Carlos Salinas de Gortari - Knowledge (XXG)

958:, as a way to directly aid poor Mexicans, but also create a network of support for Salinas. It was his first official act as president. The program channeled public funds, which the administration said came largely from privatization of state-owned companies, into impoverished areas to improve roads, the electrical grid, schools, and clinics in order to raise levels of education and health and link remote areas, with lack of oversight in its spending. The program was similar to those in other countries to manage the disruption and political costs of macroeconomic adjustment. Salinas's Harvard doctoral dissertation had examined the relationship between social programs and political support for the government. Given the Salinas's questionable legitimacy as the winner of the 1988 election, PRONASOL was seen as a way for Salinas to deliver immediate benefits to the poor and avert their turning to other political parties or worse. It did not prioritize funding for Mexico's poorest states, but rather to states with middle-income populations where elections were most contested and where the PRI had lost. Politically, the program sought to undermine the appeal of leftists, especially 1078: 981:

PRI had indicated to the Church that a Salinas victory would be beneficial to the Church. It has been considered a quid pro quo agreement. A delegation of the leadership of the episcopal hierarchy attended the inauguration of Salinas on December 1, 1988. After the 1988 election the Mexican bishops did not make public statements about the election results. Behind the scenes the apostolic delegate to Mexico, the Vatican's representative, Mexican bishops, and government officials had a series of secret meetings that hammered out the outlines of a new Church-State relationship. In his inaugural address, Salinas de Gortari announced a program to "modernize" Mexico via structural transformation. "The modern state is a state which ... maintains transparency and updates its relation with political parties, entrepreneurial groups, and the church." His declaration was more an articulation of the direction of change, but not list of specifics.

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gobernadores, todos ellos unidos por sólidos lazos familiares y de poder. Se han valido de la corrupción, compra de lealtades, imposiciones y otras maniobras similares para conservar y heredar el mando de generación en generación, a pesar de algunos intervalos. Como actual gobernador del Estado de México, Peña Nieto se ha convertido en la cabeza visible del Grupo Atlacomulco; su ascenso fue labrado escrupulosamente y está lejos de ser una obra del azar o una maniobra caprichosa de su antecesor Arturo Montiel. Negocios de familia desentraña la verdad detrás de la carismática figura de Peña Nieto y el entramado político para alcanzar la Presidencia de la República. La presencia cercana de Carlos Salinas de Gortari: llegó muy puntual al funeral de Enrique Peña del Mazo (padre de Peña Nieto), al velorio de Mónica Pretelini Sáenz, sus visitas secretas a la Casa de Gobierno, su asistencia a la toma de protesta de Peña Nieto.

1301:, as well as Peace Commissioner in Chiapas. Salinas made a public statement on 17 January 1994, affirming his choice as candidate, but this was at the insistence of Colosio. Salinas extracted a pledge from Camacho that he had no designs on the presidency, which he renounced the day before Colosio's assassination in Tijuana on 23 March 1994. After a few days of weighing his options, Salinas chose Colosio's campaign manager, Ernesto Zedillo, former Minister of Education, as the new PRI candidate for the presidency. Zedillo had been Secretary of Education, a relatively unimportant ministry; he had resigned to run the campaign of Colosio. Zedillo had never held elective office, sharing that trait with De la Madrid and Salinas, and was not otherwise experienced politically. He was perceived as a weak candidate. There is speculation that Salinas wished to perpetuate his power as 777: 1603: 1406:

assuming debt, and so on). This measure, however, was not enough, and the government was unable to hold this line, and decided to let the exchange rate float. While experts agree that devaluation was necessary, some critics of Zedillo's 22-day-old administration argue that, although economically coherent, the way the crisis was handled was a political mistake. By having announced its plans for devaluation, they argue that many foreigners withdrew their investments, thus aggravating the effects. Whether the effects were aggravated further or not, the result was that the peso crashed under a floating regime from four pesos to the dollar (with the previous increase of 15%) to 7.2 to the dollar in the space of a week.

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Drug trafficking is highly lucrative for those involved with it, and Mexico's weak law enforcement and judicial system could not prevent the wide-scale involvement of Mexico's poorly-paid police from being corrupted. The Mexican military to a lesser extent was corrupted, along with politicians, and some journalists. Such corruption undermined the possibility of rule of law and it prevented Mexicans from having trust in the state. A rising level of violence by drug traffickers against the state, witnesses, journalists, and bystanders. The Mexican government did capture and jail some high-level drug mafia leaders, including

1727: 1672: 1381:) investors, who sold them rapidly, thereby depleting the already-low central bank reserves (which eventually hit a record low of $ 9 billion). The economically orthodox thing to do, in order to maintain the fixed exchange rate (at 3.3 pesos per dollar, within a variation band), would have been to sharply increase interest rates by allowing the monetary base to shrink, as dollars were being withdrawn from the reserves. Given the fact that it was an election year, whose outcome might have changed as a result of a pre-election-day economic downturn, the 1113:(NAFTA), which came into effect on 1 January 1994. The agreement was a reversal of Mexico's longstanding policies of economic nationalism and anti-Americanism and was intended to create a single market. Mexican proponents of NAFTA saw it in a way to secure markets for its exports and attract foreign investment, and create jobs, help the government to be able to service its foreign debt, and overall, promote economic recovery. In Mexico, the reversal was controversial, opposed by organized labor, many academics, and nongovernmental organizations. 1277: 1148:(NAFTA), with the United States and Canada. Salinas also renegotiated Mexico's foreign debt. In 1990, Salinas had traveled to Europe to attract non-North American capital investment, but dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Soviet bloc opened them to foreign investment; Mexico was less attractive to them and Salinas turned to North America. Critics say that NAFTA has had mixed results for Mexico: while there has been huge increase in commerce and foreign investment, this has not been at all the case for employment and salaries. 1471:, Minister of Agrarian Reform, was sent to Monterrey to persuade Salinas to return to Mexico City. Salinas demanded that the government issue a statement clearing him of responsibility for the Colosio case and the December 20 devaluation. Salinas returned to Mexico City and he and Zedillo met. Zedillo's government issued a statement absolving Salinas of the Colosio murder and tempered his criticism of Salinas in the peso crisis. Salinas left Mexico for self-imposed exile and settled in Ireland for a period. 4784: 61: 373: 686:, "Not in their worst nightmares could the lords of the PRI have imagined what would happen to them on the sixth of July 1988. As they had done six years before, the electorate came out to vote, but not in support of the official candidate. They came to the voting booths to punish him." Salinas had become presidential candidate in a difficult time for the PRI which for the first time was faced by significant opposition from the left ( 1289:

electoral transfer, but this occurred prior to it. His campaign languished with lack of funding, and Colosio had problems getting media coverage, given the high-profile events in Chiapas. Salinas prevented Colosio from going to Chiapas, with the explanation that his presence there would complicate the situation. There was the impression that Salinas would reverse his decision for Colosio, substituting someone else, perhaps

632:, where he was teaching at the time, though that story remains unconfirmed. Gerard later worked as a technical secretary for the Economic Cabinet of the Salinas administration. The couple had three children. Gerard gave birth to their eldest daughter, Ana Emilia Margarita, in January 1996. followed by a son, Patricio Gerónimo Gerardo who was born two years later in 1998, while their youngest son, Mateo, was born in 2006. 722:), through its Federal Electoral Commission, was the institution in charge of the electoral process, and installed a modern computing system to count the votes. On election day July 6, 1988, the system "crashed", and when it was finally restored, Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. Even though the elections are extremely controversial, and some maintain that Salinas won legally, the expression 1687: 1268:

for a peaceful political transition with his legacy intact were obliterated. Salinas appointed Manuel Camacho, Minister of Foreign Affairs, as the government's peace mediator. For Salinas, this had political benefits, since Camacho, having been passed over as the PRI presidential candidate, could have bolted from the party. With this important appointment, he was in the public limelight again.

