148:
440:
628:, a UK-based Enhanced Weathering company, spreads crushed silicate rock, such as basalt and wollastonite, on agricultural land in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. They claim to have spread more than 200,000 tonnes of crushed rock to date, which will capture over 40,000 tonnes of CO2 as their rock weathers. In March of 2024, they published a peer-reviewed paper in partnership with
164:
457:
weathering rate is a function of saturation of the dissolving mineral in solution (decreasing to zero in fully saturated solutions), some have suggested that lack of rainfall may limit terrestrial enhanced weathering, although others suggest that secondary mineral formation or biological uptake may suppress saturation and promote weathering.
473:
To overcome the limitations of solution saturation and to use natural comminution of sand particles from wave energy, silicate minerals may be applied to coastal environments, although the higher pH of seawater may substantially decrease the rate of dissolution, and it is unclear how much comminution
456:
Enhanced weathering was initially used to refer specifically to the spreading of crushed silicate minerals on the land surface. Biological activity in soils has been shown to promote the dissolution of silicate minerals, but there is still uncertainty surrounding how quickly this may happen. Because
182:
dissolving to the action of water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and temperature changes. It is mechanical (breaking up rock—also called physical weathering or disaggregation) and chemical (changing the chemical compounds in the rocks). Biological weathering is a form of weathering (mechanical
643:
An Irish company named
Silicate has run trials in Ireland and in 2023 is running trials in the USA near Chicago. Using concrete crushed down to dust it is scattered on farmland on the ratio 500 tonnes to 50 hectares, aiming to capture 100 tonnes of CO2 per annum from that area. Claiming it improves
1090:
Beerling, David J.; Kantzas, Euripides P.; Lomas, Mark R.; Wade, Peter; Eufrasio, Rafael M.; Renforth, Phil; Sarkar, Binoy; Andrews, M. Grace; James, Rachael H.; Pearce, Christopher R.; Mercure, Jean-Francois; Pollitt, Hector; Holden, Philip B.; Edwards, Neil R.; Khanna, Madhu; Koh, Lenny; Quegan,
447:
Weathering and biological carbonate precipitation are thought to be only loosely coupled on short time periods (<1000 years). Therefore, an increase in both carbonate and silicate weathering with respect to carbonate precipitation will result in a buildup of alkalinity in the ocean.
268:
This carbonic acid then attacks the mineral to form carbonate ions in solution with the unreacted water. As a result of these two chemical reactions (carbonation and dissolution), minerals, water, and carbon dioxide combine, which alters the chemical composition of minerals and removes
481:
regions of the ocean has been investigated. Carbonate minerals are supersaturated in the surface ocean but are undersaturated in the deep ocean. In areas of upwelling, this undersaturated water is brought to the surface. While this technology will likely be cheap, the maximum annual
573:
Where abundant electric surplus electricity is available, the electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals has been proposed and experimentally shown. The process resembles the weathering of some minerals. In addition, hydrogen produced would be a carbon-negative.
464:
depends on the rate at which the minerals dissolve (less comminution is required for rapid mineral dissolution). A 2012 study suggested a large range in potential cost of enhanced weathering largely due to the uncertainty surrounding mineral dissolution rates.
2307:
Skov, Kirstine; Wardman, Jez; Healey, Matthew; McBride, Amy; Bierowiec, Tzara; Cooper, Julia; Edeh, Ifeoma; George, Dave; Kelland, Mike E.; Mann, Jim; Manning, David; Murphy, Melissa J.; Pape, Ryan; Teh, Yit A.; Turner, Will (2024-03-27).
644:
soil quality and crop productivity, the company sells carbon removal credits to fund the costs. The initial pilot funding comes from prize money awarded to the startup by the THRIVE/Shell
Climate-Smart Agriculture Challenge.
85:
emissions, according to estimates. Ocean-based techniques involve alkalinity enhancement, such as grinding, dispersing, and dissolving olivine, limestone, silicates, or calcium hydroxide to address ocean acidification and
564:
is a non-profit organization that promotes rock dust applications as natural fertilizers in agriculture fields to restore soils with minerals, improve the quality of vegetation and increase carbon sequestration.
76:
Enhanced weathering is a chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involving land-based or ocean-based techniques. One example of a land-based enhanced weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates.
