Catalytic converter - Knowledge (XXG)

1479:

design. During such operations, large amounts of unburnt HC are produced by the engine, well beyond the capacity of the catalyst to release oxygen. The surface of the catalyst quickly becomes saturated with HC. When returning to lower power output and leaner air–fuel ratios, the control system must prevent excessive oxygen from reaching the catalyst too quickly, as this will rapidly burn the HC in the already hot catalyst, potentially exceeding the design temperature limit of the catalyst. Excessive catalyst temperature can prematurely age the catalyst, reducing its efficiency before reaching its design lifetime. Excessive catalyst temperature can also be caused by cylinder misfire, which continuously flows unburnt HC combined with oxygen to the hot catalyst, burning in the catalyst and increasing its temperature.

337: 33: 1798:

restriction. These conditions include failure of the upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold or header assembly and associated clamps susceptible to rust, corrosion or fatigue such as the exhaust manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system (e.g., coil packs, primary ignition components, distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) or damaged fuel system components (e.g., fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and associated sensors). Oil and coolant leaks, perhaps caused by a head gasket leak, can also cause high unburned hydrocarbons.

1865:

jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its direct and immediate replacement. Nevertheless, some vehicle owners remove or "gut" the catalytic converter on their vehicle. In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of ordinary pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged by comparing how the engine runs with and without the converter. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of the converter in order to pass an emission test.

345: 1639:(DPF). In the U.S., all on-road light, medium, and heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, and so are equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007. 1812: 2147:

across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal for on-road use, they have been used with mixed results. Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel-economical lean burn that may, however, damage the engine or the catalytic converter.

2122:

catalytic-converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 °C (1,650 °F). Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic-converter core.

22: 204:, a French mechanical engineer. Houdry was an expert in catalytic oil refining, having invented the catalytic cracking process that all modern refining is based on today. Houdry moved to the United States in 1930 to live near the refineries in the Philadelphia area and develop his catalytic refining process. When the results of early studies of 1421:. Slightly rich of stoichiometric, the production of CO and unburnt HC by the engine starts to increase dramatically, available oxygen decreases, and the efficiency of the catalyst for oxidizing CO and HC decreases significantly, especially as stored oxygen becomes depleted. However, the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing 1328: 2077:

Thefts of catalytic converters rose over tenfold in the United States from the late 2010s to early 2020s, driven presumably by the rise in the price of precious metals contained within the converters. Study findings reveal an average price elasticity of 1.98, which means that a 10 percent increase in

1793:

Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of

1469:

in the exhaust system. When oxygen is detected by the sensor, the air–fuel ratio is lean of stoichiometric, and when oxygen is not detected, it is rich. The control system adjusts the rate of fuel being injected into the engine based on this signal to keep the air–fuel ratio near the stoichiometric

2146:

is "switching", the computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine performance. Simple "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change

2043:

catalytic converters are also targets for thieves. The catalytic converters of hybrids need more of the precious metals to work properly compared to conventional internal combustion vehicles because they do not get as hot as those installed on conventional vehicles, since the combustion engines of

1944:

Some vehicles contain a pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upstream of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most commonly used by an auto manufacturer when trying to attain the Ultra Low Emissions

1900:

Faulty catalytic converters as well as undamaged early types of converters can restrict the flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle performance and fuel economy. Modern catalytic converters do not significantly restrict exhaust flow. A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic, for example, showed

2117:

diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, or flashing it if the current misfire conditions are severe enough to potentially damage the catalytic converter. On-board diagnostic systems take several

2100:

where catalytic converters were alleged to be stolen for use in illicit street drug production. The drug, a powder known as "bombé," was said to be a mixture of powdered pills/vitamins and pulverized honeycomb structures of catalytic converters. In 2023, however, a study of various samples of the

2073:

Rising metal prices in the U.S. during the 2000s commodities boom led to a significant increase in converter theft. A catalytic converter can cost more than $ 1,000 to replace, more if the vehicle is damaged during the theft. Apart from damaging other systems of the vehicle, theft can also cause

1394:

Three-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air–fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point. Total conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Slightly lean of stoichiometric, the exhaust gases from the engine

1478:

Closed loop control is often not used during high load/maximum power operation, when an increase in emissions is permitted and a rich mixture is commanded to increase power and prevent exhaust gas temperature from exceeding design limits. This presents a challenge for control system and catalyst

1451:

reduction and HC+CO oxidation. The control system allows the catalyst to release oxygen during slightly rich operating conditions, which oxidizes CO and HC under conditions that also favor the reduction of NOx. Before the stored oxygen is depleted, the control system shifts the air–fuel ratio to

1698:

reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. As in two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is also sometimes present to provide additional oxygen only during the

1872:

for a vehicle repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter, and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render

1864:

Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since 1975, and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology. In many

2121:

Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as those used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 °C (1,380 °F). Modern

312:

ahead of the air pump, after which a two-way catalytic converter (palladium/platinum) removed HC and CO. This cumbersome and expensive system was soon made redundant, after it was noted that under some conditions the initial catalyst also removed HC and CO. This led to the development of the

2170:

absorber in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst; when two are fitted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor; the only

1797:

Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons (raw or partially burnt fuel or oils) to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust

1667:. The converter heats up quickly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, allowing it to reduce undesirable emissions during the engine warm-up period. This is achieved by burning off the excess hydrocarbons which result from the extra-rich mixture required for a cold start. 711:

that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:

527:

Catalytic converters require a temperature of 400 °C (750 °F) to operate effectively. Therefore, they are placed as close to the engine as possible, or one or more smaller catalytic converters (known as "pre-cats") are placed immediately after the exhaust manifold.

1474:

response of the oxygen sensors. Typical control systems are designed to rapidly sweep the air–fuel ratio such that it oscillates slightly around the stoichiometric point, staying near the optimal efficiency point while managing the levels of stored oxygen and unburnt HC.

1461:

reduction efficiency. Then the air–fuel mixture is brought back to slightly rich, at a small penalty in CO and HC oxidation efficiency, and the cycle repeats. Efficiency is improved when this oscillation around the stoichiometric point is small and carefully controlled.

1041: 2082:, there were 1,298 reported cases of catalytic converter theft in 2018, which increased to 14,433 in 2020. In 2022, it was reported that the number of catalytic converter thefts in the United States sharply rose to 153,000 total thefts for the year. 1699:

engine warm up period. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract, thereby preventing it reaching the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-off" or

956: 2630:

Carter, Robert N.; Smith, Lance L.; Karim, Hasan; Castaldi, Marco; Etemad, Shah; Muench, George; Boorse, R. Samuel; Menacherry, Paul; Pfefferle, William C. (1998). "Catalytic Combustion Technology Development for Gas Turbine Engine Applications".

2065:. The Preventing Auto Recycling Thefts Act (PART Act) would mandate catalytic converters in new vehicles to come with traceable identification numbers. Additionally, the legislation would make catalytic converter theft a federal criminal offense. 327:

and carbon monoxide. Four-way catalytic converters have also been developed which also remove particulates from engine exhaust; since most of these particulates are unburned hydrocarbons, they can be burned to convert them into carbon dioxide.

2141:

levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors show the same output or the rear

870: 1470:

point in order to maximize the catalyst conversion efficiency. The control algorithm is also affected by the time delay between the adjustment of the fuel flow rate and the sensing of the changed air–fuel ratio by the sensor, as well as the

1177: 1537:(PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for 1171: 797: 1912:

on pre-1981 vehicles without feedback fuel-air mixture control could easily provide too much fuel to the engine, which could cause the catalytic converter to overheat and potentially ignite flammable materials under the car.

2693:

Millet, Claire-Noelle; Chédotal, Romain; Da Costa, Patrick (August 2009). "Synthetic gas bench study of a 4-way catalytic converter: Catalytic oxidation, NOx storage/reduction and impact of soot loading and regeneration".

1921:

Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective.