1715: 1755: 464:. From the beginning of his administration, Salinas de Gortari was criticized by the Mexican left, who considered him an illegitimate president whose neoliberal policies led to higher unemployment and were perceived as giving away the wealth of the nation to foreign ownership, whereas he was praised by the right wing and the international community, who considered him a leading figure of 1480: 1243: 660:, who as a desperate measure had nationalized the banks in Mexico and expropriated dollar-denominated savings accounts. The country held no hard currency reserves, exhaustion of foreign credit, and soaring interest rates. the Ministries of Finance and Planning and Budget became the most powerful positions to deal with the economic crisis. In the cabinet, Salinas's main rival was 1562: 1659: 1102: 1414:

coining the term "December mistake" to refer to the crisis and Zedillo's mistakes. He then argued that he had talked to Zedillo of a possibility of "sharing the burden" of the devaluation by allowing the peso to devaluate a certain percent before his term was over, and the rest of the necessary devaluation would have been done during Zedillo's administration.

1362:(OECD) in May 1994. It was known that the peso was overvalued, but the extent of the Mexican economy's vulnerability was either not well known or downplayed by both the Salinas administration and the media. This vulnerability was further aggravated by several unexpected events and macroeconomic mistakes made in the last year of his administration. 496:(Salinas's brother-in-law and PRI Secretary-General). This surge of political violence led to economic uncertainty. Facing pressures to devalue the peso, Salinas refused, opting for a strategy he believed would help his candidacy to be the inaugural president of the WTO. As a consequence, less than a month after Salinas left office, his successor 1503:, after attempting to withdraw US$ 84 million from an account owned by Raúl Salinas under an alias. Their capture led to the unveiling of a vast fortune spread around the world and amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars, even though Raúl Salinas had never officially received an annual income of more than $ 190,000. A report by the U.S. 567:, but there is no evidence of his participation. He was an active member of the PRI youth movement and a political club, the Revolutionary Policy and Professional Association, whose members continued to be his close friends when he was president. Salinas was a skilled dressage horseman, and was a member of the Mexico national team at the 1767: 1508:

accounts held by Raúl Salinas, to the government of Mexico. The Swiss Justice Ministry indicated that the Mexican government had demonstrated that $ 66 million of the funds had been misappropriated, and the funds, with interest, were returned to Mexico. The Salinas family would not receive back any of the frozen funds.

610:. They moved to Boston, where Salinas was completing his master's and doctorate at Harvard University. The couple discovered that Occelli was pregnant with their first child during Salinas' first semester at Harvard. Their oldest daughter, Cecilia, was born on 22 January 1974. Occelli and Salinas had two more children: 668:, Minister of the Interior, with whom Salinas forged a non-compete alliance. Salinas also forged other alliances within the circles of power and did not directly compete with De la Madrid for public attention. Silva Herzog made missteps in his ministry, which Salinas capitalized on, forcing his resignation. 539:, then five, and an eight-year-old friend when they found a loaded rifle, and one of them shot and killed the Salinas family's twelve-year-old maid, Manuela. It was never determined which of the three boys pulled the trigger, and the incident was declared an accident; it was given newspaper coverage in 1593:

In another national survey conducted in 2012 by BGC-Excelsior about former Presidents, Salinas de Gortari by far received the worst rating: 20% of the respondents considered that his administration was "very good" or "good", 13% of the responded considered that it was an "average" administration, and

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Mexican businesses with debts to be paid in dollars, or that relied on supplies bought from the United States, suffered an immediate hit, with mass industrial lay-offs and several suicides. To make matters worse, the devaluation announcement was made mid-week, on a Wednesday, and for the remainder of

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Several economists and historians have analyzed some of the events and policy mistakes that precipitated the crisis of December 1994. In keeping with the PRI election-year practices, Salinas launched a spending spree to finance popular projects, which translated into a historically high deficit. This

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The economic bubble gave Mexico a prosperity not seen in a generation. This period of rapid growth coupled with low inflation prompted some political thinkers and the media to state that Mexico was on the verge of becoming a "First World nation". In fact, it was the first of the "newly industrialized

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in March 1994, upending the already complex electoral situation with elections scheduled for August of that year. The Zapatista uprising had ruined Salinas's plans for a peaceful transition of Mexico in the elections. There is evidence that Salinas and Colosio began to disagree, not unusual after the

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had a high international profile, but was considered unlikely to actually attract voters. The changed circumstances of the Mexican political system, as demonstrated by Salinas's own election to the presidency, meant that being designated the PRI did not guarantee election. Aspe was not a charismatic

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at the time. A judge blamed the Salinas parents for leaving a loaded weapon accessible to their small children. The Salinas family did not know the last name of their 12-year-old maid Manuela—only that she came from San Pedro Azcapotzaltongo—and it is unknown whether her family ever claimed her body.

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Enrique Peña Nieto se perfila como la carta más fuerte para enarbolar la candidatura presidencial del PRI en 2012. La trayectoria de Peña Nieto es también la de una gran familia: los apellidos Peña, Montiel, Nieto, Del Mazo, Fabela, González, Vélez, Sánchez y Colín, han dado al Estado de México seis

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No, más bien yo creo que la elección del 88 nos dejó otra serie de fenómenos, como la crisis económica que mi gobierno tuvo que afrontar con medidas de austeridad, con medidas que apretaron el bolsillo de la gente, yo creo que esa fue la razón por la que el PRI perdió las elecciones del 88, o por lo

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left the presidency and turned power over to his successor, Mexican former presidents had not directly intervened in politics. After the arrest of his brother, Salinas went on television, expressing his outrage at Zedillo. In the broadcast he placed the blame for the December peso crisis on Zedillo,

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In his inaugural address in December 1988, he outlined an ambitious and important goal of "modernizing" Mexico." He contended that "The modernization of Mexico is essential if we are to meet the demands of the 85 million Mexicans of today.... In brief, we need to modernize politics, the economy, and

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to pardon four Mexican citizens from a quadruple murder known as the Milwaukee Ave Massacre, that took place in 1981 in Chicago, Illinois. With the help of Carlos Salinas de Gortari the four men, Joaquin Varela, Rogelio Arroyo, Ignacio Varela, and Isauro Sanchez, had their sentences commuted, later

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was legal and politically pragmatic, likely saving many lives in Mexico. The Zapatista rebellion spread regionally, not nationwide, but the fact that it happened and that international attention was drawn to this poor region of Mexico just as NAFTA was implemented meant that Salinas' careful plans

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The Catholic Church and the Mexican government has had a historically fraught relationship, with restrictions on the church's role in national life. In the 1980s, the church saw electoral participation reform and fighting electoral fraud as an issue. Sometime during the presidential campaign, the

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Salinas met his future first wife, Cecilia Yolanda Occelli González (born 1950), who was two years his junior, in 1958 when he was just ten years old whilst she was only eight. They began dating in 1965 when he was 17-years old and she was 15-years old. However, the relationship ended in 1968 when

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Salinas is often referred to as the most unpopular former president of Mexico. A 2005 nationwide poll conducted by Parametría found that 73% of the respondents had a negative image of him, while only 9% stated that they had a positive image of the former president. He has been regarded as the most

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produced in Colombia and destined for consumers in the United States. President De la Madrid considered drug trafficking a national security issue and devoted government funding to it. Salinas expanded this funding, but neither president stemmed the growth of trafficking and its impact on Mexico.

