535:. Since its base rate of cellular respiration is so high, its AMPK would be more sensitive to reductions in blood borne oxygen, thus allowing it to respond to small variations in oxygen content before other cells begin to feel the effects of its absence. In this way, transduction in peripheral chemoreceptor cells is relatively unique. It does not require any specialized proteins that change shape in the presence of
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are only one in a suite of oxygen-sensing cells that can respond in times of stress. Collecting information on carotid and aortic body activity in live, exercising humans is fraught with difficulty and often only indicates indirect evidence, so it is hard to draw expansive conclusions until more evidence has been amassed, and hopefully with more advanced techniques.
565:; they will both swell the size of chemosensing cells and increase their number. Though researchers were previously unsure how carotid and aortic bodies came to increase their numbers so rapidly, recent findings point to the type II cells, which were previously thought to have only a supportive role and are now believed to retain properties of
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or potassium during exercise as a potential effector on peripheral chemoreceptors; however, the specifics of this effect are not yet understood. All suggestions of peripheral chemoreceptor involvement conclude that they are not solely accountable for this response, emphasizing that these receptors
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and neurotransmitters common to many types of nerve cells, and a well-endowed version of the vasculature supporting all aerobic cells. Further research should identify why type I cells exhibit such a high metabolic rate compared to other cell types, as this may be the truly unique feature of the
331:
deaths occur most frequently during the days or weeks in which the carotid body is still developing, and it is suggested that lack of appropriate carotid body activity is implicated in this condition. SIDS victims often are reported to have displayed some of the characteristic troubles in carotid
483:; however, since its deletion in mice does not affect chemoreceptor oxygen sensitivity, this hypothesis is open to question. Another enzyme, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), provides a mechanism that could apply not only to all types of potassium channels but also other oxygen-sensing
462:
such as the peripheral chemoreceptors requires moving backward from membrane depolarization to discover the previous steps, often internal to the cell, that transduces blood chemicals to a neural signal. Up to this point, most research agrees that membrane depolarization is caused by
616:, is increased in carotid- and aortic-body-enervated dogs, suggesting that peripheral chemoreceptors respond to low glucose levels in and may respond to other neuroendocrine signals in addition to what is traditionally considered to be their sole role of ventilatory regulation.
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promotes production of ATP and suppresses reactions that consume it. AMPK activation is also a more appealing candidate because it can activate both of the two most common types of potassium channels. Another study identified that AMPK opens and closes potassium channels via
560:
Peripheral chemoreceptors are put under stress in a number of situations involving low access to oxygen, including exercise and exposure to high altitude. Under sustained hypoxic stress, regardless of the cause, peripheral chemoreceptors show a great deal of
356:, and hypoxia, so it may seem initially as if carotid body studies are only extending what we know about SIDS into another domain. However, understanding the mechanisms that impair carotid body development could help elucidate how certain aspects of
319:. In utero and at birth, the carotid body's response to hypoxia is not fully developed; it takes a few days to a few weeks to increase its sensitivity to that of an adult carotid body. During this period of development, it is proposed that
274:
Type II cells occur in a ratio of about 1 to 4 with type I cells. Their long bodies usually occur in close association with type I cells, though they do not entirely encase type I cells. They lack the vesicles of type I cells used in
479:, with significant differences between different species, and a number of different types for each species. Expression of potassium channels also changes throughout the lifetime. Some studies propose that heme-oxygenase 2 is the
422:
regulation much sooner than their mechanisms for acquiring information from the bloodstream were beginning to be understood. Both carotid and aortic bodies are composed of type I and type II cells and are believed to
404:
processes. However, findings tying peripheral chemoreceptors to pregnancy-induced variations in breathing could just be correlational, so further studies are needed to identify the cause behind this relation.
531:. The difference may actually lie in the cell's metabolism, rather than the AMPK enzyme; peripheral chemoreceptors display very high background rates of oxygen consumption, supported by its dense network of
526:
This enzyme's function positions type I cells to uniquely take advantage of their mitochondria. However, AMPK is an enzyme found in many more types of cells than chemoreceptors because it helps regulate
475:. As to the step before potassium channel inhibition, many mechanisms are proposed, none of which receive unanimous support from the research community. Multiple types of potassium channels respond to
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and can respond to prolonged exposure to hypoxia by proliferating into type I cells themselves. They may also bolster rapid communication among type I cells by amplifying release of one of the primary
348:. Many of the findings on to carotid body's relation to SIDS report that carotid body development is impaired by environmental factors that were already known to increase the risk of SIDS, such as
539:
or a specific receptor site for a particular tastant. Its necessary components include merely the mitochondria and an enzyme used to regulate its activity common to all aerobic cells, a suite of
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response. However, in the chronic absence of the carotid body, the aortic body is able to perform a similar respiratory regulatory role, suggesting that it possesses efficacious mechanisms of
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week 20, and studies suggest this is due at least in part to changes in peripheral chemoreceptor sensitivity. Similar changes in sensitivity have been found in women administered levels of
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may be an example of a technique that exposes premature infants to such high oxygen levels that it prevents them from acquiring appropriate sensitivity to normal oxygen levels.
