in the US.
2809:
2797:
93:
As with any epidemiological study, greater numbers in the study will increase the power of the study. Numbers of cases and controls do not have to be equal. In many situations, it is much easier to recruit controls than to find cases. Increasing the number of controls above the number of cases, up to
65:
defines the case–control study as: "an observational epidemiological study of persons with the disease (or another outcome variable) of interest and a suitable control group of persons without the disease (comparison group, reference group). The potential relationship of a suspected risk factor or an
44:
in which two existing groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some supposed causal attribute. Case–control studies are often used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have the condition with patients who do not have
195:
When the logistic regression model is used to model the case–control data and the odds ratio is of interest, both the prospective and retrospective likelihood methods will lead to identical maximum likelihood estimations for covariate, except for the intercept. The usual methods of estimating more
123:
Case–control studies are a relatively inexpensive and frequently used type of epidemiological study that can be carried out by small teams or individual researchers in single facilities in a way that more structured experimental studies often cannot be. They have pointed the way to a number of
106:
A retrospective study, on the other hand, looks backwards and examines exposures to suspected risk or protection factors in relation to an outcome that is established at the start of the study. Many valuable case–control studies, such as Lane and
Claypon's 1926 investigation of risk factors for
102:
A prospective study watches for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during the study period and relates this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s). The study usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period. The outcome of
81:
Controls need not be in good health; inclusion of sick people is sometimes appropriate, as the control group should represent those at risk of becoming a case. Controls should come from the same population as the cases, and their selection should be independent of the exposures of interest.
167:
Case–control studies were initially analyzed by testing whether or not there were significant differences between the proportion of exposed subjects among cases and controls. Subsequently, Cornfield pointed out that, when the disease outcome of interest is rare, the
85:
Controls can carry the same disease as the experimental group, but of another grade/severity, therefore being different from the outcome of interest. However, because the difference between the cases and the controls will be smaller, this results in a lower
66:
attribute to the disease is examined by comparing the diseased and nondiseased subjects with regard to how frequently the factor or attribute is present (or, if quantitative, the levels of the attribute) in each of the groups (diseased and nondiseased)."
2595:
124:
important discoveries and advances. The case–control study design is often used in the study of rare diseases or as a preliminary study where little is known about the association between the risk factor and disease of interest.
131:
they tend to be less costly and shorter in duration. In several situations, they have greater statistical power than cohort studies, which must often wait for a 'sufficient' number of disease events to accrue.
196:
interpretable parameters than odds ratios—such as risk ratios, levels, and differences—is biased if applied to case–control data, but special statistical procedures provide easy to use consistent estimators.
828:
Rodrigues L, Kirkwood BR (1990). "Case–control designs in the study of common diseases: updates on the demise of the rare disease assumption and the choice of sampling scheme for controls".
207:
and
Gardner claimed that the contributions of medical science to increasing human longevity and public health were negligible, and too often negative, until Scottish physician
1049:
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1144:
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2630:
1436:
1432:
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2635:
1675:
1482:
1440:
1428:
53:. Some statistical methods make it possible to use a case–control study to also estimate relative risk, risk differences, and other quantities.
2640:
1956:
1137:
2698:
2605:
946:
416:
387:
151:
One of the most significant triumphs of the case–control study was the demonstration of the link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer, by
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1603:
1519:
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1713:
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1974:
1951:
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2382:
2279:
2040:
1941:
1854:
1486:
1208:
1319:
224:
45:
the condition but are otherwise similar. They require fewer resources but provide less evidence for causal inference than a
2453:
2224:
1634:
2318:
2045:
1613:
596:"Commentary: the hormone replacement-coronary heart disease conundrum: is this the death of observational epidemiology?"
136:
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2358:
2269:
2082:
2070:
1979:
1668:
1577:
1549:
1478:
1232:
239:
212:
46:
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2460:
2365:
1901:
1627:
1303:
729:"Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking; a second report on the mortality of British doctors"
229:
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2219:
1926:
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1422:
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1406:
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1054:
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2065:
1966:
1859:
1708:
1398:
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1276:
1223:
1193:
1157:
140:
2109:
135:
Case–control studies are observational in nature and thus do not provide the same level of evidence as
635:
Ioannidis JP (2005). "Contradicted and initially stronger effects in highly cited clinical research".