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Salinas faced widespread criticism in Mexico. He was widely blamed for the collapse of the economy and his privatization of several government-run businesses such as Telmex. With respect to the collapse of the economy, he rapidly responded by blaming Zedillo's "inept" handling of the situation,

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Soon after taking office, Zedillo announced that his government would let the fixed exchange rate band increase 15 percent (up to 4 pesos per US$ ), by stopping the unorthodox measures employed by the previous administration to keep it at the previous fixed level (e.g., by selling dollars,

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decided to buy Mexican Treasury Securities in order to maintain the monetary base, and thus prevent the interest rates from rising. This, in turn, caused an even more dramatic decline in the dollar reserves. These decisions aggravated the already delicate situation, to a point at which a crisis

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After considering whether to postpone the general election scheduled for 21 August 1994, Salinas chose Zedillo to run as the PRI candidate for the presidency and the elections took place as scheduled. Voters came out in large numbers to choose between three main candidates, Zedillo for the PRI,

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indicated that Raúl Salinas had transferred over $ 90 million out of Mexico into private bank accounts in London and Switzerland through a complex set of transactions between 1992 and 1994. In 2008, the government of Switzerland turned over $ 74 million, out of the $ 110 million in frozen bank

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As the 1994 presidential election approached, Salinas had the crucial decision to designate the candidate for the PRI; that person had always gone on to win the presidential election. "The shipwreck of the 1988 succession should have sufficed to teach Salinas to prevent another disaster from

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in southern Mexico. Salinas's immediate response was to find for a peaceful solution: offering pardon to deposed arms, ordering a cease fire, appointing a peace negotiator, and sending the Mexican Congress a General Amnesty Law. Salinas' presidential successor took a harder line when he was

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Immediately upon his inauguration, he arrested prominent union leaders, many of whom were his opponents in the PRI, among other measures to demonstrate his determination to set his own course. His government privatized state-run companies, including Teléfonos de México, sold to PRI-insider

1057:, treating it dispassionately. The government was compelled to withdraw them in January 1993. According to one assessment, "While the 1992 textbook controversy disclosed new support for the regime from the right, it also revealed an erosion of support and discipline within officialdom." 800:. As the declared winner of a highly contested election, he had the task of restoring his own legitimacy and that of his party when he took office. The election had shown that much of the public desired reform, but Salinas appointed PRI hard-liners ("dinosaurs") to his cabinet, including 1004:

were the first to have international observers, and were considered, at that time, the fairest elections in the century, although not free of controversy. For the first time, the PRI lost its two-thirds majority in Congress, which is necessary to conduct constitutional reforms.

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during the De la Madrid administration, declared Salinas won the election albeit with the smallest margin of any PRI candidate before him. He attributed De la Madrid's remarks to his old age (71 years old as of 2005) and the remarks being taken out of context by journalist

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policies. Many ministers were technocrats with graduate academic degrees, a profile similar to Salinas's. Although there was opposition to many of Salinas's policies, it came from outside the cabinet. Over the course of his presidency, he moved or replaced a number of

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The implementation of reforms entailed amending the 1917 constitution, but before that overcoming opposition on the Left but also in the Catholic Church itself. After considerable debate, the Mexican legislature voted for fundamental revisions in Church-State policy.

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parties) to destroy without opening the electoral documentation. Other people believed that Salinas, in fact, won the ballot, albeit probably not with an absolute majority as the official figures suggested, although that is not required under Mexican election law.

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In 1997, while Salinas was in exile and his brother Raúl in jail, their father, Raúl Salinas Lozano was accused in a U.S court of being connected to drug dealing by a convicted Mexican trafficker, Magdalena Ruiz Pelayo; the senior Salinas denied the charges.

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Salinas de Gortari remains a highly controversial figure in Mexican history. In a 2005 national survey conducted by Parametría, 73% of the respondents had a negative image of Salinas de Gortari, 9% had a positive opinion, and 18% had no opinion about him.

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restricting the Catholic Church and other religious organizations; agrarian reform, ending redistribution of land under Article 27; and policy changes on "indigenous peoples, human rights, economic activities of the state, criminal due process."

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Initially the Zedillo administration followed Salinas's policies regarding the negotiations with the Zapatistas, pledging to reach a peaceful resolution to the Chiapas crisis. Zedillo then reversed course and on February 9, 1995, identifying

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was assassinated in March 1994, new restrictions barring cabinet ministers who had not resigned in the six months previous to the election date from being candidates for the presidency meant that Salinas had a small pool of eligible choices.

3417:"the act of killing yourself intentionally: I lost my younger brother to suicide. She attempted suicide when she was a teenager. The suicide rate among men between the ages of 16 and 25 has risen alarmingly. Many suicides occur in prisons" 1576:

Salinas returned to Mexico in the late 1990s and has continued to influence Mexican politics since then. In April 2018, he celebrated his 70th birthday with a party attended by a number of political elites. On 5 December 2018, he attended

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per U.S. dollar by November 30, 1994, the last day of his term; thus the peso devalued far less than it had in the two previous terms. (The peso was later devalued from 4 per dollar to 7.2 in a single week due to the "December Mistake.")

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and converted Mexico into a regulatory state. During his presidential term, he aggressively privatized hundreds of state-run companies, including telecommunications, steel, and mining. The banking system (that had been nationalized by

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for the PAN. Zedillo won a clear victory, in what was considered by foreign observers as a free and fair election. In results published by the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), Zedillo got 48.7%, Cevallos 25.9%, and Cárdenas 16.6%.

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acknowledged that the PRI lost the 1988 elections. However, he immediately clarified his comment by saying that the PRI had "at least lost a significant number of voters". Asked for comment on De la Madrid's statements, Senator

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After years of economic recovery during his presidency, a series of mismanagement and corruption scandals during his last year in office crumbled his public image domestically and internationally. These events included the

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befalling the system he had inherited." At the time Salinas made the choice, popularity and credibility was high over the course of his presidency, but a series of events in the final year of his presidency changed that.

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No lo digo yo. Lo dicen los periodistas Francisco Cruz Jiménez y Jorge Toribio Montiel en su libro "Negocios de familia: la biografía no autorizada de Enrique Peña Nieto y el Grupo Atlacomulco" publicado por editorial

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to serve as Minister of Planning and Budget in 1982, a position that De la Madrid himself had previously held. It was a key cabinet position since Mexico was in dire financial circumstances following the presidency of

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had nationalized at the end of his term. The funds from these sales of state assets helped pay off Mexico's internal debt. However, there were also bailouts for banks and the Mexican toll roads that became scandals.

4908: 664:, Minister of Finance. In the internecine politics that would decide who would succeed De la Madrid as president, Salinas sought to destroy the reputation of Silva Herzog. Another key figure in the cabinet was 726:("the system crashed") became a colloquial euphemism for electoral fraud. As one observer put it, "For the ordinary citizen, it was not the computer network but the Mexican political system that had crashed." 1228:

prospect as a candidate who could energize and charm voters. With the potential that Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas was likely to run again for the presidency, the PRI needed to field someone who could garner votes.

1558:. Written during his stay in Ireland and full of quotations from press articles and political memoirs, it defended his achievements and blamed Zedillo for the crisis that followed his administration. 4843: 1439:

Ernesto Zedillo had been an accidental presidential candidate who had no political experience or independent base of power. There was a perception that Salinas wanted to follow the precedent of

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Salinas's reputation was to be further clouded by a series of controversies involving close family members. His brother Raúl had been arrested in February 1995. In November 1995, Raúl's wife,

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society. The modernization of Mexico is, moreover, an absolute imperative. This is the only way we will be able to affirm our sovereignty in a world undergoing profound transformation."

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was arrested on 28 February 1995 under charges of orchestrating the assassination of Ruiz Massieu; the arrest dramatically shifted the political situation. Since 1940 when president

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to take a break from Mexican politics. He returned to Mexico from the United States in 1995, where he immediately asked his wife for a divorce. The couple divorced later in 1995.

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was arrested for ordering the assassination of Ruiz Massieu and was subsequently indicted on charges of drug trafficking. Salinas then left the country, returning in 1999.

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the week foreign investors fled the Mexican market without any government action to prevent or discourage the flight until the following Monday, when it was too late.