779:
713:
97:
or alkaline industrial silicate minerals (such as steel slags, construction & demolition waste, or ash from biomass incineration) may be used at first, mining more basalt might eventually be required to
559:
contributes to the enhanced weathering process. Mixing the soil with crushed rock such as silicate benefits not only plants' health, but also carbon sequestration when calcium or magnesium are present.
216:
are examples of minerals affected by carbonation weathering. When silicate or carbonate minerals are exposed to rainwater or groundwater, they slowly dissolve due to carbonation weathering: that is the
916:
Goll, Daniel S.; Ciais, Philippe; Amann, Thorben; Buermann, Wolfgang; Chang, Jinfeng; Eker, Sibel; Hartmann, Jens; Janssens, Ivan; Li, Wei; Obersteiner, Michael; Penuelas, Josep (August 2021).
489:
Transforming the carbonate minerals into oxides and spreading this material in the open ocean ('Ocean Liming') has been proposed as an alternative technology. Here the carbonate mineral (CaCO
1005:
684:
417:: in case of a change of this equilibrium state, it takes theoretically (if no other alteration is happening during this time) thousands of years to establish a new equilibrium state.
1035:
1251:
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from the atmosphere. Of course, these are reversible reactions, so if the carbonate encounters H ions from acids, such as in soils, they will react to form water and release CO
1912:
636:
concerning the agronomic co-benefits of crushed basalt in a temperate climate. They are 1 of 20 XPRIZE Carbon
Removal finalists, a $ 100 Million competition hosted by the
771:
424:
sequestered for every mol of Ca or Mg weathered out of the mineral. Given that some of the dissolved cations react with existing alkalinity in the solution to form CO
705:
2399:
2375:
517:(~15 MPa) inside controlled reactors ("ex-situ mineral carbonation"). Some research explores the potential of "in-situ mineral carbonation" in which the CO
398:
The carbonate minerals then eventually sink from the ocean surface to the ocean floor. Most of the carbonate is redissolved in the deep ocean as it sinks.
591:
549:
513:. This early research investigated the carbonation of extracted and crushed silicates at elevated temperatures (~180 °C) and partial pressures of CO
2286:
1863:
Lackner, Klaus S.; Wendt, Christopher H.; Butt, Darryl P.; Joyce, Edward L.; Sharp, David H. (1995). "Carbon dioxide disposal in carbonate minerals".
362:
Although some of the dissolved bicarbonate may react with soil acids during the passage through the soil profile to groundwater, water with dissolved
1068:
1937:
Lefebvre, David; Goglio, Pietro; Williams, Adrian; Manning, David; Azevedo, Antonio; Bergmann, Magda; Meersmans, Jeroen; Smith, Pete (2019-10-01).
1219:
997:
676:
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1628:
586:. This is comparable with other methods of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere currently available (BECCS (US$ 100–200 per tonne of CO
1939:"Assessing the potential of soil carbonation and enhanced weathering through Life Cycle Assessment: A case study for Sao Paulo State, Brazil"
1908:
1938:
147:
121:
In July 2020, a group of scientists assessed that the geo-engineering technique of enhanced rock weathering, i.e., spreading finely crushed
1027:
1996:
Scott, Allan; Oze, Christopher; Shah, Vineet; Yang, Nan; Shanks, Barney; Cheeseman, Chris; Marshall, Aaron; Watson, Matthew (2021-02-04).
1247:
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746:
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mineralization and enhanced weathering of ultramafic mine tailings from the
Baptiste nickel deposit in British Columbia, Canada"
2452:
2241:
2191:
1158:
582:
In a 2020 techno-economical analysis, the cost of utilizing this method on cropland was estimated at US$ 80–180 per tonne of CO
186:
Chemical weathering can happen by different mechanisms, depending mainly on the nature of the minerals involved. This includes
2057:
Rau, Greg H.; Carroll, Susan A.; Bourcier, William L.; Singleton, Michael J.; Smith, Megan M.; Aines, Roger D. (2013-06-18).
2467:
2457:
277:
back to the atmosphere. Applying limestone (a calcium carbonate) to acid soils neutralizes the H ions but releases CO
1368:
Manning, D. A. C. (2008). "Biological enhancement of soil carbonate precipitation: Passive removal of atmospheric CO
506:
99:
2310:"Initial agronomic benefits of enhanced weathering using basalt: A study of spring oat in a temperate climate"
1898:
O'Connor, W. K.; Dahlin, D. C.; Rush, G. E.; Gedermann, S. J.; Penner, L. R.; Nilsen, D. N. (March 15, 2005).