2721:
2505:
2370:
2336:
2284:
2104:
2050:
2006:
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1834:
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189:
156:
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2500:
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41:
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1936:
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1289:
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1026:
876:
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591:
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460:
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73:, wherein exposed and unexposed subjects are observed until they develop an outcome of interest.
2515:
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2141:
2129:
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2028:
1946:
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204:
108:
87:
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1991:
1921:
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1372:
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1066:
1002:
971:
911:
868:
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644:
607:
562:
487:
444:
435:
Grimes DA, Schulz KF (2005). "Compared to what? Finding controls for case–control studies".
330:
282:
274:
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2443:
2246:
2239:
2174:
2114:
1996:
1986:
1916:
1889:
1874:
1829:
1819:
1770:
1567:
1390:
1345:
1058:
962:
Prentice RL, Pyke R (1979). "Logistic disease incidence models and case–control studies".
524:
208:
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1879:
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318:
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802:
777:
491:
448:
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2234:
2199:
2189:
2169:
1911:
1869:
1844:
1792:
1780:
1775:
1684:
1572:
1539:
1534:
1089:
185:
173:
1030:
664:
507:
358:
2756:
2184:
2033:
2023:
2001:
1931:
1824:
1738:
1414:
1298:
375:
152:
128:
70:
1107:(Still a very useful book, and a great place to start, but now a bit out of date.)
778:"Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors"
464:
17:
991:"Estimating risk and rate levels, ratios and differences in case–control studies"
405:
319:"Estimating risk and rate levels, ratios and differences in case–control studies"
2751:
2448:
2146:
2055:
2018:
1608:
1462:
1335:
1325:
793:
112:
2377:
2099:
1410:
1402:
1368:
1330:
1237:
975:
259:
181:
169:
50:
27:
Type of observational study comparing two existing groups differing in outcome
1014:
342:
2475:
2294:
1864:
1745:
1470:
1458:
1062:
902:
Miettinen O (1976). "Estimability and estimation in case–referent studies".
744:
1022:
841:
811:
762:
713:
695:
656:
648:
621:
576:
567:
550:
499:
456:
350:
296:
94:
a ratio of about 4 to 1, may be a cost-effective way to improve the study.
1070:
923:
888:
863:
Greenhouse SW (1982). "Jerome
Cornfield's contributions to epidemiology".
849:
478:
Schulz KF, Grimes DA (2002). "Case–control studies: research in reverse".
2341:
2094:
1728:
1698:
1504:
612:
595:
990:
525:"Prospective, Retrospective, Case–control, Cohort Studies - StatsDirect"
370:
368:
278:
2013:
1509:
880:
2308:
1006:
334:
872:
941:(3rd ed.). Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
2470:
2402:
1653:
1657:
1126:
192:
of exposure without the need for the rare disease assumption.
1117:
2596:
Committee on the
Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
211:
was able to convince the medical establishment to adopt
680:"Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report"
69:
The case–control study is frequently contrasted with
2714:
2673:
2560:
2549:
2486:
2411:
2327:
2255:
2160:
1965:
1691:
1586:
1548:
1497:
1447:
1421:
1383:
1353:
1344:
1270:
1217:
1164:
1050:
Superforecasting: The Art and
Science of Prediction
382:(5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
49:. A case–control study is often used to produce an
1088:
404:
1087:Stolley, Paul D., Schlesselman, James J. (1982).
823:
821:
776:Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (2004).
1091:Case–control studies: design, conduct, analysis
1669:
1138:
430:
428:
260:"8. Case–control and cross sectional studies"
8:
411:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
98:Prospective vs. retrospective cohort studies
2631:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2557:
1676:
1662:
1654:
1350:
1145:
1131:
1123:
2591:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
2581:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
937:Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (2008).