532:(1964–70). When Carlos Salinas was chosen the PRI's presidential candidate for the 1988 election, he told his father, "It took us more than 20 years, but we made it." 2154: 1935: 628:

Salinas married his second wife, Ana Paula Gerard Rivero, shortly after his divorce from Occelli. It is believed that Salinas originally met Gerard in 1983 at the

3775: 4413: 2516:(in Spanish). Mexico City: Siglo Vientiuno Editores : Centro de Investigaciones Interdisciplinarias en Humanidades, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. 3371: 1341:, Salinas' former brother-in-law, was assassinated in downtown Mexico City in broad daylight. The murder was not solved during Salinas's presidency, even when 1630:

Salinas was prominently featured in two Netflix series released in 2019, pertaining to the Colosio assassination: as an interviewee in the documentary series

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In the wake of the highly controversial 1988 election results, the government initiated a series of electoral reforms. A major change was the creation of the

409:(PRI), earlier in his career he worked in the Secretariat of Programming and Budget, eventually becoming Secretary. He secured the party's nomination for the 1578: 1518:

In January 1999, after a four-year trial, Salinas' older brother Raúl was convicted of ordering the murder of the PRI official (and Salinas' brother-in-law)

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Bruhn, Kathleen. "Social spending and political support: The" lessons" of the National Solidarity Program in Mexico." Comparative Politics (1996): 151-177.

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Salinas divorced his first wife, Cecilia Occelli González, in 1995 soon after leaving office. That same year he married his second wife, Ana Paula Gerard.

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with sympathizers and to seriously threaten the PRI, which had won all presidential elections since its inception in 1929. The Ministry of the Interior (

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El 88 terminó siendo un detonante de la transición y caló muy hondo la ignominiosa quema de las boletas electorales de 1988 aprobada por el PRI y el PAN

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Salinas was one of the Mexicans of his generation who studied at elite foreign universities. He earned a master's degree in Public Administration from

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By the end of his term, inflation had been reduced to 7% in 1994, the lowest figure in 22 years. Shortly after leaving office, due to the so-called

838: 560: 339: 1573:, Ireland. Salinas also attended his son's civil wedding in Mexico City and promised to attend the subsequent religious wedding in late September. 4016:

Chabat, Jorge; Villasana, Luz María (1994). "La política mexicana hacia Cuba durante el sexenio de Salinas de Gortari: más allá de la ideología".

1627:. Season 2 episode 6 depicts two young boys playing war and shooting a maid and episodes 7 and 8 depict the 1988 Mexican Presidential election. 4858: 2646: 1901: 818: 2995: 4868: 4508: 3708: 3283: 2521: 2301: 1854: 1483:

Key chain promoting a symbolic "People's Trial" for Salinas de Gortari, set for 14 May 1995, organized by the "Liga Mexicana Anticorrupción".

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An issue of importance both domestic and foreign policy is drug trafficking. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Mexico was a transit country for

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to recognize their victories in state and local elections in exchange for supporting Salinas' policies, normalization of relations with the

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A tragedy occurred early in Carlos Salinas's life. On 18 December 1951, when he was three years old, he was playing with his older brother

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The process involved two suspicious shutdowns of the computer system used to keep track of the number of votes. Suspicions later grew as

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Kleinberg, Remonda Bensabat (January 1999). "Strategic Alliances: State-Business Relations in Mexico Under Neo-Liberalism and Crisis".

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Carlos Salinas de Gortari was born on 3 April 1948, the second son and one of five children of economist and government official

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as an undergraduate, studying economics. He was an undergraduate when the student movement in Mexico organized against the

4619: 4503: 4399: 4371: 1318: 1001: 997:(IFE) in October 1990, taking elections out of the hands of the Ministry of the Interior to create an independent entity. 801: 677: 489: 485: 410: 3567: 3531: 2360:

Political Participation, Public Investment and Support for the System: A Comparative Study of Rural Communities in Mexico

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Political Participation, Public Investment and Support for the System: A Comparative Study of Rural Communities in Mexico

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They were also exonerated with the assistance of Gilberto Bolaños Cacho, maternal uncle of legendary Mexican comedian

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and left Mexico City, going to Monterrey where he staged a publicized hunger strike in the home of a PRI supporter.

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Increasing current account deficit fostered by government spending, caused alarm among Mexican and foreign T-bill (

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introduced new compulsory history texts in Mexican schools, part of the Mexican Free-Textbook Program. Authored by

536: 505: 286: 60: 4227:

Williams, Mark Eric (2001). "Learning the Limits of Power: Privatization and State-Labor Interactions in Mexico".

3761: 2817:

Williams, Mark Eric (2001). "Learning the Limits of Power: Privatization and State-Labor Interactions in Mexico".

1276: 4614: 2066: 1846: 1504: 1443:

who wielded tremendous power over three successor presidents following the 1928 assassination of president-elect

1175: 1152: 1054: 556:, who became president of Mexico in 1964. He has not commented publicly on this tragic early childhood incident. 4732: 4599: 4566: 3948: 1554:

In the last years of Zedillo's term, Carlos Salinas returned to Mexico to announce the publication of his book,

1463:

Salinas abandoned his campaign—which had been backed by the United States—to become the Director-General of the

959: 907: 885: 701: 657: 2407: 1632: 1464: 1284:

A spectacular political event in 1994 was the assassination of Salinas's handpicked PRI presidential candidate

955: 473: 38: 4689: 4674: 4581: 3663: 3132: 1440: 1302: 1109:

The centerpiece of Salinas's presidency was his successful negotiation with the U.S. and Canada to create the

4702: 4654: 4518: 4463: 2746:

Blancarte, Roberto J. (1993). "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico: An Historical Approach".

636: 568: 4119:

O'Toole, Gavin (2003). "A New Nationalism for a New Era: The Political Ideology of Mexican Neoliberalism".

3509: 4878: 4717: 4533: 1840: 830: 603: 583: 528:'s minister of industry and commerce, but was passed over as the PRI's presidential candidate in favor of 525: 521: 327: 302: 1492: 4639: 4571: 3456: 1264: 1171: 1050: 797: 730: 4762: 4722: 4697: 4513: 3999: 2227: 1456: 1370:

as allowed by the overvalued peso. In order to finance this deficit, the Salinas administration issued

1250:

The uprising in Chiapas on 1 January 1994 coincided with the date that the NAFTA came into effect. The

1207:

The "unveiling" of the PRI candidate for the presidency was on 28 November 1993, with Salinas choosing

1155:, a venue where the parties in the civil war in El Salvador signed an accord ending the long conflict. 705: 553: 529: 4873: 4712: 4669: 4649: 4498: 4453: 4379: 3935: 2412: 1428: 1424: 1285: 1212: 1208: 863: 842: 760: 618: 564: 437: 976:

History of the Catholic Church in Mexico § Salinas, the Vatican, and Reform of the Constitution

606:, in the United States. They were engaged soon after and married on 15 April 1972, in a ceremony in 4796: 4737: 4684: 4664: 4644: 4624: 4483: 4358: 4333: 4326: 2202: 1940: 1624: 1548: 1488: 935: 902: 746: 652: 501: 433: 402: 343: 137: 99: 76: 4186:"Public Opinion of the Economy and the President among Mexico City Residents: The Salinas Sexenio" 3670:(in Spanish). Carlos Salinas de Gortari: El padrino político de Enrique Peña Nieto. 4 January 2010 3173:"Public Opinion of the Economy and the President among Mexico City Residents: The Salinas Sexenio" 4433: 4265: 4244: 4215: 4207: 4172: 4136: 4100: 4054: 4037:

Gilbert, Dennis (1997). "Rewriting History: Salinas, Zedillo and the 1992 Textbook Controversy".

4025: 3202: 3194: 3000: 2834: 2763: 2712: 2651: 1789: 963: 579: 481: 348: 4757: 4727: 4629: 4478: 4458: 4083:

Metz, Allan (1992). "Mexican Church-State Relations Under President Carlos Salinas de Gortari".