243:
to provide access to the bloodstream; the high capillary density makes this one of the areas of the body with the greatest blood flow. Type I cells are densely packed with
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as well. The differing locations of the two bodies ideally position them to take advantage of different information; the carotid bodies, located on one of the main
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López-Barneo, José; Ortega-Sáenz, Patricia; Pardal, Ricardo; Pascual, Alberto; Piruat, José I.; et al. (2009). "Oxygen
Sensing in the Carotid Body".
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increase sensory discharge during hypoxia. Carotid bodies are considered the primary peripheral chemoreceptor and have been shown to contribute more to a
523:, further underlining the link between the two. The role of AMPK in oxygen sensing in type-1 cells has however also recently been called into question.
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during sleep, and low sensitivity to hypoxia. The carotid bodies of SIDS victims also often display physiological abnormalities, such as hypo- and
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that mimic the stage of the pregnancy in which these effects being to appear, suggesting that carotid and aortic body sensitivity is modulated by
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signals from blood chemicals in the same way, though post-transduction signal communication may differ. Chemosensory transduction in these
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is still an active area of research, and not all studies agree, but there is growing support for a transduction mechanism dependent upon
1257:"Effects of modulators of AMP-activated protein kinase on TASK-1/3 and intracellular Ca concentration in rat carotid body glomus cells"
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area that receives input from peripheral chemoreceptors. Taken together, these blood oxygen monitors contribute nerve signals to the
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Porzionato, Andrea; Macchi, Veronica; Stecco, Carla; De Caro, Raffaele (2013). "The carotid body in Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome".
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Gonzalez, C; Almaraz, L; Obeso, A; Rigual, R (1994). "Carotid body chemoreceptors: from natural stimuli to sensory discharges".
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of patterns of variability in the surrounding environment, carotid and aortic bodies count as chemosensors in a similar way as
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that differentiates their responses. However, little is known about the specifics of either of these signaling mechanisms.
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be released from the vesicles in the type I cells, and as with many other neural cells, this is triggered by an influx of
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Peers, Chris; Wyatt, Christopher N.; Evans, A. Mark (2010). "Mechanisms for acute oxygen sensing in the carotid body".
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65:. However, because carotid and aortic bodies detect variation within the body's internal organs, they are considered
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Gaultier, Claude; Gallego, Jorge (2005). "Development of respiratory control: Evolving concepts and perspectives".
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1341:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 758. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 19–27.
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organism's most basic energy source is composed of collection of cell structures common throughout the body.
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Nurse, Colin A.; Piskuric, Nikol A. (2013). "Signal processing at mammalian carotid body chemoreceptors".
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Jonz, Michael G.; Nurse, Colin A. (2012). "Peripheral
Chemoreceptors in Air- Versus Water- Breathers".
673:. At an evolutionary level, this stabilization of oxygen levels, which also results in a more constant
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are the most heavily studied and understood conditions detected by the peripheral chemoreceptors.
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Prabhakar, Nanduri R.; Peng, Ying-Jie (2004). "Peripheral chemoreceptors in health and disease".
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Ortega-Sáenz, Patricia; Pascual, Alberto; GĂłmez-DĂaz, Raquel; LĂłpez-Barneo, JosĂ© (2006-09-11).
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responses to exercise that can influence activities other than ventilation. Circulation of the
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fibers leading back to the same set of nerves. The entire cluster of cells is infiltrated with
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in the cardiorespiratory system by monitoring concentrations of blood borne chemicals. These
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sensors respond to variations in a number of blood properties, including low oxygen (
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heavily rely on other oxygen-sensing chemoreceptors, such as the aortic body or
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during exercise. However, there is disagreement about whether they perform an
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of the medulla which can modulate several processes, including breathing,
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As for their particular function, peripheral chemoreceptors help maintain
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communication, but studies indicate they function as chemoreceptor
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of the peripheral chemoreceptors changes throughout the lifespan.