801:
752:
703:
611:
566:
286:
1437:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
1433:Attributable fraction for the population
184:of exposure can be used to estimate the
172:of exposure can be used to estimate the
2636:Health departments in the United States
1441:Preventable fraction for the population
1429:Attributable fraction among the exposed
250:
2641:Council on Education for Public Health
1118:Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium
2699:Professional degrees of public health
2606:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
200:Impact on longevity and public health
7:
2796:
2689:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
1604:Correlation does not imply causation
1520:Animal testing on non-human primates
1095:. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
519:
517:
2808:
1957:Workers' right to access the toilet
1798:Human right to water and sanitation
916:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112220
25:
2230:Commercial determinants of health
2807:
2795:
2784:
2783:
1813:National public health institute
2210:Open-source healthcare software
1952:Sociology of health and illness
2571:Caribbean Public Health Agency
2383:Sexually transmitted infection
2280:Statistical hypothesis testing
2041:Occupational safety and health
1942:Sexual and reproductive health
1855:Occupational safety and health
1487:Pre- and post-test probability
1209:Patient and public involvement
989:King G, Zeng L (30 May 2002).
317:King G, Zeng L (30 May 2002).
90:to detect an exposure effect.
1:
2225:Social determinants of health
492:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07605-5
449:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66379-9
407:Epidemiology: An Introduction
2285:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
2046:Human factors and ergonomics
1614:Sex as a biological variable
380:A Dictionary of Epidemiology
137:randomized controlled trials
2466:Good manufacturing practice
2270:Randomized controlled trial
1578:Intention-to-treat analysis
1550:Analysis of clinical trials
1479:Specificity and sensitivity
1233:Randomized controlled trial
794:10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE
240:Randomized controlled trial
47:randomized controlled trial
2862:
2536:Theory of planned behavior
2461:Good agricultural practice
2366:Public health surveillance
2258:epidemiological statistics
1902:Public health intervention
267:Emergency Medicine Journal
230:Retrospective cohort study
115:in retrospective studies.
63:Dictionary of Epidemiology
2779:
2658:World Toilet Organization
2653:World Health Organization
2220:Public health informatics
1927:Right to rest and leisure
1756:Globalization and disease
1622:
1587:Interpretation of results
1320:Nested case–control study
225:Nested case–control study
213:randomized control trials
2704:Schools of public health
2496:Diffusion of innovations
2195:Health impact assessment
1907:Public health laboratory
1803:Management of depression
1189:Academic clinical trials
727:Doll R, Hill AB (1956).
678:Doll R, Hill AB (1950).
555:Evidence-Based Dentistry
235:Prospective cohort study
127:Compared to prospective
119:Strengths and weaknesses
2767:Social hygiene movement
2694:Doctor of Public Health
2526:Social cognitive theory
2328:Infectious and epidemic
2110:Fecal–oral transmission
1407:Relative risk reduction
1255:Adaptive clinical trial
1199:Evidence-based medicine
1182:Adaptive clinical trial
976:10.1093/biomet/66.3.403
745:10.1136/bmj.2.5001.1071
178:rare disease assumption
77:Control group selection
2762:Germ theory of disease
2541:Transtheoretical model
1395:Number needed to treat
1055:Crown Publishing Group
1047:, Dan Gardner (2015),
995:Statistics in Medicine
696:10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739
649:10.1001/jama.294.2.218
568:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400355
323:Statistics in Medicine
2841:Design of experiments
2646:Public Health Service
2531:Social norms approach
2521:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
1967:Preventive healthcare
1860:Pharmaceutical policy
1709:Chief Medical Officer
1399:Number needed to harm
1286:Cross-sectional study
1238:Scientific experiment
1194:Clinical study design
141:hierarchy of evidence
2722:Sara Josephine Baker
2621:Public Health Agency
2506:Health communication
2371:Disease surveillance
2337:Asymptomatic carrier
2319:Statistical software
2007:Preventive nutrition
1835:Medical anthropology
1724:Environmental health
1365:Cumulative incidence
842:10.1093/ije/19.1.205
594:, Ebrahim S (2004).
215:after World War II.
190:incidence rate ratio
2732:Carl Rogers Darnall
2727:Samuel Jay Crumbine
2501:Health belief model
2354:Notifiable diseases
2290:Regression analysis
2125:Waterborne diseases
1714:Cultural competence
1272:Observational study
1204:Real world evidence
1158:experimental design
939:Modern Epidemiology
867:. 38 Suppl: 33–45.