636:

reducing, rhodium/platinum catalyst ahead of the air pump, which led to the development of the three-way converter. The oxi-cat also continued to be used on certain, lower-cost cars in some markets such as Europe, where

2826:"Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998 relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC" 1106: 293:

and foul catalytic converters by coating the catalyst's surface. Requiring the removal of lead allowed the use of catalytic converters to meet the other emission standards in the regulations. To lower harmful

187:

Catalytic converter prototypes were first designed in France at the end of the 19th century, when only a few thousand "oil cars" were on the roads; these prototypes had inert clay-based materials coated with

1957:

Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental effects in production:

1562:

In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques have been developed for the catalytic reduction of

2880: 216:, called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline. In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for 1654:

engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.

1710:

systems, and do not require air injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide a precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich combustion.

1738:

occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is

707:

Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent

2133:

control system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O

3246:

The current model BMW 750iL has a maximum electrical load of 428 amps (5.9 kW)! In this car, over half of the maximum load is from the short-term electrical heating of the catalytic converters

127:), they are still used on lean-burn engines to oxidize particulate matter and hydrocarbon emissions (including diesel engines, which typically use lean combustion), as three-way-converters require 1361:

requiring approximately 34% more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. Engines fitted with regulated 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a

246:'s new exhaust emissions regulations, most gasoline-powered vehicles manufactured from 1975 onwards are equipped with catalytic converters. Early catalytic converters were "two-way", combining 2661: 623:

to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of their inability to control

94:'s stricter regulation of exhaust emissions, most gasoline-powered vehicles starting with the 1975 model year are equipped with catalytic converters. These "two-way" converters combine 1937:

inside the catalytic converter assemblies are electrified just after the engine is started, bringing the catalyst up to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for

1901:

that removing the stock catalytic converter netted only a 3% increase in maximum horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to no converter.

962: 4001: 3815:

Obadia, Paul; Kapia, Patrice; Bonneure, Arne; Duca, Radu-Corneliu; Creta, Matteo; Kayembe-Kitenge, Tony; Tytgat, Jan; Okitundu, Daniel; Nkulu, Célestin; Nemery, Benoit (2023).

876: 2039:, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off. The 1382:

equipped with feedback mixture control were used. An unregulated three-way converter features the same chemical processes but without the oxygen sensor, which meant higher

1323:{\displaystyle a\,{\text{C}}_{x}{\text{H}}_{y}+b\,{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,c\,{\text{CO}}_{2}+d\,{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{O}}\qquad a,\,b,\,c,\,d,\,x,\,y\in \mathbb {Z} } 1442:

Closed-loop engine control systems are used for effective operation of three-way catalytic converters because of this continuous rich-lean balance required for effective

3389: 2579: 803: 3285: 3067: 2884: 1682:) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently. Most designs of the time therefore included 3229: 1925:

In the early 2000s it became common to place the catalyst converter right next to the exhaust manifold, close to the engine, for much quicker warm-up. In 1995,

243: 91: 2014: 1873:

inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The

1503:

is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen-sulfide emissions. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide.

467:

is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and historically high cost.

179:

to control emissions. This is usually in response to government regulation, either through environmental regulation or through health and safety regulations.

2161:

are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a compression-ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR) converter, or a

1755: 1112: 734: 2093:) which have more precious metals than newer vehicles—sometimes worth more than the value of the car—leading to scarcity and long delays in replacing them. 2940:

Cooper, B. J. (October 1983). "Durability of Platinum-Containing Automotive Exhaust Control Catalysts: Improvements in Resistance to Thermal Degradation".

1727:

reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while simultaneously ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.

475:

are two other precious metals used, though as of February 2023, platinum has become the least expensive of the platinum group metals. Rhodium is used as a

3895: 3490: 2331: 1439:

by the engine decreases. To maintain catalyst efficiency, the air–fuel ratio must stay close to stoichiometric and not remain rich or lean for too long.

1391:

emissions, particularly under partial loads. These were low-cost solutions, typically used for retrofitting to older cars or for smaller, cheaper cars.

499:

are also used, although each has limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union because of its reaction with carbon monoxide into toxic

3548: 2249:

For years, the exhaust system ... remained virtually unchanged until 1975 when a strange new component was added. It's called a catalytic converter...

1635:

contains relatively high levels of particulate matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or

3971: 3994: 2658: 221: 4658: 1057: 4569: 3771: 2766: 2242: 1877:

supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.

438:

can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a

4693: 3195: 1829: 3987: 3415: 3442: 4508: 2297: 2266: 383:(FeCrAl) are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required. The substrate is structured to produce a large 3013: 1941:(LEV) designation. BMW later introduced the same heated catalyst, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW, in its 750i in 1999. 1333:

These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the

3574:"Stolen in 60 Seconds: The Treasure in Your Car — As Precious Metals Prices Soar, Catalytic Converters Are Targets for Thieves" 2400: 1851: 1452:

become slightly lean, improving HC and CO oxidation while storing additional oxygen in the catalyst material, at a small penalty in

3523: 1625:

into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred to as

414:

The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area.

3643: 3179: 1686:, which injected air into the exhaust stream. This increased the available oxygen, allowing the catalyst to function as intended. 4668: 2113:

to monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter. Vehicles equipped with

2097: 3790: 336: 2208: 2079: 408: 303:

emissions, a twin-catalyst system was developed in the 1970s – this added a separate (rhodium/platinum) catalyst which reduced

3393: 2850:

Kaspar, Jan; Fornasiero, Paolo; Hickey, Neal (2003). "Automotive Catalytic Converters: Current Status and Some Perspectives".

114:

O). Although two-way converters on gasoline engines were rendered obsolete in 1981 by "three-way" converters that also reduce

32: 4186: 3319: 1833: 3817:"Bombé, an undetermined substance that caused an outbreak of illicit drug use in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo" 3614: 4483: 3363: 1869: 1573: 361: 3297: 2467: 1337:

point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for

242:

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the

90:

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the

4067: 3508: 3075: 1783: 1889: 368: 208:

in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of smokestack exhaust and automobile exhaust in

3337: 3233: 1413:

falls off rapidly. However, the conversion of HC and CO is very efficient due to the available oxygen, oxidizing to H

3258: 4663: 4010: 3096: 1929:

introduced an electrically heated catalyst. Called "E-KAT", it was used in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT based on the BMW

57: 3144: 2487: 1822: 4619: 4533: 4478: 4430: 4338: 1707: 1636: 1556: 708: 45: 2825: 2747:

Votsmeier, Martin; Kreuzer, Thomas; Gieshoff, Jürgen; Lepperhoff, Gerhard (2009). "Automobile Exhaust Control".

2577:

Twigg, Martyn V. (15 April 2005). "Controlling automotive exhaust emissions: successes and underlying science".

4683: 4673: 4614: 4455: 4164: 2533: 1874: 1689:

Some three-way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected between the first (

1365: 1036:{\displaystyle {\text{H}}_{2}+{\text{NO}}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{O}}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{N}}_{2}} 2343: 400: 4389: 3557: 3169:

Ullman, Owen (14 June 1976). "Catalytic Converter Still Controversial after Two Years of Use". The Bulletin.

1683: 1342: 442:, irregular surface, which increases the surface area compared to the smooth surface of the bare substrate. 4211: 951:{\displaystyle 2{\text{CO}}+{\text{NO}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,2{\text{CO}}_{2}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{N}}_{2}} 4328: 4169: 2790:

Kašpar, J.; Fornasiero, P.; Graziani, M. (1999). "Use of CeO2-based oxides in the three-way catalysis".

2748: 2150: 1700: 541:

A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:

344: 3708: 646:

emissions were not universally regulated until the 2000 introduction of the Euro 3 emissions standard.

519:. The precious metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are extracted. 200:

and sealed into a double metallic cylinder. A few decades later, a catalytic converter was patented by

3967: 3869: 4688: 4323: 4095: 3816: 2703: 2588: 2512: 2110: 2090: 2062: 1938: 1779: 1626: 570: 500: 316: 255: 152: 103: 375:(commonly square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was deposited on a 4371: 4101: 3049: 3032: 2031:, catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model 1715: 1362: 865:{\displaystyle {\text{CO}}+{\text{NO}}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{N}}_{2}} 372: 3615:"A man was crushed to death while allegedly attempting to steal a catalytic converter, police say" 2546: 1675: 4678: 4394: 4191: 3844: 3118: 2957: 2772: 2612: 2497: 2190: 1934: 1782:(ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the 1735: 1534: 290: 176: 3203: 3030:

Crutsinger, Martin (29 September 1982). "Kits to Foil Auto Pollution Control Are Selling Well".