785: 621:

from 1988 to 1994 during the Salinas presidency. Soon after leaving office, Salinas traveled to

2017: 4807: 4772: 4679: 4634: 4604: 4576: 4558: 4543: 4073: 4006: 3982: 3968: 3704: 3416: 3299: 2527: 2517: 2297: 1909: 1850: 1784: 1444: 1367: 1306: 1182: 1082: 962:. In Chiapas, PRONASOL channeled increased funds in 1993 and 1994, but it did not prevent the 4155:

Teichman, Judith (1997). "Neoliberalism and the Transformation of Mexican Authoritarianism".

3739: 3105:

Seeking Peace in El Salvador: The Struggle to Reconstruct a Nation at the End of the Cold War

2624: 2594: 2560: 2509: 1342: 1034: 4609: 4589: 4488: 4438: 4236: 4197: 4164: 4128: 4092: 4046: 3696:

Negocios de Familia: la Biografía no Autorizada de Enrique Peña Nieto y el Grupo Atlacomulco

3233: 3184: 2826: 2799: 2755: 2704: 2695:

Camp, Roderic A. (1990). "Camarillas in Mexican Politics: The Case of the Salinas Cabinet".

1771: 1122: 822: 695: 611: 393: 317: 3776:"Carlos Salinas de Gortari celebró su cumpleaños 70 rodeado de la clase política de México" 2259:

29 May 1995, 747-745. Cockburn builds his article around accounts in the Mexican newspaper

1460:

resulting in the loss of Mexican jobs, bankruptcies, and the tarnishing of Mexico's image.

4747: 4343: 4277: 3952: 3842: 3483:

Bordering on Chaos: Guerrillas, Stockbrokers, Politicians, and Mexico's Road to Prosperity

2362:. La Jolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California, San Diego 1982. 1540: 1448: 1046: 1030: 867: 805: 751: 712:. He rapidly became a popular figure, and became the first opposing candidate to fill the 665: 497: 457: 445: 235: 111: 4553: 4113:

Bordering on Chaos: Guerillas, Stockbrokers, Aoliticians, and Mexico's Road to Prosperity

3029:

Dennis Gilbert, "Rewriting History: Salinas, Zedillo and the 1992 Textbook Controversy."

2973:"Mexico's Legal Revolution: An Appraisal of Its Recent Constitutional Changes, 1988-1995" 2972: 1551:, inside his car with a plastic bag strapped around his head. The case remains unsolved. 1452: 3879: 1522:

and sentenced to 50 years in prison. In July 1999, an appeals court cut the sentence to

4528: 4448: 4065: 2803: 2478: 1619: 1382: 1290: 1086: 781: 683: 640: 572: 356: 3904: 2255:

Alexander Cockburn, "Beat the Devil: Harvard and Murder: The Case of Carlos Salinas",

4827: 4219: 3700: 3206: 2926:. LaJolla: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California, San Diego 1994. 2441:"El expresidente mexicano Carlos Salinas de Gortari obtiene la nacionalidad española" 2131: 1811:"El expresidente mexicano Carlos Salinas de Gortari obtiene la nacionalidad española" 1759: 1594:

66% of the respondents considering that it was a "bad" or "very bad" administration.

1468: 1094: 1041:, the new textbooks set off a storm of controversy. Shifts in emphasis concerned the 622: 469: 465: 441: 425: 3869:"Senarai Penuh Penerima Darjah Kebesaran, Bintang dan Pingat Persekutuan Tahun 1991" 1969: 3694: 1623:(2018), "the President-elect", a character based on Salinas, is portrayed by actor 1544: 461: 29: 3613: 3251: 1374:, an attractive debt instrument that insured payment in dollars instead of pesos. 3653:, translated by Peter Hearn and Patricia Ross. Barcelona: Plaza & Janés 2002. 2291: 4752: 1536:

years. In June 2005, the conviction was overturned, and Raúl Salinas was freed.

1500: 881: 763:. Ex-president Miguel de la Madrid admitted that the elections had been rigged. 607: 429: 401:

economist and former politician with Spanish citizenship who served as the 60th

190: 2924:

Transforming State-Society Relation in Mexico: The National Solidarity Strategy

1479: 1366:

budget deficit was coupled with a current account deficit, fueled by excessive

1242: 866:

that affected political reform; church-state relations, ending many aspects of

4316: 4202: 4185: 3542: 3372:"Nacional por Entidad Federativa :: ELECCION DE PRESIDENTE DE LOS E.U.M." 3189: 3172: 1386:

became inevitable and devaluation was only one of many necessary adjustments.

1220: 1181:

Salinas in 1991 visited United States to help convince the Illinois Governor,

1049:, lauding him as a hero despite his having opposed every government in power; 1042: 898: 813: 614:, who was born on 19 February 1976, and Juan Cristobal, who was born in 1978. 549: 468:

and credited him with modernizing the country. Salinas was also backed by the

421: 420:, Salinas de Gortari was the first Mexican president since 1946 who was not a 159: 3532:"PRIVATE BANKING : Raul Salinas, Citibank, and Alleged Money Laundering" 1913: 4132: 2531: 1561: 1187: 1136:

in 1989, whose arrest made visible the extent of law enforcement collusion.

1021:) was created. Initially a government agency, it became a separate entity, 417: 4096: 2759: 714: 3510:"Un 'juicio popular' declara culpable al ex presidente Salinas de Gortari" 524:

and Margarita De Gortari De Salinas. Salinas's father served as President

2158: 1692: 1159: 398: 4140: 4104: 4029: 3938:(president between 1952 and 1958), who did not possess a college degree. 2767: 2514:

México, el 6 de julio de 1988 : segundo informe sobre la democracia

2126: 708:, registered as an opposing candidate from a left-wing coalition called 4391: 4283: 4248: 4211: 4176: 4058: 3198: 3103:

Diana Negroponte, "Implementation of the Chapultepec Peace Accords" in

2838: 2716: 1720: 1614: 1337:

Following the election in September 1994, Secretary General of the PRI

1259: 1128: 1101: 33: 2961:

Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico", p. 2.

4287: 3568:"Switzerland will return blocked Salinas funds to Mexico – swissinfo" 3094:

Luz María de la Mora, "North American Free Trade Agreement", p. 1021.

2607:

menos perdió una gran parte del electorado al que estaba acostumbrado

1570: 1496: 4240: 4168: 4050: 2830: 2708: 3947:

The banking system had been nationalized in 1982 by then-President

1664: 1601: 1560: 1275: 1241: 1100: 1076: 954:

Salinas established the National Solidarity Program (PRONASOL), a

775: 512:

influential and controversial Mexican politician since the 1990s.

500:

was forced to devalue the peso and Mexico entered into one of the

449: 19:"Carlos Salinas" redirects here. For the Peruvian footballer, see 3967:(Mexico, a difficult step into modern times), Plaza & Janés, 3133:"EDGAR TO PARDON 4 FROM MEXICO FALSELY CONVICTED OF '81 KILLINGS" 2996:"Mexico Invites U.N. to Attend Election to Observe the Observers" 812:

to Agriculture. The cabinet was cohesive in support of Salinas's

2939:, see esp. chapter 5, "Salinismo, the Church, and Quid Pro Quo". 2909:

Jonathan Fox, "Programa Nacional de Solidaridad, (PRONASOL)" in

2647:"Ex-President in Mexico Casts New Light on Rigged 1988 Election" 1902:"Ex-President in Mexico Casts New Light on Rigged 1988 Election" 472:

government in his bid for Director-General of the newly created

413:

and was elected amid widespread accusations of electoral fraud.