529:www.statsdirect.com
279:10.1136/emj.20.1.54
42:observational study
38:case–referent study
2330:disease prevention
2265:Case–control study
1937:Security of person
1786:Health care reform
1558:Risk–benefit ratio
1525:First-in-man study
1475:Case fatality rate
1316:Case–control study
1290:Longitudinal study
613:10.1093/ije/dyh124
403:Rothman K (2002).
34:case–control study
18:Case control study
2823:
2822:
2775:
2774:
2685:Higher education
2516:Positive deviance
2511:Health psychology
2487:Health behavioral
2414:safety management
2388:Social distancing
2162:Population health
2142:Smoking cessation
2090:Pharmacovigilance
2061:Injury prevention
2029:Infection control
1947:Social psychology
1897:Prisoners' rights
1840:Medical sociology
1808:Public health law
1704:Biological hazard
1651:
1650:
1599:Survivorship bias
1563:Systematic review
1530:Multicenter trial
1493:
1492:
1483:Likelihood-ratios
1455:Clinical endpoint
1423:Population impact
1377:Period prevalence
1154:Clinical research
1045:Philip E. Tetlock
1001:(10): 1409–1427.
948:978-0-7817-5564-1
830:Int. J. Epidemiol
739:(5001): 1071–81.
549:Levin KA (2005).
443:(9468): 1429–33.
418:978-0-19-513554-1
389:978-0-19-531450-2
329:(10): 1409–1427.
16:(Redirected from
2853:
2846:Nursing research
2811:
2810:
2799:
2798:
2787:
2786:
2681:Health education
2558:
2412:Food hygiene and
2393:Tropical disease
2205:Infant mortality
2180:Community health
2056:Controlled Drugs
1992:Health promotion
1922:Right to housing
1766:Health economics
1678:
1671:
1664:
1655:
1498:Trial/test types
1373:Point prevalence
1351:
1294:Ecological study
1277:EBM II-2 to II-3
1248:Open-label trial
1243:Blind experiment
1219:Controlled study
1147:
1140:
1133:
1124:
1106:
1094:
1075:
1073:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1007:10.1002/sim.1032
986:
980:
979:
959:
953:
952:
934:
928:
927:
904:Am. J. Epidemiol
899:
893:
892:
860:
854:
853:
825:
816:
815:
805:
773:
767:
766:
756:
724:
718:
717:
707:
690:(4682): 739–48.
675:
669:
668:
632:
626:
625:
615:
587:
581:
580:
570:
551:"Study design I"
546:
540:
539:
537:
535:
521:
512:
511:
475:
469:
468:
432:
423:
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410:
400:
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393:
372:
363:
362:
335:10.1002/sim.1032
314:
308:
307:
305:
303:
290:
264:
258:Mann CJ (2003).
255:
21:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2819:
2771:
2742:Margaret Sanger
2710:
2669:
2553:
2551:
2545:
2488:
2482:
2454:Safety scandals
2413:
2407:
2329:
2323:
2257:
2251:
2247:Social medicine
2240:Race and health
2175:Child mortality
2156:
2115:Open defecation
1997:Human nutrition
1987:Family planning
1975:Behavior change
1961:
1917:Right to health
1830:Maternal health
1820:Health politics
1771:Health literacy
1687:
1682:
1652:
1647:
1618:
1582:
1544:
1489:
1443:
1417:
1391:Risk difference
1379:
1340:
1274:
1266:
1221:
1213:
1177:Trial protocols
1160:
1151:
1114:
1103:
1086:
1083:
1081:Further reading
1078:
1043:
1042:
1038:
988:
987:
983:
961:
960:
956:
949:
936:
935:
931:
901:
900:
896:
873:10.2307/2529852
862:
861:
857:
827:
826:
819:
775:
774:
770:
726:
725:
721:
677:
676:
672:
634:
633:
629:
600:Int J Epidemiol
589:
588:
584:
548:
547:
543:
533:
531:
523:
522:
515:
486:(9304): 431–4.