2101:

drug concluded that its alleged origin from catalytic exhausts was found to be unsubstantiated.

3734: 3670: 4196: 4136: 4087: 3836: 3390:"Crews have 400-acre Jennings Fire in Lakeside 100 percent contai - KUSI News - San Diego, CA" 2807: 2762: 2681: 2604: 2453: 2448: 2406: 2396: 2238: 2185: 2051: 1743: 439: 68: 2993:"Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel Sulfur Control Requirements" 4488: 4445: 4404: 4353: 4318: 4239: 4226: 3828: 3746: 3682: 3556: 3450: 2949: 2922: 2859: 2799: 2754: 2711: 2640: 2596: 2180: 1770:

is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and

1664: 1527: 1488: 1471: 659: 654:

Three-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of

427: 419: 357: 1794:

lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point.

1378:(also known as Lambda Sonds or sensors). Other variants combined three-way converters with 212:

and founded a company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for

4599: 4310: 4159: 4116: 3911: 3293: 3130: 2665: 2472: 2078:

the price of metal leads to an approximate 20 percent increase in thefts.According to the

2061:

In 2023, bipartisan legislation to combat catalytic converter theft was introduced in the

549: 456: 423: 380: 286: 283: 251: 99: 3935:: "Apparatus for purifying exhaust gases of an internal combustion engine". 29 April 1969 2992: 2365: 2707: 2592: 4465: 4435: 4290: 4057: 2976:"Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet (PDF, US Environmental Protection Agency)" 2429: 1986: 1885: 1881: 1651: 1632: 1371: 1334: 1166:{\displaystyle {\text{CO}}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}} 792:{\displaystyle {\text{C}}+2{\text{NO}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}+2{\text{NO}}} 553: 460: 449: 415: 324: 267: 232: 148: 132: 128: 2907: 2863: 2803: 1465:

Closed-loop control under light to moderate load is accomplished by using one or more

4652: 4637: 4528: 4521: 4498: 4343: 4275: 4270: 4234: 4151: 4091: 4052: 4042: 3953:: "Combination muffler and catalytic converter having low backpressure". 13 June 1978 3848: 2776: 2736:(24 ed.). Aachen, Germany: Lehrstuhl Für Verbrennungskraftmachinen. p. 335. 2492: 2126: 1714:

monitor the exhaust oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter, and the

1711: 1512: 1466: 1375: 678: 620: 404: 396: 392: 313:

three-way catalyst, made possible by electronics and engine management developments.

282:

O). These stringent emission control regulations also resulted in the removal of the

228: 217: 209: 201: 2961: 2616: 1868:

In the United States, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 amended

4254: 4249: 4216: 4121: 4111: 4047: 4031: 2529: 2195: 2040: 2032: 2019:

Because of the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including

1963: 1577: 655: 384: 71:. Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion engines fueled by 3976:: "Process And Synthesizer For Molecular Engineering of Materials". 13 March 2002. 3832: 2758: 2267:"General Motors Believes it has an Answer to the Automotive Air Pollution Problem" 2050:

are often used to quietly remove the converter but other tools such as a portable

2908:"Dynamic Modeling of a Three Way Catalyst for SI Engine Exhaust Emission Control" 2715: 1663:

Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter located near the engine's

4632: 4516: 4333: 4285: 4244: 4201: 4131: 2953: 2424: 2233:

Petersen Publishing (1975). "The Catalytic Converter". In Erwin M. Rosen (ed.).

1811: 1775: 1346: 320: 289:

from automotive gasoline, to reduce lead in the air. Lead and its compounds are

76: 53: 3750: 3686: 1718:

uses this information to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first (

227:

Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of engineers including

4604: 4564: 4543: 4538: 4440: 4425: 4348: 4280: 4206: 4146: 4077: 3958: 3949: 3940: 3931: 3896:"Settlement Involves Illegal Emission Control 'Defeat Devices' Sold for Autos" 2975: 2410: 2086: 2055: 2047: 1993:, Russia, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to 1946: 1909: 1880:

Catalytic converters have been mandatory on all new gasoline cars sold in the

1767: 1763: 1671: 1379: 388: 379:

of alumina pellets in early GM applications.) Metallic foil monoliths made of

376: 172: 168: 26: 3979: 2811: 2393:

Airvore ou la face obscure des transports; chronique d'une pollution annoncée

4559: 4300: 4295: 4082: 4062: 3549:"Thieves Nationwide Are Slithering Under Cars, Swiping Catalytic Converters" 3466:"An Exhausting New Crime — What Thieves Are Stealing from Today's Cars" 2085:

From 2019 to 2020, thieves in the United Kingdom were targeting older-model

2024: 2001: 1978: 1967: 1787: 1751: 1648: 1520: 1500: 1354: 697: 545: 492: 468: 236: 197: 80: 61: 49: 3840: 2608: 2600: 3573: 1762:, which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows 1621:

and water. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of

4582: 4578: 4450: 4181: 4106: 4072: 2395:. Montréal (Québec): écosociété. pp. 109–110 and illustration p. 7. 2130: 2020: 1982: 1618: 1600:

absorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use a

1524: 1368: 720: 464: 323:

in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of

189: 156: 84: 72: 3944:: "Anisotropic Cordierite Monolith" (Ceramic substrate). 5 November 1973 2644: 1774:, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was widely used in engine oil 1404:

by the engine increases, and the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing

1101:{\displaystyle {\text{C}}+{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}} 239:

Corporation, creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973.

21: 4609: 4493: 3772:"Catalytic converter theft: hybrid car owners face insurance nightmare" 2028: 1990: 1930: 1836: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1759: 1605: 1601: 1530: 1492: 1350: 1338: 472: 435: 365: 213: 193: 3733:

Stickle, Ben; Rennhoff, Adam; Morris, Charles; Fritts, Samuel (2024).

3669:

Stickle, Ben; Rennhoff, Adam; Morris, Charles; Fritts, Samuel (2024).

3416:"Catalytic converters make 2004-09 Toyota Prius unlikely theft target" 2926: 4420: 4399: 4176: 4126: 3735:"Catalytic converter theft:An examination of the elasticity of crime" 3671:"Catalytic converter theft:An examination of the elasticity of crime" 2114: 1926: 1747: 1496: 504: 496: 484: 431: 247: 95: 3524:"Vance introduces legislation to address catalytic converter thefts" 2875: 2873: 2513:"John J. Mooney, an Inventor of the Catalytic Converter, Dies at 90" 1670:

When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used

391:

ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters was invented by

3465: 3099:, US Environmental Protection Agency, US Federal Register Volume 51 1047: 716: 574: 516: 508: 480: 476: 445: 343: 335: 275: 160: 65: 31: 3014:"Which cars are least likely to have catalytic converter stolen?" 2058:, wiring or fuel lines, with potentially dangerous consequences. 1742:, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on 627:, manufacturers briefly installed twin catalyst systems, with an 483:

catalyst, and platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation.

4574: 3644:"WATCH: Catalytic converter thefts are skyrocketing. Here's why" 2493:"Carl D. Keith, a Father of the Catalytic Converter, Dies at 88" 1771: 1739: 1622: 701: 488: 205: 3983: 4021: 3962:: '"Caseless monolithic catalytic converter". 10 February 1981 3622: 3320:"Here's how to avoid accidentally starting the next firestorm" 2036: 1805: 1358: 1050:

of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide

686: 667: 624: 164: 115: 2727: 2725: 2659:

Connecticut chemist receives award for cleaner air technology

1962:

An engine equipped with a three-way catalyst must run at the

1515:) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the 364:. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a 452:. These oxides are mainly added as oxygen storage promoters. 3870:"Can A Catalytic Converter Cause A Misfire? - Carsneedcare" 3491:"Catalytic converters are being stolen for valuable metals" 2682:

https://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/12/20141210-basf.html

2235:

The Petersen Automotive Troubleshooting & Repair Manual

507:

can be used in most countries, with a notable exception in

147:

Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied to

25:

A three-way catalytic converter on a gasoline-powered 1996

573:(unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and 3364:"Catalytic converter blamed for causing SR-52 brush fire" 515:

Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into

2000:

The extreme heat of the converters themselves can cause

3509:"Cotati police bust catalytic converter theft suspects" 1353:

fuels can vary significantly for each, notably so with

2536:". referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011. 352:

The catalytic converter's construction is as follows:

2906:

Brandt, Erich; Wang, Yanying; Grizzle, Jessy (2000).