4395: 3042:

Luz María de la Mora, "North American Free Trade Agreement" in

4266:

Extended biography and presidential tenure by CIDOB Foundation

3633:"Killing of Ex-President's Brother Is Still a Mexican Mystery" 942: 424:. His presidency was characterized by the entrenchment of the 360: 1305:

had in the wake of the 1928 assassination of president-elect

3981:, Mexico Resource Center, Austin, TX, by Philip L. Russell. 3817:"Zedillo y Fox los ex presidentes de México más reconocidos" 3802:"Carlos Salinas de Gortari honra a Bush padre en Washington" 2850: 2848: 2197: 2195: 754:, who was the president of the Federal Electoral Commission 4909:

Recipients of the Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay

2296:(in Spanish). Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial México. 1996:

Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History

966:, which showed that the program had only a limited impact. 488:(Salinas's hand-picked successor and PRI candidate for the 3963:

Salinas's book, print edition: Carlos Salinas de Gortari,

3738:(in Spanish). Vanguardia. 18 November 2015. Archived from 2731:

Democracy Within Reason: Technocratic Revolution in Mexico

821:. A key replacement in January 1994 immediately after the 2585: 2583: 1258:, EZLN) issued their first declaration from the state of 941:

During his term, the peso devalued from 2.65 MXP to 3.60

792:

Salinas assumed the presidency on 1 December 1988 at the

3595:"Scandal Pushes Powerful Family from Pinnacle in Mexico" 1246:

Flag of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN)

2242:

quoted in Jane Bussey, "Carlos Salinas de Gortari" in

2011: 2009: 2007: 2005: 639:

through the procedure that grants it to descendants of

599:

Salinas moved to the United States to study economics.

4003:

Perpetuating Power: How Mexican Presidents Were Chosen

2977:

Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law

2621:"Refuta Bartlett declaraciones de Miguel de la Madrid" 2231:

Perpetuating Power: How Mexican Presidents Were Chosen

1435:

Break with Zedillo, Raúl Salinas arrest and self-exile

1360:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

1168:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

1053:, avoiding negative treatment of the history; and the 2041:"Salinas Prepares Mexican Agriculture for Free Trade" 1743: 1324:

Cárdenas for the Party of Democratic Revolution, and

4844:

Candidates in the 1988 Mexican presidential election

4151:. London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1996. 2922:

Cornelius, Wayne, Ann Craig, and Jonathan Fox, eds.

1960: 1958: 1879:"El árbol genealógico de los herederos de Los Pinos" 1636:, and portrayed by Ari Brickman in the drama series 1556:

Mexico: The Policy and the Politics of Modernization

1263:

inaugurated. Salinas' more peaceful solution to the

586:

in 1978. His doctoral dissertation was published as

452:, negotiations with the right-wing opposition party 2733:. University Park: Penn State University Press 1994 2183:Salinas's Brother Charged in Mexican Assassination 1966:"El Universal - - TLCAN, ni panacea ni apocalipsis" 1158:Mexico reestablished diplomatic relations with the 367: 335: 323: 312: 282: 224: 214: 197: 174: 169: 153: 143: 133: 117: 105: 93: 74: 51: 2508:Valdés, Leonardo; Piekarewicz Sigal, Mina (1990). 1989: 1987: 1272:Assassination of Colosio and the new PRI candidate 1178:, a peace agreement for El Salvador, were signed. 3593:Preston, Julia; Truell, Peter (31 October 1997). 3485:. Boston: Little Brown and Company 2000, p. 1996. 2623:(in Spanish). Noticieros Televisa. Archived from 2593:(in Spanish). Noticieros Televisa. Archived from 1539:On December 6, 2004, Salinas's youngest brother, 1029:In 1992, Salinas and his Secretary of Education, 884:, as well as re-privatizing banks that President 780:Carlos Salinas walks through the gardens of the 745:During a television interview in September 2005, 3764:(in Spanish). Periódico Express. 8 January 2018. 3651:Mexico: The Policy and Politics of Modernization 2891:Bussey, "Carlos Salinas de Gortari", pp. 1331-32 2857:México, estructuras política, económica y social 2741: 2739: 2127:"The peso crisis, ten years on: Tequila slammer" 841:. When the PRI candidate in the 1994 elections, 4864:National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni 4147:Serrano, Mónica and Victor Bulmer-Thomas, eds. 2913:, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 1360-1362 432:economic policies initiated by his predecessor 42: and the second or maternal family name is 3762:"MONITOR POLÍTICO: EL PODER DE CARLOS SALINAS" 3046:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 1021-22. 2345: 2343: 2341: 2339: 1215:and Colosio, with earlier contenders, such as 4894:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic 4839:Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians 4407: 3059:, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 419-20. 2349:Bussey, "Carlos Salinas de Gortari", p. 1330. 118:Secretary of Programming and Budget of Mexico 8: 2780:Bussey, "Carlos Salinas de Gortari", p. 1331 2280:Cockburn, "The Case of Carlos Salinas", 745. 1569:As of May 2010, Salinas was still living in 602:In 1970, Salinas and Occelli reconnected in 2672:Bussey, "Carlos Salinas de Gotari", p. 1331 1606:Salinas de Gortari's arms as knight of the 89:1 December 1988 – 30 November 1994 4919:Mexican people of Sephardic-Jewish descent 4414: 4400: 4392: 4292: 4149:Rebuilding the State: Mexico After Salinas 2882:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 1016. 2619:Barredas, Francisco (September 20, 2005). 2552:Aguayo Quezada, Sergio (16 January 2008). 2408:"Las Esposas de Carlos Salinas de Gortari" 1877:Del Collado, Fernando (29 November 2012). 48: 4201: 3361:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 1641 3188: 3121:. Cengage Learning Editores. p. 393. 3019:. Cengage Learning Editores. p. 388. 2096:. Cengage Learning Editores. p. 389. 2067:"Former President Salinas Departs Mexico" 1834: 1832: 1731:Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay 1447:. However, this changed when by order of 1293:. Camacho was a politically savvy former 1256:Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional 1211:. Those considered for the position were 1019:Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos 129:1 December 1982 – 5 October 1987 4924:Mexican people of Spanish-Jewish descent 3457:"La corte y los calzones del presidente" 3234:"La Única línea es que no tenemos línea" 2878:Paul Lawrence Haber, "Neoliberalism" in 2290:Roberto Gómez Bolaños (31 August 2007). 2265:Tres Niñitos 'Fusilaron' a una Sirvienta 1842:Mexican Political Biographies, 1935–1993 1478: 1162:. Moreover, Mexico became member of the 839:National Autonomous University of Mexico 630:Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México 561:National Autonomous University of Mexico 340:National Autonomous University of Mexico 3965:México, un paso difícil a la modernidad 3927: 3631:McKinley, James C. (10 December 2005). 2485:. New York: HarperCollins 1997, p. 770. 2318:"Chespirito, el comediante conservador" 1801: 1750: 582:in 1973 and went on to earn a PhD from 405:from 1988 to 1994. Affiliated with the 4115:. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1996. 3699:(in Spanish) (11 ed.). Editorial 3304:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3297: 2591:"Perdió el PRI en el 88: De la Madrid" 2402: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2233:. New York: The New Press 2000, p. 206 1223:being eliminated. Aspe, a graduate of 917:) published in 1989 had 4 objectives: 833:, who had been head of the government 2559:(in Spanish). Reforma. Archived from 2512:. In González Casanova, Pablo (ed.). 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2263:, especially Alberto R. de Aguilar, " 1252:Zapatista Army of National Liberation 1238:Zapatista Army of National Liberation 825:was at the Ministry of the Interior ( 694:, PAN). The candidate of the PAN was 392: 16:President of Mexico from 1988 to 1994 7: 4308:Secretary of Programming and Budget 3508:Orgambides, Fernando (15 May 1995). 3433:Thomas Legler, "Ernesto Zedillo" in 3357:Thomas Legler, "Ernesto Zedillo" in 2855:Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2003). 2420:from the original on 25 October 2018 1349:and in charge of the investigation. 1309:, controlling successor presidents. 1045:and the role of foreign investment, 858:During his six-year term in office ( 502:worst economic crises of its history 4229:Latin American Politics and Society 4121:Bulletin of Latin American Research 3843:"Royal Decree 20/1990, 5th January" 3815:Beltran, Ulises (29 October 2012). 3107:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan 2012 3055:Maria Celila Toro, "Drug Trade" in 2819:Latin American Politics and Society 2792:Bulletin of Latin American Research 2510:"La organización de las elecciones" 2161:. 19 September 2013. Archived from 1146:North American Free Trade Agreement 1111:North American Free Trade Agreement 1067:North American Free Trade Agreement 1061:North American Free Trade Agreement 901:economic policy of his predecessor 617:Cecilia Occelli González served as 394:[ˈkaɾlossaˈlinasðeɣoɾˈtaɾi] 4157:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 4039:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 3614:"Mexico frees ex-leader's brother" 3031:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 2804:10.1111/j.1470-9856.1999.tb00188.x 2697:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 2645:Ginger Thomompson (9 March 2004). 1936:"Fraud charges again haunt Mexico" 1934:Robberson, Tod (4 December 1993). 808:to the Ministry of Education; and 448:of the banks, Mexico's entry into 14: 4834:20th-century presidents of Mexico 3446:Legler, "Ernesto Zedillo" p. 1640 2971:Vargas, Jorge (21 October 2014). 2859:. Pearson Educación. p. 484. 2439:Martín, María (30 October 2022). 2107:Robberson, Tod (8 January 1995). 2073:. Washington Post Foreign Service 1900:Thompson, Ginger (9 March 2004). 1809:Martín, María (30 October 2022). 1358:nations" to be admitted into the 1299:Head of Government of Mexico City 1164:Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 862:) major changes were made to the 837:and previously was rector of the 804:to the Ministry of the Interior; 407:Institutional Revolutionary Party 219:Institutional Revolutionary Party 4899:20th-century Mexican politicians 4782: 4368:nominee for President of Mexico 4072:. New York: HarperCollins 1997. 4005:. New York: The New Press 2000. 3953:the economic crisis of that year 3071:"In Mexico, Drug Roots Run Deep" 2900:Haber, "Neoliberalism", p. 1016. 2065:Farah, Douglas (13 March 1995). 1780:List of heads of state of Mexico 1765: 1753: 1725: 1713: 1698: 1685: 1670: 1657: 1429:Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente 1015:National Human Rights Commission 835:National Human Rights Commission 796:. There he took oath before the 794:Legislative Palace of San Lázaro 651:Salinas was tapped by President 371: 251: 59: 4904:Members of the Order of Jamaica 3437:. Fitzroy Dearborn 1997 p. 1641 3069:Rohter, Larry (16 April 1989). 1705:Order of the Crown of the Realm 1333:Another political assassination 1117:Drug trafficking and corruption 938:, inflation rose again to 51%. 913:His National Development Plan ( 444:of state-run companies and the 271: 247: 4190:Latin American Research Review 3847:Spanish Official Journal - BOE 3819:. Imagen Radio. Archived from 3177:Latin American Research Review 1677:Order of Isabella the Catholic 1608:Order of Isabella the Catholic 1401:1994 economic crisis in Mexico 1345:(Francisco's brother) was the 930:Improving the living standard. 1: 4859:Harvard Kennedy School alumni 1319:1994 Mexican general election 733:voted (with support from the 678:1988 Mexican general election 504:. Shortly after, his brother 331:Margarita de Gortari Carvajal 4869:Politicians from Mexico City 3666:Cercano a Enrique Peña Nieto 3117:Rivera Ayala, Clara (2008). 3015:Rivera Ayala, Clara (2008). 2155:"The Tequila crisis in 1994" 2092:Rivera Ayala, Clara (2008). 2016:Vargas, Jorge (1 May 1998). 1675:Knight of the Collar of the 1639:Crime Diaries: The Candidate 1280:Bust of Colosio at Los Pinos 756:(Comisión Federal Electoral) 32:, the first or paternal 4768:Andrés Manuel López Obrador 4494:Francisco Javier Echeverría 4474:Antonio López de Santa Anna 4184:Villarreal, Andres (1999). 4085:Journal of Church and State 3649:Carlos Salinas de Gortari, 3612:Bruce, Ian (10 June 2005). 3463:(in Spanish). 11 April 2019 3405:Hufbauer & Schott, 2005 3396:Hufbauer and Schoot, (2005) 3171:Villarreal, Andres (1999). 