477:
476:
472:
434:
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426:
419:
402:
401:
397:
390:
374:
373:
366:
316:
315:
311:
301:
299:
262:
257:
256:
252:
248:
221:
209:Archie Cochrane
202:
165:
149:
121:
100:
79:
59:
40:) is a type of
36:(also known as
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2859:
2857:
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2655:
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2649:
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2610:
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2598:
2593:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2564:
2562:
2555:
2550:Organizations,
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
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2478:
2473:
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2297:
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2272:
2267:
2261:
2259:
2256:Biological and
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2222:
2217:
2215:Multimorbidity
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2166:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2152:Vector control
2149:
2144:
2139:
2137:School hygiene
2134:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2120:Sanitary sewer
2117:
2112:
2107:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2078:Patient safety
2075:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1971:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1761:Harm reduction
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1673:
1666:
1658:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1642:List of topics
1638:
1631:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1594:Selection bias
1590:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1554:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1515:Animal testing
1512:
1507:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1467:Mortality rate
1453:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1427:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1389:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1359:
1357:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1296:
1282:
1280:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1260:Platform trial
1252:
1251:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1229:
1227:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1172:Clinical trial
1168:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1142:
1135:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1112:External links
1110:
1109:
1108:
1101:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1036:
981:
970:(3): 403–411.
954:
947:
929:
894:
855:
817:
788:(7455): 1519.
768:
719:
670:
627:
582:
541:
513:
470:
424:
417:
395:
388:
378:, ed. (2008).
364:
309:
249:
247:
244:
243:
242:
237:
232:
227:
220:
217:
201:
198:
164:
161:
148:
145:
129:cohort studies
120:
117:
99:
96:
78:
75:
71:cohort studies
58:
55:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2858:
2847:
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2745:
2743:
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2738:
2737:Joseph Lister
2735:
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2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2616:Health Canada
2614:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2561:Organizations
2559:
2556:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
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2502:
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2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2398:Vaccine trial
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2372:
2369:
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2320:
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2313:
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2307:
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2303:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Relative risk
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2235:Health equity
2233:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2200:Health system
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2190:Global health
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2170:Biostatistics
2168:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1912:Right to food
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1845:Mental health
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1793:Housing First
1791:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1781:Health system
1779:
1778:
1777:
1776:Health policy
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1685:Public health
1679:
1674:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1644:
1643:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1573:Meta-analysis
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1540:Vaccine trial
1538:
1536:
1535:Seeding trial
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1484:
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1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
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1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1304:Retrospective
1302:
1301:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1224:EBM I to II-1
1220:
1216:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1143:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1104:
1102:0-19-502933-X
1098:
1093:
1092:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1074:, esp. ch. 2.
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1040:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
985:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
958:
955:
950:
944:
940:
933:
930:
925:
921:
917:
913:
910:(2): 226–35.
909:
905:
898:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
859:
856:
851:
847:
843:
839:
836:(1): 205–13.
835:
831:
824:
822:
818:
813:
809:
804:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
772:
769:
764:
760:
755:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
723:
720:
715:
711:
706:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
674:
671:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
643:(2): 218–28.
642:
638:
631:
628:
623:
619:
614:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
592:Davey Smith G
586:
583:
578:
574:
569:
564:
560:
556:
552:
545:
542:
530:
526:
520:
518:
514:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
474:
471:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
431:
429:
425:
420:
414:
409:
408:
399:
396:
391:
385:
381:
377:
371:
369:
365:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
313:
310:
298:
294:
289:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
261:
254:
251:
245:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
222:
218:
216:
214:
210:
206:
199:
197:
193:
191:
187:
186:relative risk
183:
179:
175:
174:relative risk
171:
162:
160:
158:
157:Bradford Hill
154:
146:
144:
142:
138:
133:
130:
125:
118:
116:
114:
110:
104:
97:
95:
91:
89:
83:
76:
74:
72:
67:
64:
56:
54:
52:
48:
43:
39:
35:
30:
19:
2836:Epidemiology
2812:
2800:
2788:
2757:Radium Girls
2752:Typhoid Mary
2439:Microbiology
2309:
2301:
2264:
2185:Epidemiology
2083:Organization
2034:Oral hygiene
2024:Hand washing
2002:Healthy diet
1932:Right to sit
1825:Labor rights
1640:
1633:
1626:
1415:Hazard ratio
1315:
1299:Cohort study
1090:
1048:
1039:
998:
994:
984:
967:
963:
957:
938:
932:
907:
903:
897:
864:
858:
833:
829:
785:
781:
771:
736:
732:
722:
687:
683:
673:
640:
636:
630:
606:(3): 464–7.