736:"Mapping the Mineral Resource Base for Mineral Carbon-Dioxide Sequestration in the Conterminous United States"
2270:
1691:
Hangx, Suzanne J.T.; Spiers, Christopher J. (2009). "Coastal spreading of olivine to control atmospheric CO
1293:
772:"Cloud spraying and hurricane slaying: how ocean geoengineering became the frontier of the climate crisis"
561:
545:
510:
126:
54:
1321:
Schuiling, R. D.; Krijgsman, P. (2006). "Enhanced
Weathering: An Effective and Cheap Tool to Sequester CO
1056:
1656:
concentrations: A critical analysis of viability. Comment: Nature and laboratory models are different".
1215:
420:
For silicate weathering, the theoretical net effect of dissolution and precipitation is 1 mol of CO
509:) was first proposed by Seifritz in 1990, and developed initially by Lackner et al. and further by the
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2013:
1950:
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Kheshgi, Haroon S. (1995). "Sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide by increasing ocean alkalinity".
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1428:
1381:
1334:
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Berner, Robert A. Berner; Kothavala, Zavareth (2001). "GEOCARB III: A revised model of atmospheric CO
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817:
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414:
187:
111:
2400:"Can concrete dust help to fight climate change? This Irish startup is trying it out on US farmland"
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Schuiling, R.D.; de Boer, P.L. (2010). "Coastal spreading of olivine to control atmospheric CO
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and storage at large scale deployment and low-cost energy inputs (US$ 100–300 per tonne of CO
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sequestration of carbonate weathering reaction and carbonate precipitation reaction is zero.
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ions, the ratio is not exactly 1:1 in natural systems but is a function of temperature and CO
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Köhler, Peter; Hartmann, Jens; Wolf-Gladrow, Dieter A.; Schellnhuber, Hans-Joachim (2010).
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Shaun; Pidgeon, Nick F.; Janssens, Ivan A.; Hansen, James; Banwart, Steven A. (July 2020).
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is injected into silicate rock formations to promote carbonate formation underground (see:
800:
Power, Ian M.; Dipple, Gregory M.; Bradshaw, Peter M. D.; Harrison, Anna L. (2020-03-01).
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78:
53:, onto surfaces which speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It also
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677:"Guest post: How 'enhanced weathering' could slow climate change and boost crop yields"
537:
226:
175:
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1982:
1884:
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1415:
Manning, David A. C.; Renforth, Phil (2013). "Passive
Sequestration of Atmospheric CO
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603:
234:
115:
81:, for example, has the potential to store hundreds to thousands of years' worth of CO
38:
17:
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One example of a research project on the feasibility of enhanced weathering is the
1963:
1464:"Geoengineering potential of artificially enhanced silicate weathering of olivine"
1393:
2437:
2414:"CONGRATULATIONS TO OUR THRIVE SHELL CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE CHALLENGE WINNERS"
2334:
1736:
increase and ocean acidification by adding limestone powder to upwelling regions"
1716:
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494:
461:
363:
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1997:
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413:) to the quantity of carbon dioxide converted into carbonate is regulated by a
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66:
42:
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2035:
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998:"Ever been to a green sand beach? The newest geohack to fight climate change"
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Mineral carbonation research has largely focused on the sequestration of CO
110:
Enhanced weathering has been proposed for both terrestrial and ocean-based
1307:
1057:"Applying rock dust to croplands could absorb up to 2 billion tonnes of CO
129:
by nations, identifying costs, opportunities, and engineering challenges.
1760:
1731:
922:
removal from enhanced weathering by ecosystem responses to powdered rock"
633:
533:
94:
2170:
1531:"Enhanced silicate weathering is not limited by silicic acid saturation"
1497:
1129:
163:
1998:"Transformation of abundant magnesium silicate minerals for enhanced CO
656:
619:
522:
406:
335:
179:
2376:"20 Teams Bring Cutting-Edge Solutions to XPRIZE Carbon Removal Final"
1973:
1440:
1840:
1811:
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to carbonate minerals for shells and skeletons through the reaction:
122:
50:
477:
Alternatively, the direct application of carbonate minerals to the
438:
370:) eventually ends up in the ocean, where the bicarbonate ions are
325:
218:
162:
146:
338:(a carbonate mineral) is instead dissolved through the reaction:
2059:"Direct electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals for air CO
1529:
Schuiling, Roelof D.; Wilson, Siobhan A.; Power, lan M. (2011).