2427:(January 1988). "10 Best Engineering Breakthroughs". 2298:"Catalytic Converter Heads Auto Fuel Economy Efforts" 1180: 1115: 1060: 965: 879: 806: 737: 2054:

can damage other components of the car, such as the

4592: 4552: 4507: 4464: 4413: 4380: 4362: 4309: 4263: 4225: 4145: 4030: 2237:. New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap. p. 493. 619:This type of catalytic converter is widely used on 1888:since January 1, 1993 in order to comply with the 1754:(originating primarily from the gasoline additive 1322: 1165: 1100: 1035: 950: 864: 791: 220:used on cars and was awarded United States Patent 2732:Pischinger, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan (2011). 2580:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 3097:Sale and Use of Aftermarket Catalytic Converters 1555:emissions from diesel engines are controlled by 3791:"Car-exhaust drug craze alarms Congo's capital" 2915:IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology 2292: 2290: 2288: 36:Simulation of flow inside a catalytic converter 3338:"Catalytic converter-started fires are common" 2750:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 1966:, which means more fuel is consumed than in a 1487:Unwanted reactions result in the formation of 3995: 2468:His Smoke Eating Cats Now Attack Traffic Smog 2171:difference is the substance being monitored. 258:(HC, chemical compounds in fuel of the form C 8: 3909:"Check Engine Lights Come on for a Reason". 3497:. Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 11 December 2019. 1970:engine. This means approximately 10% more CO 1746:fuel. Other common catalyst poisons include 3709:"Why do people steal catalytic converters?" 2672:. 23 June 2003. Retrieved 11 December 2012. 2261: 2259: 2257: 455:The catalyst itself is most often a mix of 175:, and on ships. They are even used on some 4002: 3988: 3980: 3062: 3060: 2228: 2226: 2224: 235:, Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at 3025: 3023: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 1852:Learn how and when to remove this message 1572:emissions under lean exhaust conditions, 1395:contain excess oxygen, the production of 1316: 1315: 1308: 1301: 1294: 1287: 1280: 1268: 1262: 1257: 1255: 1243: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1203: 1198: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1179: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1135: 1124: 1116: 1114: 1092: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1075: 1070: 1061: 1059: 1027: 1022: 1011: 1003: 997: 992: 990: 986: 981: 972: 967: 964: 942: 937: 926: 917: 912: 907: 903: 897: 892: 883: 878: 856: 851: 840: 831: 826: 824: 820: 815: 807: 805: 784: 772: 767: 765: 761: 755: 750: 738: 736: 4068:Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve) 3047:"Some of Us Can Only Afford a Clunker". 2572: 2570: 2568: 2457:, September 1951, p. 134, bottom of page 2198: 2164: 2153: 2015:2020–2022 catalytic converter theft ring 1997:magazine's list of most-polluted places. 1977:Catalytic converter production requires 1721: 1692: 1611: 1594: 1580: 1566: 1549: 1540: 1455: 1445: 1433: 1424: 1407: 1398: 1385: 689: 670: 640: 630: 407:, for which they were inducted into the 306: 297: 138: 121: 20: 3598:"Converters Taken by Car Lot Thieves". 2220: 3126: 3116: 2845: 2843: 1945:Vehicle (ULEV) rating, such as on the 151:in automobiles, they are also used on 48:device which converts toxic gases and 3739:Crime Prevention and Community Safety 3675:Crime Prevention and Community Safety 3230:"Goodbye 12 volts... hello 42 volts!" 3223: 3221: 3190: 3188: 3016:. Auto Ride Of Reading. 15 July 2022. 1591:Instead of precious metal-containing 7: 3789:Nyemba, Benoit (27 September 2021). 2828:. Eur-lex.europa.eu. 13 October 1998 1985:; part of the world supply of these 1834:adding citations to reliable sources 319:developed a catalytic combustor for 244:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 92:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2881:"The three way catalytic converter" 2044:hybrids only run part of the time. 3572:Johnson, Alex (12 February 2008). 3522:Pietrasz, Jake (2 February 2023). 3284:Walsh, Bryan (12 September 2007). 2696:Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 2109:Various jurisdictions now require 479:catalyst, palladium is used as an 135:combustion to successfully reduce 106:(HC) to produce carbon dioxide (CO 14: 3555:. 9 February 2021. Archived from 3263:Toyota Owners Club - Toyota Forum 3259:"Pre-cats - What You Should Know" 523:Placement of catalytic converters 340:Cutaway of a metal-core converter 3707:Pender, Caelyn (9 August 2022). 3290:The World's Most Polluted Places 3228:Edgar, Julian (5 October 1999). 3074:. 1 October 2006. Archived from 2098:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1810: 1674:that provided a relatively rich 1643:Lean-burn spark-ignition engines 1511:For compression-ignition (i.e., 666:(both together abbreviated with 4170:Overhead valve (pushrod) layout 3464:Murr, Andrew (9 January 2008). 3145:"Euro emissions standards | AA" 2366:"Choosing the Right Wood Stove" 2209:Roadway air dispersion modeling 2096:In 2021 a trend emerged in the 2080:National Insurance Crime Bureau 1821:needs additional citations for 1430:is good, and the production of 1273: 409:National Inventors Hall of Fame 16:Exhaust emission control device 1229: 1147: 1082: 987: 904: 821: 762: 60:into less-toxic pollutants by 1: 4659:Air pollution control systems 3833:10.1080/15563650.2023.2276040 3613:Razek, Raja (12 March 2023). 2864:10.1016/S0920-5861(02)00384-X 2804:10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00510-0 2759:10.1002/14356007.a03_189.pub2 2511:Roberts, Sam (25 June 2020). 2391:Castaignède, Laurent (2018). 2074:death and injury to thieves. 1766:into the combustion chamber. 1574:selective catalytic reduction 1357:or alcohol based fuels, with 3441:Medici, Joe (31 July 2007). 2716:10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.03.026 2330:Palucka, Tim (Winter 2004). 709:vehicle emission regulations 677:and not to be confused with 4694:Products introduced in 1975 3965:Srinivasan Gopalakrishnan. 3232:. Autospeed. Archived from 2954:10.1595/003214083X274146155 2476:, June 1955, pp. 83-85/244. 1974:emissions from the vehicle. 4712: 4011:Internal combustion engine 3751:10.1057/s41300-024-00207-6 3687:10.1057/s41300-024-00207-6 2734:Verbrennungsmotoren Band 2 2336:Invention & Technology 2012: 2004:, especially in dry areas. 1495:, which poison catalysts. 696:species are precursors to 83:engines, and sometimes on 58:internal combustion engine 4628: 4479:Diesel particulate filter 4431:Idle air control actuator 4372:Engine control unit (ECU) 4017: 2551:Science History Institute 1890:Euro 1 emission standards 1708:electronic fuel injection 1706:Most newer vehicles have 1637:diesel particulate filter 1557:exhaust gas recirculation 1533:. This catalyst converts 1517:diesel oxidation catalyst 1374:system using one or more 4544:Viscous fan (fan clutch) 4456:Throttle position sensor 4165:Overhead camshaft layout 46:exhaust emission control 4669:Automotive technologies 4083:Core plug (freeze plug) 2664:1 December 2017 at the 2271:The Blade: Toledo, Ohio 1684:secondary air injection 1343:liquefied petroleum gas 615:(a combustion reaction) 3938:Lachman, I. M. et al. 3200:alpina-automobiles.com 2942:Platinum Metals Review 2601:10.1098/rsta.2005.1547 2332:"Doing the Impossible" 2302:The Milwaukee Sentinel 1896:Effect on exhaust flow 1875:automotive aftermarket 1324: 1167: 1102: 1037: 952: 866: 793: 719:of nitrogen oxides to 349: 348:Ceramic-core converter 341: 37: 29: 3959:U.S. patent 4,250,146 3950:U.S. patent 4,094,645 3941:U.S. patent 3,885,977 3932:U.S. patent 3,441,381 3929:Keith, C. D., et al. 3453:on 28 September 2007. 