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Several studies suggest peripheral chemoreceptors play a role in
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Sensory receptors that detect changes in chemical concentrations
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Carotid and aortic bodies are clusters of cells located on the
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carry signals back from the carotid and aortic bodies to the
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Peripheral chemoreceptors were identified as necessary to
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within arterial vessels while aortic body, located on the
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where they detect changes in chemical concentrations. As
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role. Several studies point to increased circulation of
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COGS 211 lecture, K. R. Livingston, September 11, 2013
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Transferring the signal to the medulla requires that
1198:"Acute Oxygen Sensing in Heme Oxygenase-2 Null Mice"
85:, which respond to the amount of stretch within the
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216:fibers leading back to (in the carotid body) the
247:containing various neurotransmitters, including
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630:Peripheral chemoreceptors work in concert with
922:(1). American Physiological Society: 359–366.
749:(4). American Physiological Society: 829–898.
204:and glia-like type II cells. The type-I cells
176:, monitors oxygen concentration closer to the
132:, which responds accordingly (e.g. increasing
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1208:(4). Rockefeller University Press: 405–411.
984:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
352:and exposure to smoke, substances of abuse,
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1414:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
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1261:Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
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1147:Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
1096:Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
848:Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
208:the signals from the bloodstream and are
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548:receptor. And thus, a receptor for an
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1810:oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
435:consumption of oxygen affecting the
1736:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
287:in chemoreceptive signaling, ATP.
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124:is discussed in a later section.
1052:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05033.x
510:ratio resulting from increasing
502:activated by an increase in the
41:) are so named because they are
928:10.1152/japplphysiol.00809.2003
809:"The Peripheral Nervous System"
693:, since fluctuations in pH can
1396:Essentials of Human Physiology
620:Role of central chemoreceptors
573:into type I transducer cells.
392:occur in pregnant women after
1:
1202:Journal of General Physiology
916:Journal of Applied Physiology
755:10.1152/physrev.1994.74.4.829
634:, which also monitor blood CO
454:. The process of identifying
450:into the cell after membrane
235:They also receive input from
1407:Overview at cvphysiology.com
996:10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.09.006
471:that otherwise maintain the
332:body development, including
1768:Ventilation/perfusion ratio
1619:pulmonary stretch receptors
1347:10.1007/978-94-007-4584-1_3
1313:"Regulation of Respiration"
1153:(1). Elsevier BV: 194–201.
854:(3). Elsevier BV: 292–298.
685:, and to maintain an ideal
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1800:alveolar–arterial gradient
1412:Paraganglia,+Nonchromaffin
1273:10.1016/j.resp.2014.01.020
1159:10.1016/j.resp.2012.05.013
1108:10.1016/j.resp.2005.04.018
1102:(1–3). Elsevier BV: 3–15.
860:10.1016/j.resp.2010.08.010
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1681:respiratory minute volume
1593:ventral respiratory group
1392:"Section 4/4ch6/s4ch6_20"
990:(1). Elsevier BV: 22–30.
47:peripheral nervous system
31:Peripheral chemoreceptors
1588:dorsal respiratory group
1482:obligate nasal breathing
1416:Medical Subject Headings
612:and a neurotransmitter,
108:), high carbon dioxide (
1790:pulmonary gas pressures
1339:Arterial Chemoreception
514:. Once activated, the
376:Increased base rate of
311:is irregular, prone to
1924:Respiratory physiology
1544:mechanical ventilation
1453:Respiratory physiology
1267:. Elsevier BV: 19–26.
717:Control of respiration
707:Central chemoreceptors
632:central chemoreceptors
626:Central chemoreceptors
325:central chemoreceptors
222:glossopharyngeal nerve
1795:alveolar gas equation
1731:pulmonary circulation
1215:10.1085/jgp.200609591
1038:(1). Wiley: 119–131.
743:Physiological Reviews
487:in the body, such as
194:common carotid artery
18:Carotid chemoreceptor
1850:respiratory quotient
1705:body plethysmography
1624:Hering–Breuer reflex
1499:pulmonary surfactant
512:cellular respiration
112:), and low glucose (
93:, that they occupy.
1693:Lung function tests
1527:hyperresponsiveness
1044:2009NYASA1177..119L
640:cerebrospinal fluid
556:Response to hypoxia
456:signal transduction
414:Signal transduction
224:and medulla of the
220:and then on to the
218:carotid sinus nerve
158:signal transduction
1860:diffusion capacity
1855:arterial blood gas
1835:carbonic anhydrase
1569:pneumotaxic center
697:a cell's enzymes.