603:
599:
585:
561:(3): 78–79.
558:
554:
544:
532:. Retrieved
528:
483:
479:
473:
440:
436:
406:
398:
379:
326:
322:
312:
300:. Retrieved
273:(1): 54–60.
270:
266:
253:
203:
194:
166:
153:Richard Doll
150:
134:
126:
122:
105:
101:
92:
84:
80:
68:
62:
60:
37:
33:
31:
29:
2814:WikiProject
2554:and history
2434:Engineering
2147:Vaccination
2019:Food safety
1609:Null result
1568:Replication
1463:Infectivity
1385:Association
1336:Case report
1326:Case series
1309:Prospective
590:Lawlor DA,
113:confounding
2830:Categories
2567:Caribbean
2444:Processing
2378:Quarantine
2300:Student's
2100:Sanitation
1734:History of
1411:Odds ratio
1403:Risk ratio
1369:Prevalence
1355:Occurrence
1331:Case study
964:Biometrika
865:Biometrics
246:References
182:odds ratio
170:odds ratio
57:Definition
51:odds ratio
2747:John Snow
2674:Education
2664:Full list
2552:education
2476:ISO 22000
2429:Chemistry
2342:Epidemics
2295:ROC curve
2105:Emergency
1885:Radiation
1865:Pollution
1849:Ministers
1746:Euthenics
1471:Morbidity
1459:Virulence
1361:Incidence
1071:Q21203378
1063:26682260M
1015:0277-6715
343:0277-6715
2790:Category
2489:sciences
2424:Additive
2095:Safe sex
2066:Medicine
1980:Theories
1751:Genomics
1729:Eugenics
1719:Deviance
1699:Auxology
1635:Glossary
1628:Category
1505:In vitro
1346:Measures
1165:Overview
1067:Wikidata
1031:11387977
1023:12185893
812:15213107
763:13364389
733:Br Med J
714:14772469
684:Br Med J
665:16749356
657:16014596
622:15166201
577:16184164
508:10770936
500:11844534
457:15836892
359:11387977
351:12185893
297:12533370
219:See also
163:Analysis
147:Examples
61:Porta's
2802:Commons
2715:History
2612:Canada
2587:Europe
2071:Nursing
2051:Hygiene
2014:Hygiene
1739:Liberal
1692:General
1510:In vivo
924:1251836
889:7046823
881:2529852
850:2190942
754:2035864
705:2038856
376:Porta M
302:5 March
288:1726024
205:Tetlock
188:or the
2602:India
2577:China
2449:Safety
2130:Worker
1099:
1069:
1061:
1029:
1021:
1013:
945:
922:
887:
879:
848:
810:
803:437139
800:
761:
751:
712:
702:
663:
655:
620:
575:
534:4 July
506:
498:
480:Lancet
465:836985
463:
455:
437:Lancet
415:
386:
357:
349:
341:
295:
285:
2627:U.S.
2471:HACCP
2420:Food
2312:-test
2304:-test
1890:Light
1875:Water
1449:Other
1027:S2CID
877:JSTOR
661:S2CID
504:S2CID
461:S2CID
355:S2CID
263:(PDF)
176:(see
88:power
2403:WASH
2359:List
2347:List
1880:Soil
1288:vs.
1156:and
1097:ISBN
1019:PMID
1011:ISSN
943:ISBN
920:PMID
885:PMID
846:PMID
808:PMID
759:PMID
710:PMID
653:PMID
637:JAMA
618:PMID
573:PMID
536:2019
496:PMID
453:PMID
413:ISBN
384:ISBN
347:PMID
339:ISSN
304:2012
293:PMID
155:and
111:and
109:bias
1870:Air
1003:doi
972:doi
912:doi
908:103
869:doi
838:doi
798:PMC
790:doi
786:328
782:BMJ
749:PMC
741:doi
700:PMC
692:doi
645:doi
641:294
608:doi
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