3443:"Underhanded thieves" 2534:Engelhard Corporation 2488:registration required 2449:Exhaust Gas Made Safe 1790:GF-4 specifications. 1701:operating temperature 1325: 1168: 1103: 1038: 953: 867: 794: 347: 339: 256:unburned hydrocarbons 153:electrical generators 104:unburned hydrocarbons 35: 24: 4324:Compression ignition 3561:on 28 December 2021. 3180:Catalytic converters 2129:is the basis of the 2111:on-board diagnostics 1964:stoichiometric point 1953:Environmental effect 1939:low emission vehicle 1830:improve this article 1780:zinc dithiophosphate 1627:diesel exhaust fluid 1519:(DOC). DOCs contain 1178: 1113: 1058: 963: 877: 804: 735: 660:nitrogen dioxide (NO 501:nickel tetracarbonyl 317:William C. Pfefferle 159:, mining equipment, 87:heaters and stoves. 4474:Catalytic converter 3956:Charles H. Bailey. 3947:Charles H. Bailey. 3876:. 22 September 2022 3821:Clinical Toxicology 3511:. 29 November 2019. 3326:. 6 September 2016. 3265:. 11 September 2007 3078:on 28 February 2014 3053:. 23 February 1996. 3050:The Palm Beach Post 3033:The Gainesville Sun 2708:2009AppCB..90..339M 2645:10.1557/PROC-549-93 2593:2005RSPTA.363.1013T 2587:(1829): 1013–1033. 2501:. 15 November 2008. 2342:(3). Archived from 2273:. 12 September 1974 1716:engine control unit 373:honeycomb structure 42:catalytic converter 4600:Knocking / pinging 4192:Combustion chamber 3915:. 12 January 2003. 3778:. 1 February 2020. 3553:The New York Times 3422:. 18 November 2021 3344:. 18 November 2008 3300:on 31 October 2007 2887:on 31 January 2022 2517:The New York Times 2498:The New York Times 2346:on 3 December 2008 2304:. 11 November 1974 2191:List of auto parts 1776:antiwear additives 1736:Catalyst poisoning 1535:particulate matter 1483:Unwanted reactions 1320: 1163: 1098: 1033: 948: 862: 789: 625:oxides of nitrogen 459:, mostly from the 350: 342: 116:oxides of nitrogen 38: 30: 4664:French inventions 4646: 4645: 4615:Stratified charge 4382:Electrical system 4364:Engine management 4197:Compression ratio 4137:Starter ring gear 4036:rotating assembly 3827:(12): 1055–1058. 3286:"Norilsk, Russia" 2998:. 19 August 2015. 2927:10.1109/87.865850 2768:978-3-527-30385-4 2657:Worthy, Sharon. " 2454:Popular Mechanics 2244:978-0-448-11946-5 2186:Cerium(III) oxide 2052:reciprocating saw 1989:is produced near 1862: 1861: 1854: 1271: 1260: 1241: 1220: 1201: 1189: 1155: 1138: 1132: 1119: 1090: 1073: 1064: 1025: 1019: 1006: 995: 984: 970: 940: 934: 915: 895: 886: 854: 848: 829: 818: 810: 787: 770: 753: 741: 656:nitric oxide (NO) 4701: 4489:Exhaust manifold 4354:Spark plug wires 4240:Boost controller 4227:Forced induction 4004: 3997: 3990: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3970: 3961: 3952: 3943: 3934: 3917: 3916: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3892: 3886: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3866: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3757: 3730: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3650:. 12 August 2022 3640: 3634: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3560: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3449:. Archived from 3438: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3392:. Archived from 3386: 3380: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3368:fox5sandiego.com 3360: 3354: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3334: 3328: 3327: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3296:. Archived from 3281: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3255: 3249: 3248: 3243: 3241: 3225: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3202:. Archived from 3192: 3183: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3128: 3124: 3122: 3114: 3111:Mazda MX-5 Miata 3106: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3064: 3055: 3054: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3027: 3018: 3017: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2997: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2912: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2883:. Archived from 2877: 2868: 2867: 2847: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2702:(3–4): 339–346. 2690: 2684: 2679: 2673: 2655: 2649: 2648: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2574: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2543: 2537: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2508: 2502: 2491: 2483: 2477: 2464: 2458: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2388: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2362: 2356: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2327: 2314: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2294: 2283: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2263: 2252: 2251: 2230: 2203: 2181:Catalytic heater 2169: 2158: 2091:Toyota's hybrids 2035:and truck-based 1857: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1837: 1814: 1806: 1726: 1697: 1665:exhaust manifold 1616: 1599: 1585: 1571: 1554: 1545: 1489:hydrogen sulfide 1460: 1450: 1438: 1429: 1412: 1403: 1390: 1329: 1327: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1266: 1261: 1258: 1248: 1247: 1242: 1239: 1227: 1226: 1221: 1218: 1208: 1207: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1190: 1187: 1172: 1170: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1153: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1136: 1133: 1125: 1120: 1117: 1107: 1105: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1088: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1071: 1065: 1062: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1012: 1007: 1004: 1002: 1001: 996: 993: 985: 982: 977: 976: 971: 968: 957: 955: 954: 949: 947: 946: 941: 938: 935: 927: 922: 921: 916: 913: 902: 901: 896: 893: 887: 884: 871: 869: 868: 863: 861: 860: 855: 852: 849: 841: 836: 835: 830: 827: 819: 816: 811: 808: 798: 796: 795: 790: 788: 785: 777: 776: 771: 768: 760: 759: 754: 751: 742: 739: 694: 679:nitrous oxide (N 675: 645: 635: 614: 566: 430:or a mixture of 428:colloidal silica 420:titanium dioxide 358:catalyst support 311: 302: 291:catalyst poisons 218:gasoline engines 143: 126: 4711: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4698: 4684:Exhaust systems 4674:Carbon monoxide 4649: 4648: 4647: 4642: 4624: 4620:Top dead centre 4588: 4548: 4503: 4460: 4409: 4383: 4376: 4365: 4358: 4305: 4259: 4221: 4177:Tappet / lifter 4160:Flathead layout 4150: 4141: 4035: 4026: 4013: 4008: 3972: 3966: 3957: 3948: 3939: 3930: 3926: 3924:Further reading 3921: 3920: 3912:Concord Monitor 3908: 3907: 3903: 3894: 3893: 3889: 3879: 3877: 3868: 3867: 3863: 3853: 3851: 3814: 3813: 3809: 3799: 3797: 3788: 3787: 3783: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3755: 3753: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3717: 3715: 3706: 3705: 3701: 3691: 3689: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3653: 3651: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3627: 3625: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3582: 3580: 3571: 3570: 3566: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3532: 3530: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3474: 3472: 3463: 3462: 3458: 3440: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3423: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3399: 3397: 3396:on 14 July 2017 3388: 3387: 3383: 3373: 3371: 3362: 3361: 3357: 3347: 3345: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3318: 3317: 3313: 3303: 3301: 3283: 3282: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3257: 3256: 3252: 3239: 3237: 3227: 3226: 3219: 3209: 3207: 3206:on 30 June 2015 3194: 3193: 3186: 3178: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3143: 3142: 3138: 3125: 3115: 3109:Tanner, Keith. 