114:. Ocean methods are being tested by the non-profit organization
2213:"CarbFix Project | Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute"
497:. The energy requirements for this technology are substantial.
409:. The ratio of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a gas (CO
118:
to see if they are environmentally and economically viable.
1028:"How This Strange Green Sand Could Reverse Climate Change"
183:
or chemical) by plants, fungi, or other living organisms.
41:
systems, is a process that aims to accelerate the natural
1419:
through
Coupled Plant-Mineral Reactions in Urban soils".
288:(a silicate mineral) is dissolved through the reaction:
206:
weathering is a particular type of solution weathering.
861:"The negative emission potential of alkaline materials"
505:
The enhanced dissolution and carbonation of silicates (
61:) from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid
625:
2138:
removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands"
1097:
removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands"
167:
Role of carbonate in sea exchange of carbon dioxide.
1695:concentrations: A critical analysis of viability".
1248:"Encyclopædia Britannica - Biological carbon cycle"
2271:"Turning Carbon Dioxide Into Rock, and Burying It"
133:Natural mineral weathering and ocean acidification
1590:"The potential of enhanced weathering in the UK"
606:was estimated lower than US$ 100 per tonne of CO
2079:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1697:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1658:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1597:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1535:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1468:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
810:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
706:"Maps show rocks ideal for sequestering carbon"
544:was derived from the atmosphere, e.g. through
569:Electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals
405:these processes are thought to stabilize the
8:
2248:(in Icelandic). 2017-08-22. Archived from
592:Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage
460:The amount of energy that is required for
155:on the mountain path to the tongue of the
2351:
2333:
2169:
2108:
2098:
2025:
1972:
1962:
1901:Aqueous mineral carbonation, Final Report
1839:
1759:
1564:
1554:
1505:
1487:
1297:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1128:
953:
892:
493:) is transformed into lime (CaO) through
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1210:
1208:
668:
328:and "(aq)" indicates a substance in an
324:where "(s)" indicates a substance in a
2006:Communications Earth & Environment
1421:Environmental Science & Technology
1071:from the original on 12 September 2020
1909:National Energy Technology Laboratory
7:
486:sequestration potential is limited.
2438:Enhanced Weathering Conference 2022
1918:from the original on March 4, 2016
1188:"National Geographic - Weathering"
782:from the original on June 23, 2021
752:from the original on July 27, 2020
125:on fields – has potential use for
25:
2289:from the original on May 16, 2018
1216:"Brandon Vogt, "Rock Weathering""
1161:from the original on 16 July 2020
734:U.S. Department of the Interior.
716:from the original on May 16, 2018
233:) present in the atmosphere form
1026:Delbert, Caroline (2020-06-11).
443:Carbon-silicate cycle feedbacks.
27:Approach to carbon sequestration
2194:from the original on 2020-07-16
2063:mitigation and carbon-negative
1816:disposal by means of silicates"
1740:Journal of Geophysical Research
1634:from the original on 2020-12-05
1254:from the original on 2020-12-12
1222:from the original on 2020-10-27
1194:from the original on 2017-01-25
1038:from the original on 2020-10-12
1008:from the original on 2020-10-29
978:from the original on 2021-10-26
687:from the original on 2021-09-08
452:Terrestrial enhanced weathering
2132:Beerling, David (2020-07-08).
1732:"Mitigating the atmospheric CO
474:is possible from wave action.
1:
2134:"Potential for large-scale CO
1964:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.099
1943:Journal of Cleaner Production
1394:10.1180/minmag.2008.072.2.639
1093:"Potential for large-scale CO
859:Renforth, Phil (2019-03-28).
2335:10.1371/journal.pone.0295031
1885:10.1016/0360-5442(95)00071-N
1797:10.1016/0360-5442(95)00035-F
996:Peters, Adele (2020-05-29).
602:). In contrast, the cost of
432:partial pressure. The net CO
35:ocean alkalinity enhancement
1717:10.1016/j.ijggc.2009.07.001
1678:10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.04.012
1617:10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.06.011
1278:American Journal of Science
830:10.1016/j.ijggc.2019.102895
469:Oceanic enhanced weathering
45:by spreading finely ground
2484:
2217:www.globalccsinstitute.com
2027:10.1038/s43247-021-00099-6
946:10.1038/s41561-021-00798-x
885:10.1038/s41467-019-09475-5
174:is the natural process of
136:
2162:10.1038/s41586-020-2448-9
1730:Harvey, L. D. D. (2008).