2748:Journal of Church and State 2358:Carlos Salinas de Gortari, 2203:"Carlos Salinas de Gortari" 1579:George H. W. Bush's funeral 1520:José Francisco Ruiz Massieu 1390:Successor first days crises 1339:José Francisco Ruiz Massieu 1326:Diego Fernández de Cevallos 1295:Minister of Foreign Affairs 1151:In 1992, Mexico hosted the 1134:Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo 995:Federal Electoral Institute 915:Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 897:Salinas continued with the 735:Revolutionary Institutional 710:Frente Democrático Nacional 635:In early 2021, he obtained 494:José Francisco Ruiz Massieu 295:José Francisco Ruiz Massieu 21:Carlos Salinas (footballer) 4940: 4884:Exiled Mexican politicians 4620:Francisco León de la Barra 4070:Mexico: Biography of Power 3033:13(2), summer 1997 p. 295. 2994:Tim Golden (13 May 1994). 2683:Mexico: Biography of Power 2496:Mexico: Biography of Power 2483:Mexico: Biography of Power 1703:Honorary Recipient of the 1565:Salinas de Gortari in 2006 1491:, and his brother-in-law, 1398: 1316: 1235: 1120: 1073:Effects of NAFTA on Mexico 1070: 1064: 973: 802:Fernando Gutiérrez Barrios 675: 672:Presidential election 1988 490:1994 presidential election 484:and the assassinations of 397:; born 3 April 1948) is a 299:(brother-in-law, deceased) 27: 18: 4791: 4780: 4743:Carlos Salinas de Gortari 4595:Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada 4429: 4376: 4363: 4355: 4350: 4340: 4331: 4323: 4313: 4306: 4300: 4295: 4203:10.1017/S0023879100038607 3190:10.1017/S0023879100038607 1847:University of Texas Press 1839:Camp, Roderic Ai (1995). 1585:Public opinion and legacy 1505:General Accounting Office 1176:Chapultepec Peace Accords 1153:Chapultepec Peace Accords 1055:Catholic Church in Mexico 720:Secretaría de Gobernación 688:National Democratic Front 386:Carlos Salinas de Gortari 379: 165: 122: 82: 70: 58: 53:Carlos Salinas de Gortari 4690:Abelardo Luján Rodríguez 4351:Party political offices 4280:to De la Madrid remarks. 3693:Cruz, Francisco (2009). 2950:Mexico at the Crossroads 2937:Mexico at the Crossroads 1998:. ABC-CLIO. p. 460. 1994:Coerver, Don M. (2004). 1465:World Trade Organization 1451:Salinas's older brother 1203:Choosing the PRI nominee 552:, who is also nephew to 516:Early life and education 474:World Trade Organization 4889:Mexican Roman Catholics 4660:Francisco Lagos Cházaro 4539:Manuel María Lombardini 4504:José Joaquín de Herrera 4303:Ramón Aguirre Velázquez 4133:10.1111/1470-9856.00078 3905:"Resolución N° 161/993" 2322:www.elfinanciero.com.mx 2045:The Heritage Foundation 1475:Post-Presidential years 1144:Salinas negotiated the 1093:Initialing Ceremony in 1081:Carlos Salinas (left), 682:According to historian 506:Raúl Salinas de Gortari 287:Raúl Salinas de Gortari 149:Ramón Aguirre Velázquez 65:Official portrait, 1988 4914:Expatriates in Ireland 4615:Manuel González Flores 4534:Juan Bautista Ceballos 3435:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3359:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3057:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3044:Encyclopedia of Mexico 2911:Encyclopedia of Mexico 2880:Encyclopedia of Mexico 2729:Miguel Angel Centeno, 2244:Encyclopedia of Mexico 1610: 1566: 1484: 1281: 1247: 1106: 1098: 1083:George H. W. Bush 970:Church–State relations 956:social welfare program 921:Protecting sovereignty 789: 690:) and from the right ( 647:Early political career 604:Williamsburg, Virginia 584:Harvard Kennedy School 460:, and the adoption of 390:Spanish pronunciation: 4675:Plutarco Elías Calles 4640:Francisco S. Carvajal 4572:Manuel Robles Pezuela 4469:Valentín Gómez Farías 4111:Oppenheimer, Andrés. 3736:"El poder de Salinas" 3119:Historia de México II 3017:Historia de México II 2094:Historia de México II 1605: 1564: 1482: 1441:Plutarco Elías Calles 1317:Further information: 1313:1994 general election 1303:Plutarco Elías Calles 1279: 1245: 1186:pardoned by Governor 1172:Ibero-American Summit 1104: 1080: 1051:U.S.-Mexico relations 974:Further information: 798:Congress of the Union 779: 692:National Action Party 559:Salinas attended the 436:in observance of the 411:1988 general election 4713:Adolfo Ruiz Cortines 4708:Miguel Alemán Valdés 4703:Manuel Ávila Camacho 4655:Roque González Garza 4554:Juan Álvarez Hurtado 4519:Pedro María de Anaya 4464:Manuel Gómez Pedraza 4454:Anastasio Bustamante 4444:José María Bocanegra 4423:Presidents of Mexico 4380:Luis Donaldo Colosio 4097:10.1093/jcs/34.1.111 4024:(4 (138)): 683–699. 3979:Mexico under Salinas 3936:Adolfo Ruiz Cortines 3481:Andres Oppenheimer, 3421:Cambridge Dictionary 2760:10.1093/jcs/35.4.781 2293:Sin querer queriendo 2271:18 December 1951, 1. 1543:, was found dead in 1425:Subcomandante Marcos 1286:Luis Donaldo Colosio 1209:Luis Donaldo Colosio 1039:Héctor Aguilar Camín 864:Constitution of 1917 843:Luis Donaldo Colosio 810:Carlos Hank González 767:Presidency 1988–1994 761:Carlos Loret de Mola 619:First Lady of Mexico 565:1968 Summer Olympics 486:Luis Donaldo Colosio 438:Washington Consensus 250: 1972; 4854:Mexican expatriates 4797:President of Mexico 4738:Miguel de la Madrid 4733:José López Portillo 4718:Adolfo López Mateos 4685:Pascual Ortiz Rubio 4665:Adolfo de la Huerta 4645:Venustiano Carranza 4625:Francisco I. Madero 4600:José María Iglesias 4567:Félix María Zuloaga 4359:Miguel de la Madrid 4334:President of Mexico 4327:Miguel de la Madrid 4000:Castañeda, Jorge G. 3949:José López Portillo 3885:on 23 November 2018 3780:www.aldiadallas.com 3378:on 15 November 2006 3238:Enlineadirecta.info 2228:Castañeda, Jorge G. 2109:"Mexico's Meltdown" 1941:The Washington Post 1495:, were arrested in 1232:Zapatista rebellion 960:Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas 950:Poverty alleviation 908:José López Portillo 903:Miguel de la Madrid 886:José López Portillo 747:Miguel de la Madrid 704:, son of President 702:Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas 658:José López Portillo 653:Miguel de la Madrid 637:Spanish nationality 526:Adolfo López Mateos 522:Raúl Salinas Lozano 434:Miguel de la Madrid 403:president of Mexico 328:Raúl Salinas Lozano 138:Miguel de la Madrid 100:Miguel de la Madrid 77:President of Mexico 4849:Mexican economists 4763:Enrique Peña Nieto 4723:Gustavo Díaz Ordaz 4582:José Ignacio Pavón 4514:José Mariano Salas 4434:Guadalupe Victoria 4296:Political offices 4018:Foro Internacional 3823:on 26 January 2020 3804:. 5 December 2018. 3637:The New York Times 3599:The New York Times 3496:Bordering on Chaos 3346:Perpetuating Power 3333:Perpetuating Power 3320:Perpetuating Power 3286:on August 25, 2018 3221:Perpetuating Power 3159:Perpetuating Power 3139:. 5 September 1991 3075:The New York Times 3001:The New York Times 2652:The New York Times 2467:Perpetuating Power 2324:. 29 November 2014 2246:, vol. 2, p. 1330. 2135:. 29 December 2004 1906:The New York Times 1790:Politics of Mexico 1611: 1598:In popular culture 1567: 1485: 1343:Mario Ruiz Massieu 1282: 1248: 1217:Jesús Silva Herzog 1194:1994 election year 1170:(OECD). The First 1107: 1099: 1035:Enrique Florescano 964:Zapatista uprising 910:) was privatized. 790: 724:se cayó el sistema 662:Jesús Silva Herzog 580:Harvard University 569:Pan-American Games 554:Gustavo Díaz Ordaz 530:Gustavo Díaz Ordaz 482:Zapatista uprising 349:Harvard University 207:Spain (since 2021) 4821: 4820: 4808:Emperor of Mexico 4775:(President-elect) 4773:Claudia Sheinbaum 4680:Emilio Portes Gil 4650:Eulalio Gutiérrez 4635:Victoriano Huerta 4559:Ignacio Comonfort 4524:Manuel de la Peña 4499:Valentín Canalizo 4390: 4389: 4385: 4377:Succeeded by 4341:Succeeded by 4314:Succeeded by 3710:978-607-07-0172-6 3548:on 21 August 2012 2627:on April 11, 2009 2566:on 3 October 2011 2523:978-968-23-1651-7 2303:978-607-11-1056-5 1972:on 1 January 2014 1856:978-0-292-71181-5 1785:History of Mexico 1449:president Zedillo 1368:consumer spending 1183:James R. Thompson 1174:was held and the 927:Economic recovery 819:cabinet ministers 383: 382: 308: 307:(uncle, deceased) 300: 292: 4931: 4786: 4785: 4484:José Justo Corro 4439:Vicente Guerrero 4416: 4409: 4402: 4393: 4383: 4356:Preceded by 4324:Preceded by 4301:Preceded by 4293: 4272: 4264: 4252: 4223: 4205: 4180: 4144: 4108: 4062: 4033: 3956: 3945: 3939: 3932: 3920: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3884: 3878:. Archived from 3873: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3839: 3833: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3758: 3752: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3742:on 27 March 2019 3732: 3726: 3725: 3719: 3717: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3677: 3675: 3660: 3654: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3547: 3541:. 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Méndez 4602: 4597: 4592: 4585: 4584: 4579: 4577:Miguel Miramón 4574: 4569: 4562: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4544:Martín Carrera 4541: 4536: 4531: 4529:Mariano Arista 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4430: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4419: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4396: 4388: 4387: 4384:(assassinated) 4378: 4375: 4362: 4357: 4353: 4352: 4348: 4347: 4342: 4339: 4330: 4325: 4321: 4320: 4315: 4312: 4305: 4302: 4298: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4281: 4268: 4258: 4257:External links 4255: 4254: 4253: 4224: 4196:(2): 132–151. 4181: 4163:(1): 121–147. 4152: 4145: 4127:(3): 269–290. 4116: 4109: 4091:(1): 111–130. 4080: 4063: 4045:(2): 271–297. 4034: 4013: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3990: 3976: 3958: 3957: 3940: 3926: 3925: 3922: 3921: 3896: 3860: 3834: 3807: 3793: 3782:. 9 April 2018 3767: 3753: 3727: 3709: 3685: 3655: 3642: 3623: 3604: 3585: 3574:. 18 June 2008 3559: 3523: 3500: 3487: 3474: 3448: 3439: 3426: 3407: 3398: 3389: 3374:Archived from 3363: 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