3108: 3107: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3079: 3066: 3065: 3058: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3029: 3028: 3021: 3012: 3011: 3007: 3001: 2995: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2978: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2910: 2905: 2904: 2900: 2890: 2888: 2879: 2878: 2871: 2852:Catalysis Today 2849: 2848: 2841: 2831: 2829: 2824: 2823: 2819: 2792:Catalysis Today 2789: 2788: 2784: 2769: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2730: 2723: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2680: 2676: 2666:Wayback Machine 2656: 2652: 2633:MRS Proceedings 2629: 2628: 2624: 2576: 2575: 2566: 2556: 2554: 2547:"Eugene Houdry" 2545: 2544: 2540: 2528: 2524: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2473:Popular Science 2465: 2461: 2446: 2442: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2403: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2364: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2347: 2329: 2328: 2317: 2307: 2305: 2296: 2295: 2286: 2276: 2274: 2265: 2264: 2255: 2245: 2232: 2231: 2222: 2217: 2202: 2196: 2177: 2168: 2162: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2140: 2136: 2107: 2071: 2017: 2011: 1987:precious metals 1973: 1955: 1919: 1907: 1898: 1858: 1847: 1841: 1838: 1827: 1815: 1804: 1733: 1725: 1719: 1696: 1690: 1681: 1661: 1645: 1615: 1609: 1598: 1592: 1584: 1578: 1570: 1564: 1553: 1547: 1544: 1538: 1509: 1485: 1459: 1453: 1449: 1443: 1437: 1431: 1428: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1389: 1383: 1256: 1237: 1216: 1197: 1185: 1176: 1175: 1151: 1134: 1111: 1110: 1086: 1069: 1056: 1055: 1021: 991: 966: 961: 960: 936: 911: 891: 875: 874: 850: 825: 802: 801: 766: 749: 733: 732: 726: 693: 687: 682: 674: 668: 663: 652: 644: 638: 634: 628: 612: 604: 596: 592: 584: 578: 565: 561: 557: 550:carbon monoxide 539: 534: 525: 457:precious metals 424:silicon dioxide 334: 325:nitrogen oxides 310: 304: 301: 295: 287:tetraethyl lead 284:antiknock agent 281: 273: 265: 261: 252:carbon monoxide 185: 149:exhaust systems 142: 136: 125: 119: 113: 109: 100:carbon monoxide 17: 12: 11: 5: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4697: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4651: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4629: 4626: 4625: 4623: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4596: 4594: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4586: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4513: 4511: 4509:Cooling system 4505: 4504: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4468: 4466:Exhaust system 4462: 4461: 4459: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4436:Inlet manifold 4433: 4428: 4423: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4410: 4408: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4378: 4377: 4375: 4374: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4315: 4313: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4291:Fuel injection 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4267: 4265: 4261: 4260: 4258: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4231: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4156: 4154: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4058:Connecting rod 4055: 4050: 4045: 4039: 4037: 4028: 4027: 4018: 4015: 4014: 4009: 4007: 4006: 3999: 3992: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3963: 3954: 3945: 3936: 3925: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3901: 3898:. 1 June 2007. 3887: 3861: 3807: 3781: 3763: 3745:(2): 139–156. 3725: 3699: 3681:(2): 139–156. 3661: 3635: 3605: 3602:. 2 July 2009. 3590: 3564: 3540: 3514: 3500: 3482: 3456: 3447:Chroniclet.com 3433: 3407: 3381: 3370:. 29 June 2017 3355: 3342:ocregister.com 3329: 3311: 3276: 3250: 3236:on 28 May 2012 3217: 3184: 3182:, nsls.bnl.gov 3172: 3161: 3136: 3113:. p. 120. 3101: 3089: 3068:"Beat the Law" 3056: 3039: 3019: 3005: 2984: 2967: 2948:(4): 146–155. 2932: 2921:(5): 767–776. 2898: 2869: 2858:(4): 419–449. 2839: 2817: 2798:(2): 285–298. 2782: 2767: 2739: 2721: 2685: 2674: 2650: 2622: 2564: 2538: 2522: 2503: 2478: 2459: 2440: 2430:Car and Driver 2416: 2401: 2383: 2357: 2315: 2284: 2253: 2243: 2219: 2218: 2216: 2213: 2212: 2211: 2206: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2176: 2173: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2106: 2103: 2070: 2067: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2005: 1998: 1975: 1971: 1954: 1951: 1918: 1917:Warm-up period 1915: 1906: 1903: 1897: 1894: 1886:United Kingdom 1882:European Union 1860: 1859: 1818: 1816: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1732: 1729: 1712:Oxygen sensors 1679: 1676:air-fuel ratio 1660: 1657: 1652:spark-ignition 1644: 1641: 1633:Diesel exhaust 1608:to reduce the 1576:(SCR) and the 1508: 1507:Diesel engines 1505: 1484: 1481: 1467:oxygen sensors 1418: 1414: 1376:oxygen sensors 1372:fuel injection 1335:stoichiometric 1331: 1330: 1318: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1293: 1290: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1276: 1265: 1254: 1251: 1246: 1235: 1231: 1225: 1214: 1211: 1206: 1194: 1183: 1173: 1160: 1149: 1143: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1108: 1095: 1084: 1078: 1068: 1044: 1043: 1030: 1018: 1015: 1010: 1000: 989: 980: 975: 958: 945: 933: 930: 925: 920: 910: 906: 900: 890: 882: 872: 859: 847: 844: 839: 834: 823: 814: 799: 783: 780: 775: 764: 758: 748: 745: 724: 680: 661: 651: 648: 621:diesel engines 617: 616: 610: 602: 594: 586: 580: 567: 563: 559: 554:carbon dioxide 538: 535: 533: 530: 524: 521: 513: 512: 461:platinum group 453: 450:ceria-zirconia 443: 416:Aluminum oxide 412: 333: 330: 279: 271: 268:carbon dioxide 263: 259: 233:John J. Mooney 224:for his work. 184: 181: 133:stoichiometric 111: 110:) and water (H 107: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4707: 4706: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4551: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4523: 4522:Water cooling 4520: 4518: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4499:Oxygen sensor 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4414:Intake system 4412: 4406: 4405:Starter motor 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4344:Ignition coil 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4276:Petrol engine 4274: 4272: 4271:Diesel engine 4269: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4235:Blowoff valve 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4152:Cylinder head 4148: 4144: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4043:Balance shaft 4041: 4040: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4023: 4016: 4012: 4005: 4000: 3998: 3993: 3991: 3986: 3985: 3982: 3969: 3964: 3960: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3927: 