1347:10.1007/s10584-005-3485-y
1121:10.1038/s41586-020-2448-9
955:10067/1800910151162165141
1276:over Phanerozoic time".
69:. The latter also slows
2100:10.1073/pnas.1222358110
1556:10.1073/pnas.1019024108
1489:10.1073/pnas.1000545107
536:. It could be used for
403:geological time periods
93:Although existing mine
2453:Carbon dioxide removal
1374:Mineralogical Magazine
743:U.S. Geological Survey
562:Remineralize The Earth
511:Albany Research Center
444:
168:
160:
127:carbon dioxide removal
55:removes carbon dioxide
2242:"The CarbFix Project"
1810:Seifritz, W. (1990).
1588:Renforth, P. (2012).
1308:10.2475/ajs.301.2.182
865:Nature Communications
507:'mineral carbonation'
442:
308:(aq) → 2Mg(aq) + 4HCO
166:
150:
18:Carbon mineralization
1761:10.1029/2007JC004373
1061:from the atmosphere"
630:Newcastle University
622:project in Iceland.
415:chemical equilibrium
354:(aq) → Ca(aq) + 2HCO
281:from the limestone.
112:carbon sequestration
100:limit climate change
2468:Enhanced weathering
2458:Climate engineering
2326:2024PLoSO..1995031S
2154:2020Natur.583..242B
2091:2013PNAS..11010095R
2085:(25): 10095–10100.
2018:2021ComEE...2...25S
1955:2019JCPro.233..468L
1877:1995Ene....20.1153L
1832:1990Natur.345..486S
1789:1995Ene....20..915K
1752:2008JGRC..113.4028H
1709:2009IJGGC...3..757H
1670:2010IJGGC...4..855S
1609:2012IJGGC..10..229R
1547:2011PNAS..108E..41S
1480:2010EGUGA..12.6986K
1433:2013EnST...47..135M
1386:2008MinM...72..639M
1339:2006ClCh...74..349S
1290:2001AmJS..301..182B
1218:. 17 October 2012.
1113:2020Natur.583..242B
938:2021NatGe..14..545G
877:2019NatCo..10.1401R
822:2020IJGGC..9402895P
745:. Data Series 414.
540:if the source of CO
501:Mineral carbonation
245:) by the reaction:
157:Morteratsch glacier
143:Ocean acidification
71:ocean acidification
31:Enhanced weathering
2402:. 27 October 2023.
2275:The New York Times
710:The New York Times
596:direct air capture
546:direct air capture
445:
169:
161:
63:carbonate minerals
37:when proposed for
2148:(7815): 242–248.
1441:10.1021/es301250j
1107:(7815): 242–248.
1032:Popular Mechanics
926:Nature Geoscience
802:"Prospects for CO
214:silicate minerals
16:(Redirected from
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2219:. Archived from
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1474:(47): 20228–33.
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634:PLOS ONE journal
614:Example projects
557:Remineralization
364:bicarbonate ions
330:aqueous solution
153:frost weathering
90:sequestration.
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39:carbon credit
36:
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2379:
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2250:the original
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2221:the original
2216:
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2171:10871/122894
2145:
2141:
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2009:
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1942:
1932:
1922:December 29,
1920:. Retrieved
1900:
1893:
1871:(11): 1153.
1868:
1864:
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1819:
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1661:
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1600:
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1267:
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1224:. Retrieved
1196:. Retrieved
1163:. Retrieved
1130:10871/122894
1104:
1100:
1085:
1073:. Retrieved
1064:
1051:
1040:. Retrieved
1031:
1021:
1010:. Retrieved
1002:Fast Company
1001:
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980:. Retrieved
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776:The Guardian
775:
766:
754:. Retrieved
742:
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718:. Retrieved
709:
700:
689:. Retrieved
681:Carbon Brief
680:
671:
657:Olivine#Uses
646:
642:
624:
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202:weathering.
185:
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2075:production"
1949:: 468–481.
1541:(12): E41.
871:(1): 1401.