677:concentration and
469:potassium channels
334:periodic breathing
313:periodic breathing
263:, released during
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45:extensions of the
1919:Sensory receptors
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1814:Oxygen saturation
1780:zones of the lung
1519:airway resistance
1390:Nosek, Thomas M.
1356:978-94-007-4583-4
691:protein structure
663:airway resistance
638:but do it in the
473:resting potential
285:neurotransmitters
182:signal processing
16:(Redirected from
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51:blood vessels
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39:aortic bodies
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1785:gas exchange
1750:Interactions
1675:calculations
1636:Lung volumes
1611:
1599:
1580:
1561:
1532:constriction
1494:respirometer
1400:the original
1395:
1338:
1332:
1321:. Retrieved
1317:the original
1307:
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441:
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306:
294:
273:
265:transduction
234:
202:glomus cells
191:
188:Microanatomy
143:
114:hypoglycemia
95:
30:
29:
1824:Bohr effect
1724:Circulation
1460:Respiration
604:-promoting
578:ventilation
533:capillaries
390:hypercapnia
382:sensitivity
378:ventilation
346:hypertrophy
340:, impaired
338:sleep apnea
291:Development
241:capillaries
230:vagus nerve
198:aortic arch
174:aortic arch
134:ventilation
118:hypercapnia
110:hypercapnia
98:homeostasis
55:transducers
1913:Categories
1886:death zone
1805:hemoglobin
1700:spirometry
1659:dead space
1612:peripheral
1537:dilatation
1523:bronchial
1504:compliance
1477:exhalation
1472:inhalation
1323:2013-11-24
817:2020-03-17
723:References
586:inhibitory
582:excitatory
567:stem cells
563:plasticity
529:metabolism
481:transducer
465:inhibition
409:Physiology
297:physiology
281:stem cells
210:innervated
168:, monitor
89:, usually
71:Taste buds
59:taste buds
1762:Perfusion
1365:0065-2598
1281:1569-9048
1224:1540-7748
1167:1569-9048
1116:1569-9048
1060:0077-8923
1004:1084-9521
936:8750-7587
868:1569-9048
763:0031-9333
655:brainstem
541:potassium
489:pulmonary
429:receptors
425:transduce
420:breathing
394:gestation
372:Pregnancy
362:premature
354:hyperoxia
257:serotonin
226:brainstem
206:transduce
140:Structure
130:brainstem
102:polymodal
1773:V/Q scan
1373:23080138
1299:24530802
1242:16966473
1183:21044471
1175:22613076
1132:43910318
1124:15941676
1076:34086733
1068:19845614
1012:23022231
944:14660497
884:25602867
876:20736087
701:See also
695:denature
610:glucagon
569:and can
493:neonatal
439:enzyme.
398:hormones
384:to both
358:neonatal
321:neonates
309:neonates
249:dopamine
245:vesicles
196:and the
162:arteries
33:(of the
1898:hypoxia
1819:2,3-BPG
1607:central
1582:medulla
1554:Control
1290:3998119
1233:2151578
1040:Bibcode
952:9710187
771:7938227
671:arousal
651:medulla
648:ventral
606:hormone
602:glucose
550:aerobic
485:tissues
477:hypoxia
448:calcium
386:hypoxia
342:arousal
336:, much
303:Infancy
164:of the
154:hypoxic
122:Glucose
106:hypoxia
43:sensory
35:carotid
1467:breath
1418:(MeSH)
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653:, the
516:enzyme
500:enzyme
91:muscle
1179:S2CID
1128:S2CID
1072:S2CID
948:S2CID
880:S2CID
812:(PDF)
683:sleep
644:brain
537:light
317:apnea
178:heart
144:Both
87:organ
49:into
1864:DLCO
1764:(Q)
1563:pons
1369:PMID
1361:ISSN
1351:ISBN
1295:PMID
1277:ISSN
1238:PMID
1220:ISSN
1171:PMID
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1120:PMID
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1064:PMID
1056:ISSN
1036:1177
1008:PMID
1000:ISSN
940:PMID
932:ISSN
872:PMID
864:ISSN
767:PMID
759:ISSN
689:for
543:and
437:AMPK
388:and
380:and
329:SIDS
315:and
166:neck
148:and
61:and
37:and
1669:PEF
1649:FRC
1343:doi
1285:PMC
1269:doi
1265:195
1228:PMC
1210:doi
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1155:doi
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1104:doi
1100:149
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852:174
751:doi
584:or
508:ATP
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467:of
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