3923: 3914: 3913: 3905: 3902: 3897: 3891: 3888: 3875: 3871: 3865: 3862: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3811: 3808: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3782: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3764: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3726: 3714: 3710: 3703: 3700: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3662: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3636: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3609: 3606: 3601: 3594: 3591: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3565: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3541: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3515: 3510: 3504: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3483: 3471: 3467: 3460: 3457: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3434: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3408: 3395: 3391: 3385: 3382: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3343: 3339: 3333: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3312: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3277: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3247: 3235: 3231: 3224: 3222: 3218: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3173: 3165: 3162: 3150: 3149:www.theaa.com 3146: 3140: 3137: 3132: 3120: 3112: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3090: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3063: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3051: 3043: 3040: 3035: 3034: 3026: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3009: 3006: 3002:(123 KB) 2994: 2988: 2985: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2902: 2899: 2886: 2882: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2844: 2840: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2786: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2751: 2743: 2740: 2735: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2686: 2683: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2660: 2654: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2626: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2565: 2552: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2474: 2469: 2463: 2460: 2456: 2455: 2450: 2444: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2420: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2402:9782897193591 2398: 2394: 2387: 2384: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2358: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2303: 2299: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2272: 2268: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2178: 2174: 2172: 2167: 2160: 2156: 2148: 2137:levels. The O 2132: 2128: 2127:oxygen sensor 2123: 2119: 2116: 2112: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2075: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2033:pickup trucks 2030: 2026: 2022: 2016: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1960: 1959: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1935:Heating coils 1932: 1928: 1923: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1904: 1902: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1878: 1876: 1871: 1870:Clean Air Act 1866: 1856: 1853: 1845: 1835: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1819:This section 1817: 1813: 1808: 1807: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1702: 1695: 1687: 1685: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1642: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1614: 1607: 1603: 1597: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1569: 1560: 1558: 1552: 1543: 1536: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1482: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1448: 1440: 1436: 1427: 1410: 1401: 1392: 1388: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1312: 1309: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1277: 1274: 1263: 1252: 1249: 1244: 1233: 1223: 1212: 1209: 1204: 1192: 1181: 1174: 1158: 1141: 1129: 1126: 1121: 1109: 1093: 1076: 1066: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1028: 1016: 1013: 1008: 998: 978: 973: 959: 943: 931: 928: 923: 918: 908: 898: 888: 880: 873: 857: 845: 842: 837: 832: 812: 800: 781: 778: 773: 756: 746: 743: 731: 730: 729: 728: 722: 718: 713: 710: 705: 703: 699: 695: 692: 684: 676: 673: 665: 657: 649: 647: 643: 633: 626: 622: 608: 600: 590: 583: 576: 572: 569:Oxidation of 568: 555: 551: 547: 544: 543: 542: 536: 531: 529: 522: 520: 518: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 451: 447: 444: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 410: 406: 405:Corning Glass 402: 398: 397:Irwin Lachman 394: 393:Rodney Bagley 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 367: 363: 359: 355: 354: 353: 346: 338: 331: 329: 326: 322: 318: 314: 309: 300: 292: 288: 285: 277: 269: 266:) to produce 257: 253: 249: 245: 240: 238: 234: 230: 229:Carl D. Keith 225: 223: 219: 215: 211: 210:air pollution 207: 203: 202:Eugene Houdry 199: 195: 191: 182: 180: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 145: 141: 134: 130: 124: 117: 105: 101: 97: 93: 88: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 34: 28: 23: 19: 4529:Electric fan 4473: 4329:Coil-on-plug 4255:Turbocharger 4250:Supercharger 4122:Main bearing 4112:Firing order 4102:Displacement 4048:Block heater 4032:Engine block 4020:Part of the 4019: 3910: 3904: 3890: 3878:. Retrieved 3874:carsneedcare 3873: 3864: 3852:. Retrieved 3824: 3820: 3810: 3798:. Retrieved 3794: 3784: 3776:the Guardian 3775: 3766: 3754:. Retrieved 3742: 3738: 3728: 3716:. Retrieved 3712: 3702: 3690:. Retrieved 3678: 3674: 3664: 3652:. Retrieved 3648:PBS NewsHour 3647: 3638: 3626:. Retrieved 3618: 3608: 3599: 3593: 3581:. Retrieved 3577: 3567: 3558:the original 3552: 3543: 3531:. Retrieved 3527: 3517: 3503: 3494: 3485: 3473:. Retrieved 3469: 3459: 3451:the original 3446: 3436: 3424:. Retrieved 3419: 3410: 3398:. Retrieved 3394:the original 3384: 3372:. Retrieved 3367: 3358: 3346:. Retrieved 3341: 3332: 3323: 3314: 3302:. Retrieved 3298:the original 3289: 3279: 3267:. Retrieved 3262: 3253: 3245: 3238:. Retrieved 3234:the original 3208:. Retrieved 3204:the original 3199: 3196:"Milestones" 3175: 3164: 3152:. Retrieved 3148: 3139: 3110: 3104: 3092: 3080:. Retrieved 3076:the original 3072:Import Tuner 3071: 3048: 3042: 3031: 3008: 2987: 2970: 2945: 2941: 2935: 2918: 2914: 2901: 2889:. Retrieved 2885:the original 2855: 2851: 2830:. Retrieved 2820: 2795: 2791: 2785: 2749: 2742: 2733: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2677: 2670:Bio-Medicine 2669: 2653: 2636: 2632: 2625: 2584: 2578: 2555:. Retrieved 2550: 2541: 2532:(undated). " 2530:Staff writer 2525: 2516: 2506: 2496: 2481: 2471: 2462: 2452: 2443: 2434: 2428: 2425:Csere, Csaba 2419: 2392: 2386: 2374:. Retrieved 2369: 2360: 2348:. Retrieved 2344:the original 2339: 2335: 2306:. Retrieved 2301: 2275:. Retrieved 2270: 2248: 2234: 2199: 2165: 2154: 2149: 2124: 2120: 2108: 2095: 2084: 2076: 2072: 2060: 2046: 2041:Toyota Prius 2018: 1994: 1956: 1943: 1924: 1920: 1908: 1899: 1879: 1867: 1863: 1848: 1842:January 2017 1839: 1828:Please help 1823:verification 1820: 1796: 1792: 1734: 1722: 1705: 1693: 1688: 1669: 1662: 1659:Installation 1646: 1631: 1612: 1595: 1590: 1581: 1567: 1561: 1550: 1541: 1528:supported on 1516: 1510: 1486: 1477: 1464: 1456: 1446: 1441: 1434: 1425: 1408: 1399: 1393: 1386: 1363:computerized 