550:biomass-CCS
495:calcination
462:comminution
326:solid state
204:Carbonation
2463:Weathering
2447:Categories
2419:3 November
2385:2024-06-11
2293:2018-05-15
2256:2018-05-15
2227:2018-05-15
2198:2021-02-09
1974:2164/12752
1638:2019-12-10
1603:: 229–43.
1258:2020-11-30
1226:2020-11-30
1198:2020-11-30
1042:2020-11-06
1012:2020-11-06
982:2021-11-03
816:: 102895.
786:2021-06-23
720:2018-05-15
691:2021-11-03
663:References
286:forsterite
196:hydrolysis
172:Weathering
139:Weathering
137:See also:
67:alkalinity
43:weathering
2344:1932-6203
2283:0362-4331
2246:www.or.is
2188:220417075
2044:231793974
2036:2662-4435
2012:(1): 25.
1983:197776092
1355:131280491
1294:CiteSeerX
1165:16 August
1155:220417075
1139:1476-4687
1075:28 August
972:236438034
964:1752-0908
846:213320687
838:1750-5836
479:upwelling
378:Ca + 2HCO
210:Carbonate
200:oxidation
192:hydration
65:or ocean
2362:38536835
2353:10971544
2314:PLOS ONE
2287:Archived
2192:Archived
2180:32641817
2119:23729814
1913:Archived
1850:38210921
1629:Archived
1625:96612612
1575:21368192
1516:21059941
1498:25756680
1449:22616942
1402:94528533
1252:Archived
1220:Archived
1192:Archived
1159:Archived
1147:32641817
1069:Archived
1065:phys.org
1036:Archived
1006:Archived
976:Archived
903:30923316
780:Archived
747:Archived
714:Archived
685:Archived
651:See also
534:flue gas
312:(aq) + H
300:(s) + 4H
188:solution
180:minerals
95:tailings
47:silicate
2322:Bibcode
2150:Bibcode
2110:3690887
2087:Bibcode
2014:Bibcode
1951:Bibcode
1873:Bibcode
1828:Bibcode
1785:Bibcode
1748:Bibcode
1705:Bibcode
1666:Bibcode
1605:Bibcode
1566:3064366
1543:Bibcode
1507:2996662
1476:Bibcode
1429:Bibcode
1382:Bibcode
1335:Bibcode
1286:Bibcode
1109:Bibcode
934:Bibcode
894:6438983
873:Bibcode
818:Bibcode
756:May 15,
620:CarbFix
523:CarbFix
346:(s) + H
336:Calcite
225:O) and
106:History
2380:XPRIZE
2360:
2350:
2342:
2281:
2186:
2178:
2142:Nature
2117:
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2034:
1981:
1865:Energy
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1820:Nature
1777:Energy
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1101:Nature
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640:.
594:) and
382:→ CaCO
253:O + CO
198:, and
123:basalt
51:basalt
2184:S2CID
2040:S2CID
1979:S2CID
1916:(PDF)
1905:(PDF)
1846:S2CID
1632:(PDF)
1621:S2CID
1593:(PDF)
1494:JSTOR
1398:S2CID
1351:S2CID
1151:S2CID
968:S2CID
842:S2CID
750:(PDF)
739:(PDF)
555:Soil
532:from
401:Over
219:water
176:rocks
2421:2023
2358:PMID
2340:ISSN
2279:ISSN
2176:PMID
2115:PMID
2032:ISSN
1924:2015
1571:PMID
1512:PMID
1445:PMID
1167:2020
1143:PMID
1135:ISSN
1077:2020
960:ISSN
899:PMID
834:ISSN
758:2018
626:UNDO
578:Cost
386:+ CO
366:(HCO
358:(aq)
342:CaCO
320:(aq)
212:and
178:and
141:and
2348:PMC
2330:doi
2166:hdl
2158:doi
2146:583
2105:PMC
2095:doi
2083:110
2022:doi
1969:hdl
1959:doi
1947:233
1881:doi
1836:doi
1824:345
1812:"CO
1793:doi
1756:doi
1744:113
1713:doi
1674:doi
1613:doi
1561:PMC
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1539:108
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1484:doi
1472:107
1437:doi
1390:doi
1372:".
1343:doi
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1304:doi
1282:301
1125:hdl
1117:doi
1105:583
950:hdl
942:doi
889:PMC
881:doi
826:doi
632:in
590:)-
548:or
525:).
390:+ H
316:SiO
296:SiO
257:→ H
229:(CO
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