1332: 1046: 1045: 715: 714: 706: 690: 671: 653: 641: 631: 618: 606: 598: 588: 581: 571:hydrocarbons 540: 526: 514: 401:Ronald Lewis 385:surface area 351: 332:Construction 321:gas turbines 315: 307: 298: 241: 226: 186: 146: 139: 122: 89: 79:, including 41: 39: 18: 4689:NOx control 4553:Lubrication 4517:Air cooling 4334:Distributor 4286:Fuel filter 4264:Fuel system 4245:Intercooler 4212:Timing belt 4202:Head gasket 4132:Piston ring 3854:17 February 3654:26 December 3154:31 December 3127:|work= 2553:. June 2016 2350:14 December 2308:14 December 2277:14 December 2131:closed-loop 2105:Diagnostics 2087:hybrid cars 2063:U.S. Senate 2048:Pipecutters 1910:Carburetors 1802:Regulations 1678:. Oxygen (O 1672:carburetors 1380:carburetors 1366:closed-loop 1347:natural gas 371:that has a 214:smokestacks 177:wood stoves 173:motorcycles 169:locomotives 54:exhaust gas 4653:Categories 4605:Power band 4565:Oil filter 4539:Thermostat 4484:EGT sensor 4446:MAF sensor 4441:MAP sensor 4426:Air filter 4390:Alternator 4349:Spark plug 4281:Carburetor 4207:Rocker arm 4147:Valvetrain 4078:Crankshaft 4022:Automobile 3968:GB 2397782 3600:PoconoNews 2891:31 January 2832:2 February 2557:27 October 2411:1030881466 2215:References 2069:Statistics 2056:alternator 2013:See also: 1949:Roadster. 1947:Toyota MR2 1768:Phosphorus 1355:oxygenated 389:cordierite 377:packed bed 62:catalyzing 50:pollutants 4679:Catalysis 4339:Glow plug 4301:Fuel tank 4296:Fuel pump 4063:Crankcase 3849:265607501 3800:8 October 3583:7 January 3475:7 January 3304:7 January 3240:2 January 3129:ignored ( 3119:cite book 3082:9 January 2812:0920-5861 2777:137166382 2376:2 January 2370:Burn Wise 2089:(such as 2025:palladium 2002:wildfires 1979:palladium 1968:lean-burn 1752:manganese 1649:lean-burn 1521:palladium 1501:manganese 1472:sigmoidal 1313:∈ 1230:→ 1148:→ 1083:→ 1048:Oxidation 988:→ 905:→ 822:→ 763:→ 717:Reduction 698:acid rain 650:Three-way 546:Oxidation 493:manganese 481:oxidation 477:reduction 469:Palladium 362:substrate 254:(CO) and 237:Engelhard 222:2,742,437 198:palladium 157:forklifts 129:fuel-rich 102:(CO) and 81:lean-burn 27:Dodge Ram 4638:Category 4583:Dry sump 4579:Wet sump 4570:Oil pump 4534:Radiator 4451:Throttle 4311:Ignition 4182:Camshaft 4107:Flywheel 4088:Cylinder 4073:Crankpin 3880:17 March 3841:38047882 3718:15 March 3628:13 March 3578:NBC News 3533:15 March 3470:Newsweek 3426:15 April 3374:15 April 3348:15 April 3269:15 April 2962:36970773 2662:Archived 2617:37283846 2609:15901550 2437:(7): 63. 2372:. US EPA 2204:adsorber 2175:See also 2021:platinum 1983:platinum 1884:and the 1778:such as 1744:unleaded 1619:nitrogen 1604:such as 1586:adsorber 1525:platinum 1417:O and CO 1369:feedback 721:nitrogen 465:Platinum 411:in 2002. 369:monolith 190:platinum 85:kerosene 73:gasoline 69:reaction 56:from an 4610:Redline 4494:Muffler 4395:Battery 4319:Magneto 3795:Reuters 3756:29 June 3692:29 June 3619:cnn.com 3400:14 July 2704:Bibcode 2589:Bibcode 2159:sensors 2118:forms. 2029:rhodium 1991:Norilsk 1905:Dangers 1786:SM and 1764:coolant 1760:silicon 1758:), and 1629:(DEF). 1606:ammonia 1602:reagent 1559:(EGR). 1531:alumina 1493:ammonia 1351:ethanol 1339:autogas 558:2CO + O 537:Two-way 473:rhodium 436:alumina 381:Kanthal 366:ceramic 194:rhodium 183:History 4633:Portal 4421:Airbox 4400:Dynamo 4127:Piston 4117:Stroke 4096:layout 4024:series 3973: 3847: 3839: 3495:RTÉ.ie 3324:pe.com 3210:5 June 3000: 2960: 2810: 2775: 2765: 2615: 2607: 2409: 2399: 2241: 2115:OBD-II 1927:Alpina 1748:sulfur 1731:Damage 1513:diesel 1497:Nickel 1349:, and 1345:LPG), 505:Copper 497:nickel 495:, and 485:Cerium 432:silica 399:, and 387:. The 274:) and 248:oxygen 196:, and 161:trucks 96:oxygen 77:diesel 44:is an 4593:Other 4217:Valve 4187:Chest 3845:S2CID 3713:KRON4 3528:13ABC 2996:(PDF) 2979:(PDF) 2958:S2CID 2911:(PDF) 2773:S2CID 2613:S2CID 2009:Theft 1788:ILSAC 1617:into 1546:, so 575:water 562:→ 2CO 532:Types 517:scrap 509:Japan 446:Ceria 440:rough 426:e.g. 276:water 250:with 165:buses 98:with 66:redox 4575:Sump 4092:bank 4053:Bore 3882:2023 3856:2024 3837:PMID 3802:2021 3758:2024 3720:2023 3694:2024 3656:2022 3630:2023 3585:2011 3535:2023 3477:2011 3428:2023 3420:IIHS 3402:2017 3376:2018 3350:2018 3306:2011 3294:Time 3271:2018 3242:2012 3212:2015 3156:2022 3131:help 3084:2011 2893:2022 2834:2011 2808:ISSN 2763:ISBN 2605:PMID 2559:2016 2407:OCLC 2397:ISBN 2378:2012 2352:2011 2310:2011 2279:2011 2239:ISBN 2125:The 2037:SUVs 2027:and 1995:Time 1931:750i 1772:zinc 1740:lead 1647:For 1623:urea 1491:and 1341:(or 702:smog 700:and 658:and 609:+1)H 489:iron 471:and 434:and 356:The 206:smog 4560:Oil 4149:and 4034:and 3829:doi 3747:doi 3683:doi 3623:CNN 2950:doi 2923:doi 2860:doi 2800:doi 2755:doi 2712:doi 2668:". 2641:doi 2637:549 2597:doi 2585:363 2470:". 1981:or 1832:by 1784:API 1756:MMT 1523:or 1499:or 1359:e85 685:). 605:+ ( 593:+ O 552:to 548:of 448:or 403:at 360:or 270:(CO 131:or 75:or 52:in 4655:: 4581:, 4094:, 3872:. 3843:. 3835:. 3825:61 3823:. 3819:. 3793:. 3774:. 3743:26 3741:. 3737:. 3711:. 3679:26 3677:. 3673:. 3646:. 3621:. 3617:. 3576:. 3551:. 3526:. 3493:. 3468:. 3445:. 3418:. 3366:. 3340:. 3322:. 3292:. 3288:. 3261:. 3244:. 3220:^ 3198:. 3187:^ 3147:. 3123:: 3121:}} 3117:{{ 3070:. 3059:^ 3022:^ 2956:. 2946:27 2944:. 2917:. 2913:. 2872:^ 2856:77 2854:. 2842:^ 2806:. 2796:50 2794:. 2771:. 2761:. 2753:. 2724:^ 2710:. 2700:90 2698:. 2639:. 2635:. 2611:. 2603:. 2595:. 2583:. 2567:^ 2549:. 2515:. 2495:. 2451:" 2435:33 2433:. 2405:. 2368:. 2340:19 2338:. 2334:. 2318:^ 2300:. 2287:^ 2269:. 2256:^ 2247:. 2223:^ 2197:NO 2163:NO 2152:NO 2023:, 1933:. 1892:. 1750:, 1720:NO 1703:. 1691:NO 1610:NO 1593:NO 1588:. 1579:NO 1565:NO 1548:NO 1539:NO 1454:NO 1444:NO 1432:NO 1423:NO 1406:NO 1397:NO 1384:NO 1240:CO 1154:CO 1118:CO 1089:CO 983:NO 914:CO 894:NO 885:CO 828:CO 817:NO 809:CO 786:NO 769:CO 752:NO 723:(N 704:. 688:NO 683:O) 669:NO 639:NO 629:NO 601:CO 597:→ 591:+2 577:: 556:: 503:. 491:, 487:, 463:. 422:, 418:, 395:, 305:NO 296:NO 278:(H 231:, 192:, 171:, 167:, 163:, 155:, 144:. 137:NO 120:NO 64:a 40:A 4585:) 4577:( 4098:) 4090:( 4003:e 3996:t 3989:v 3884:. 3858:. 3831:: 3804:. 3760:. 3749:: 3722:. 3696:. 3685:: 3658:. 3632:. 3587:. 3537:. 3479:. 3430:. 3404:. 3378:. 3352:. 3308:. 3273:. 3214:. 3158:. 3133:) 3086:. 3036:. 2981:. 2964:. 2952:: 2929:. 2925:: 2919:8 2895:. 2866:. 2862:: 2836:. 2814:. 2802:: 2779:. 2757:: 2718:. 2714:: 2706:: 2647:. 2643:: 2619:. 2599:: 2591:: 2561:. 2519:. 2490:) 2486:( 2466:" 2447:" 2413:. 2380:. 2354:. 2312:. 2281:. 2200:x 2166:x 2155:x 2144:2 2142:O 2139:2 2135:2 1972:2 1855:) 1849:( 1844:) 1840:( 1826:. 1723:x 1694:x 1680:2 1613:x 1596:x 1582:x 1568:x 1551:x 1542:x 1457:x 1447:x 1435:x 1426:x 1419:2 1415:2 1409:x 1400:x 1387:x 1317:Z 1310:y 1306:, 1303:x 1299:, 1296:d 1292:, 1289:c 1285:, 1282:b 1278:, 1275:a 1270:O 1264:2 1259:H 1253:d 1250:+ 1245:2 1234:c 1224:2 1219:O 1213:b 1210:+ 1205:y 1200:H 1193:x 1188:C 1182:a 1159:2 1142:2 1137:O 1130:2 1127:1 1122:+ 1094:2 1077:2 1072:O 1067:+ 1063:C 1029:2 1024:N 1017:2 1014:1 1009:+ 1005:O 999:2 994:H 979:+ 974:2 969:H 944:2 939:N 932:2 929:1 924:+ 919:2 909:2 899:2 889:+ 881:2 858:2 853:N 846:2 843:1 838:+ 833:2 813:+ 782:2 779:+ 774:2 757:2 747:2 744:+ 740:C 727:) 725:2 691:x 681:2 672:x 664:) 662:2 642:x 632:x 613:O 611:2 607:x 603:2 599:x 595:2 589:x 587:2 585:H 582:x 579:C 564:2 560:2 511:. 308:x 299:x 280:2 272:2 264:n 262:H 260:m 140:x 123:x 118:( 112:2 108:2

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index